MediterraneanArchaeologyandArchaeometry,Vol.11,No.2,pp.

5578
Copyright2011MAA
PrintedinGreece.Allrightsreserved.

THENABATAEANSANDASIAMINOR
ZeyadalSalameen
DepartmentofHistoryandArchaeology,FacultyofHumanitiesandSocialSciences
UnitedArabEmiratesUniversity,AlAinP.O.Box17771

Received:15/01/2011
Accepted:20/03/2011

Correspondingauthor:zmslameen@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
TheNabataeanperiod(c.312BCAD106)standsoutasaperiodofprosperity,expansion,cul
tural growth and a relative political unity. It is clear that the Nabataean commercial activities as
wellastheirinvolvementinthelucrativetradeofaromaticshadbeenthemajoracknowledgedin
fluenceontheNabataeanurbansettlements,economicdevelopmentandarchitecturalrenaissance.
This paper focuses on the international Nabataean relationswith the west and their influences
on the Nabataean culturalachievements. The specific question of this work investigates the influ
enceofinternationalmaritimeandlongdistancetradeaswellastheinfluenceofAsiaMinoronthe
Nabataeanculture.ItdiscussesthesouthwesternAsiaMinorarchaeologicalevidenceuncoveredin
Nabataea.AttentionfocusesonthenatureandextentoftheNabataeanmaterialremainsfoundin
theMediterraneanandsouthwestAnatoliaanddiscussesthesouthwesternAnatolianinfluenceon
theculturalachievementsoftheNabataeans.

KEYWORDS:Nabataeans,Nabataeantrade,Mediterraneanbasin,southwesternAnatolia,AsiaMi
nor,Lycia

56

INTRODUCTION
Nabataea has long been viewed as a cross
roadsofcultures,influencedbythemovements
oftradeoveritsterritorylinkingtheproducers
ofthemajoresteemedcommoditiesatthattime
with the consumers. Nabataea, whose inhabi
tantsincludedverykeenaromaticstradesmen,
expandeditscommercialrelationsandactivities
in regions adjoining the Mediterranean basin.
Aromatics trade, which was based on the
movement of the monsoons, has had far
reachingeffectsontheeconomyandurbande
velopment of Nabataea. Analysis of the evi
dencepresentsamoreclearpictureaboutthese
relationsandprovestheroleoftradeinthecul
tural diffusion. Long distance trade played an
integralroleinthediffusionoffeaturesofother
civilizations in Nabataea, and the existence of
foreigninfluencesinNabataeancultureistobe
attributed certainly to trade relations. Patrich
seesthatdiffusionandfusionofstylesandmo
tifs were inevitable in the open Hellenistic and
Roman world, a world of religious tolerance
and syncretism, and in a society of kings and
richmerchants,eagertoexposetheirwealthby
artisticpatronage(2007:80)
Manybasicandluxuriouscommoditieswere
circulatedinthemarketswheretheNabataeans
werepresent,butthebasictwocommoditiesfor
exchange were frankincense1 and Myrrh2. The
impact of the Nabataean involvement in this
tradeistwofold:tomakeaprofitandtoimport
items not available locally. In addition, trade
promoted interaction, and social and cultural
change.
Unfortunately, no Nabataean literary record
exists to elucidate the cultural relationship be
tween the Nabataeans and other nations and
cultures. There is not yet sufficient evidence to
reconstruct the patterns of commercial connec
tions between the various Mediterranean sites
and Nabataea. Hence investigation must be
based on GrecoRoman literary sources that
yieldonlyscatteredinformation3aswellasthe
Nabataean remains uncovered outside the po
liticalbordersofNabataea.
Unfortunately,thenatureofNabataeancon
tacts with the Anatolian civilizations is not
documented in historical sources. A Greek in

ZEYADALSALAMEEN

scriptionfoundinPrieneinAsiaMinorwritten
in honor of a certain Moschion proves the sig
nificant status that Petra enjoyed during this
early period. It mentions Moschion who was a
memberofadelegationaround129BCtoAl
exandria, to king Ptolemaious and to Petra of
Arabia(Rets2003:337).
ArchaeologicalmaterialsuncoveredinPetra
and Oboda has revealed ample evidence for
links with Asia Minor. As we shall discuss be
low, various imported objects from this region
were found in Nabataea including marble and
potterywhichconfirmtheselinks.Additionally,
weassumethattheNabataeanswereinfluenced
and inspired by the rockcut architectural style
ofthecivilizationsofAsiaMinorthatexistedin
modern central and south western Turkey and
these include the Phrygian and LycoCarian
civilizations. Some of the Lycian tombs, for ex
ample, are furnished with inscriptions whose
contents, sequence of statements and patterns
aresimilartotheNabataeatombinscriptionsof
Hegraasweshallhighlightbelow.

BriefhistoryoftheNabataeans
The Nabataeans4, or Nabtu as they referred
tothemselvesintheirAramaicinscriptions,are
identified as people who settled the southern
part of the Levant and the northern parts of
ArabiaasearlyasthefifthcenturyBC,ormay
beearlier,andformedathrivingkingdomthat
reached its apogee around the end of the first
century BC and the beginning of the first cen
turyAD.
The Nabataean kingdom flourished and
reacheditsheightduringthelastdecadesofthe
firstcenturyBCandthefirstdecadesofthefirst
century AD, and extended to cover wider geo
graphical areas including parts of northern
Arabia and the Negev close to the Mediterra
nean coast. This prosperous civilisation de
clined gradually during the last decades of the
first century AD until Trajan annexed it in AD
106 and formed the socalled Provincia Arabia
andBostrabecamethecapitalofthenewprov
ince.
Thedistinguishedgeographiclocationofthe
Nabataeankingdomwasthemainreasonforits
wealth and power. The Nabataeans controlled

THENABATAEANSANDASIAMINOR

and monopolized the inland incense route

which passed through their kingdom and
extended to the Persian Gulf, southern Arabia,
EgyptandtheeasternMediterranean(Grafand
Sidebotham 2003:70). To organize and effec
tively manage the flow of commodities, they
constructed installations along these routes as
early as the fourth century BC, controlled the
harbours and imposed taxes on commodities
(Schoff1912:29).
It seems that Nabataea gained reputational
status during the classical period which is
seeminglyattributedtoNabataeanmonopoliza
tion and control of the highly esteemed com
modities of that time: frankincense and myrrh.
Therefore, it is not surprising to find many
foreignerssojourninginPetraasmentionedby
the Greek geographer Strabo in his Geography
(XVI.4.21). It is not surprising also to find also
foreignnames,ornamesofforeignersalongside
the Nabataean names in their inscriptions5
(Littmann1914).
During
the
GrecoRoman
periods,
frankincense, myrrh and other commodities
were carried to the whole world through two
major international trade and commercial
routes:thefirstistheIncenseTradeRoutethat
carries the trade of Arabia, East Africa and
India and the second is the Silk Road which
passes via Parthia and Asia (Thorley1969:209).
The main trade route for the Nabataeans was
the incense one, which runs from southern
Arabia to the Mediterranean coast (Van Beek
1958). These highways of commerce and
cultural exchange remained essentially the
sameoveralongperiodoftime.
The Nabataeans were active mercantile
middlemen, participating in the transportation
of goods and facilitating their passing through
theirlandsandharbors,takingtwentyfiveper
cent of the value of the goods as mentioned in
the The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Schoff
1912:29). Part of this trade was based on what
theyproducedlocally(alSalameen2004).
Theprosperoustradeoffrankincense,myrrh
and other products from the southern parts of
Arabia Felix, in addition to the incoming mer
chandise from India and East Africa, led to a
renaissanceandtheflourishingofmanyancient
cities located along the routes. As a result of

57

their international contacts, various remains

havebeenfoundoutsidethebordersoftheNa
bataean kingdom. Nabataean cultural remains
were found in various places of the world and
outside their kingdom which suggest that they
were active internationally. These remains in
cludingcoins,inscriptions,potteryandarchitec
turehavebeenuncoveredinvariousplacesout
side the Nabataean kingdom and this includes
Southern Arabia, Qaryat alFaw, Marib, Tenos,
Rhodes, Delos, Cos, Miletus, Rome, Pozzuoli,
Antioch, Palmyra, Tyre and Demir north of
Damascusasweshalldiscussbelow6.
In addition, some examples suggest Na
bataean contacts with India. Fragments of In
dianredpolishedandroulettedwarehavebeen
found at some of the Nabataean sites, which
confirmstheexistenceofNabataeantrade,orat
leastcontactwithwesternIndia(Gogte1999).
NabataeancontactswithAsiaMinoringen
eralandthesouthwesternpartsofAnatoliain
particular should not be ruled out. We should
admit that a true picture of these contacts is
hard for us because we lack sufficient records
from indubitably Nabataean or Anatolian
sources.
Below, a brief historical introduction about
the civilizations that existed in central and
southwesternAnatoliaispresented.Thisisfol
lowed by a discussion on the similarities and
analogies between these civilizations and the
Nabataeans in terms of the rockcut features
and tomb architecture. A comparison between
thecontentsoftheNabataeantombinscriptions
ofHegraandthoseuncoveredinLyciaishigh
lightedinordertocomprehendandstrengthen
the influence argument. Ancient trade routes,
importsfromAsiaMinortoNabataeaaswellas
evidence pertaining to Nabataean activities in
theMediterraneanwillbediscussedthen.

BriefhistoryofAsiaMinorfromtheendofthe
secondmillenniumBCtilltheclassicalperiods.
IntheeighteenthcenturyBC,theHittites7,a
people of IndoEuropean origin started their
rule in the central plateau of Asia Minor and
established an empire that was one of the in
strumental powers in the area. Later and in
around 1200 BC the Phrygians migrated from

ZEYADALSALAMEEN

58

Thracia and Bosporus and invaded Anatolia

andreplacedtheHittitesandhadtheirpolitical
independence till they were conquered by the
Lydians in 695 BC and remained part of the
Lydian8state.Lydia(c.900547BC),whichwas
based in the city of Sardis, covered all of
westernAnatoliaandreacheditszenithaswell
as its political and cultural development when
Croesusascendeditsthrone(c.560547BC).
The Carian and Lycian civilizations, which
were all established at the crossroads of Asia
Minor and Europe, flourished and prospered
between the eighth and fourth centuries BC
(Akurgal 1978:16). Those people immigrated
intoAnatoliaduringtheMinoantimesandlost
their power around 300 BC (Akurgal 1978:16).
They established many cities which were fur
nished with a considerable number of rockcut
tombs.
Between 547300 BC most parts of Asia Mi
nor were under the domination of the Persian
Empire. Upon ascending the throne, Cyrus
startedattackingtheneighboringcountriesand
expanded his borders to the west and reached
Anatolia,mostlikelytocontrolthetraderoutes
andthemajorportsoftheMediterranean9.
The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550330
BC) extended from north India and Central
AsiatoAnatoliainthewestandvariousterrito
ries were incorporated in this empire and this
includesBabylonia,theLevantandAsiaMinor.
This empire was invaded by Alexander the
Greatforcesin330BC.Laterthosepeoplewere
incorporatedintotheRomanEmpire.

Map(1)ShowingtheMajorCivilizationsofAnatolia
aswellasthemainislandsintheMediterranean
(DrawnbytheAuthor)

The most prominent legacy of the Iron Age

Anatolia is the rockcut remains of Phrygia in
central Anatolia and these are dated centuries
earlier before the appearance of the Nabataean
kingdom.Rockcutremainsarealsothestrong
estheritageleftbytheNabataeans.
Phrygian rockcut architectural remains in
cluderockcutfacades,niches,idols,stairs,plat
formsinadditiontootherstructuresmostlycul
tic in character. Rockcut niches and idols
commoninPhrygiaaremostlylinkedwiththe
rockcut step monuments which are concen
trated in the Phrygian highlands (BerndtErsz
2003:9) and appear in many forms some of
which are surrounded by a large imitation of
faades(BerndtErsz2003:29).
These rockcut features were constructed
close to water sources and they have been in
terpreted as waterside shrines (Barnett 1953).
Additionally,therearerockcutholesorcavities
inside the Phrygian niches and these were cut
to receive sacrifices and votive offerings (Has
ples1971:92).
The Phrygian Niches and idols bore several
similarities with the Nabataean ones, even
though they are much earlier than the Na
bataeanones.LikethePhrygianniches,theNa
bataeanonesappearindifferentformsalso(Pa
trich1990)andsomeofthosewhichwerefound
in Petra were surrounded by a large imitation
faades, similar to some Phrygian niches. Like
thePhrygians,waterplayedamajorruleinthe
NabataeanritualsandinPetrawehaveanum
ber of cultic areas containing niches that have
water installations associated with them (Mac
Donald2006).
Bedal supports this assumption saying that
it is not surprising that the Nabataeans per
ceived water as sacred and that the many ex
amples of ornamental water display in Petra
heldreligioussignificance.Numerousreligious
icons,inscriptions,andsanctuariesarefoundin
associationwithsprings,catchmentspools,and
channels throughout the city and its environs
(Bedal 2003:99). One the features associated
withthenichesarethecupholesinthefloorof
thenichethatmayhavebeenusedforlibations
orvotiveofferings(Wenning2001:88).
Small rockcut basins are found in some
Phrygian cultic sites and some of them are

THENABATAEANSANDASIAMINOR

59

found inside the shrines and some are lined

with channels to transfer water to the basin to
be used in the sacrificial rites (BerndtErsz
2003: 235). Similar examples are attested in

Petra and its vicinity and these were probably

used for ritual purification (see for example
Healey1993:10;Raymond2008).

Phrygianidolniches(BerndetErsz2003)

NabataeanidolnichesfromPetra(Dalman1908)

Plate(1)ShowingrockcutnichesfromPetraandPhrygia

Step monuments are common in Phrygia

and these are monuments and sanctuaries that
are characterized by steps varying in number,
and above them are different kinds of rockcut
featuresandsomeofthemendwithaplatform
of a single idol (BerndtErsz 2003: 55). The
Phrygianshadbelievedthattheirmaingoddess
lived in the rocks and they dedicated various
monumentstoherincludingmonumentalrock
cut facades, stepped altars and niches. The
steppedaltarsareopenairsanctuariesandmay
bedividedintothreemajorcategories:stepped
altars with on idol at the top, stepped altars
with arch stepped stylized idol and stepped

altars with a platform at the top (Tams and

Palot2009:10051014).
SimilarsanctuariesarecommoninPetraand
can be seen, for example, in alKhubthah and
AlMadras and other cultic places in the Na
bataean capital Petra. These include steps or
staircasesleadingtoniches,platforms,benches,
orpedestalsbelowinfrontofthenichesorwa
ter channels associated with the niches. These
rockcut stepped monuments have been classi
fiedintodifferentcategoriesincludingsingular
and multiple niche stepped monuments and
some of them are characterized by arched or
apsedarchniches(Raymond2008:78,132).

ZEYADALSALAMEEN

60

StepnichesfromPhrygia(BerndetErsz2003)

SteppednichesfromPetra(Dalman1908:272,135)

Plate(2)ShowingsteppednichesfromPetraandPhrygia

Tosumup,cultnichesandstepmonuments
in Phrygia are almost always linked with plat
forms, steps, benches, basins and cup marks
(BerndtErsz 2003:7685). In Nabataea, we
have typical parallels examples totally hewn
out of the rock and these niches are almost al
ways linked with steps, platforms, libation
holes, cisterns, water channels and sometimes
withbanquetinghalls(Raymond2008).
This similarity in shape and the major com
ponents of these rockcut features is surprising
and may not be considered accidental. The
Phrygian state vanished before the emergence
oftheNabataeansandthereforedirectcontacts
betweenthePhrygianscannotbeassumed.We
assume, at least Nabataean knowledge of the
Phrygian civilization and their cultural
achievements. This is supported by other ar
chaeological evidence from Anatolia, as we
shalldiscussbelow,thatsupportstheargument
that the Nabataeans were influenced and in
spiredbytheAnatoliancivilizations,oratleast
had some kind of knowledge of these civiliza
tions.

Map(2)ShowingthemajorsettlementsinLyciaand
Caria(DrawnbytheAuthor)

TheotherAnatoliancivilizationthatisofin
teresthereistheLycoCarian.Theirgeographi
cal locations within the wider region of south
western Anatolia as well as the natural envi
ronmentmadethemideallocaleforsettlement.
Caria flourished around the middle of the
first millennium BC and extended from the
borders of Lycia to the east of Phrygia and
thoseweredescribedbyHerodotusasbeingof
Minoandescent(Histories1.171).TheLycians10,
ontheotherhandenjoyedaperiodofprosper
ity between the sixth and the fourth centuries
BCandestablishedmanyimportantsettlements
some of which played an important role in the
maritime trade and this includes Myra, Patara
andTelemessos(moderndayFethyie)andthese
bound with a considerable number of rockcut
tombs.Itismostlikelythatsomeoftheseports
witnessedNabataeanactivities.Oneofthema
jor harbors established here was Myra whose
namewasderivedfromtheGreekwordMyrrh,
that was one of the major commodities that
wereexportedtothewestbytheNabataeans.It
isworthmentioningthatmyrrhdidnotgrowin
Anatoliaatallanditwasimportedtothewhole
world from Arabia and Somalia (Van Beek
1958), and therefore the importation of this
commodity to this part of the world must had
beenthroughArabiaandNabataea.
Myrrh was available only in the southern
part of the Arabian Peninsula as well as the
Somali coast (Van Beek 1958), and therefore it
seemsplausibletoassumethatitwasconveyed
tothiscityfromArabiathroughtheNabataeans
who worked as middlemen. According to He
rodotus from the 5th century BC: Arabia is the
only country which produces frankincense, myrrh,

THENABATAEANSANDASIAMINOR

61

cassiaandcinnamon...thetreesbearingthefrankin
cense are guarded by winged serpents of small size
and various colors. (III). According to Hierony
mus of Cardia, who is cited by Diodorus Sicu
lus, a number of Nabataeans were accustomed
tobringdowntotheseafrankincenseandmyrrhand
themostvaluablekindofspiceswhichtheyproduce
from those who convey from what is called Arabia
Eudaemon(DiodorusXlX.94.5).
Themostprominenttypeofarchitectureleft
by the Lycians and Carians who settled the
Land west of Lycia (hereafter mentioned as
LycoCarian)istherockcuttombswhichareto
be found in a number of costal ports such as
Limyra11, Pinara and Tlos. Limyra was an im
portant Lycian settlement as early as the fifth
century and Pericles made it the capital of Ly
cia.Phoinike(moderndayFiniki)wasthemain
portofLimyraduringtheclassicaltimesandits
name may indicate connections and links with
Phoenician traders (Keen 1998:212). There are
otherrockcuttombsscatteringinCariaaswell
especiallyintheregionsofDalyanandCaunos
and these share some similarities with the Na
bataeanrockcutfacades.
Studies have shown the presence of foreign
influenceintheLycianculturefromGreeceand
Persia.Totevaconcludedthatthewesternparts
of Asia Minor had been in close contacts with
the Greek world long before the Persians ar
rivedonthehistoricalscene.Itseemsthat,asa

result,theregionhadgraduallybecamepartof
thewesternGreekculturalmilieu,andhasbeen
exchangingspecificelementsofart,architecture
andcustomsduringthefirsthalfofthefirstmil
lenniumBC(Toteva2007:159).
ComparisonbetweentheNabataeanandLyco
Carianrockcuttombs(ConstructionTech
niquesandarchitecturalelements)
Nearly 900 rockcut tombs survive at Petra,
Hegra and Maghayir Shuaib (Anderson 2005:
168) and these share many common features.
They were classified typologically depending
largely on the main architectural and artistic
features. Influences coming from Assyria, the
GrecoRoman world, Egypt and Persia have
beenproposed12.Here,Iassume,thattherewas
anAnatolianinfluence,buttheevidence,either
PhrygianorLycian,isnotcontemporarytothe
Nabataean period and may be dated prior to
their emergence in northern Arabia. Hence, I
arguethattherewasaNabataeanknowledgeof
thecivilizationsthatexistedinAnatoliaduring
the period between the eighth and the fourth
centuriesBC.
The Nabataeans, Lycians and Carians13 had
traditionally taken special care with regard to
the burial of their dead. They built simple and
elaborated tombs which were designed to
housegenerationsofthefamily.

Plate(3)LyciannecropolisinMyra(totheleft)andNabataeanNecropolisinPetra(totheright)
(PhotographedbytheAuthor)

Rockcut architecture is one of the main at

tractive achievements not only for the Na
bataeans14butforLyciansandCariansalso.The
laterareinterestingfeaturesofAnatolianarchi

tecture in general and the type of this kind of

architecture varies from one province to an
other(Roos1989:17).

62

Rockcut burial monuments uncovered in

AnatoliaandNabataeahavebeenstudiedcom
prehensively and classified typologically into
categories depending on stylistic and architec
tural characteristics. As far as the Nabataean
rockcut tombs are concerned, various studies
and typological classifications of the Petra and
Hegra tombs have been presented by scholars
andthesewerebasedonarchitecturalandartis
tic considerations (see for example Brunnow
and von Domaszewski 1904; Dalman 1908;
McKenzie1990;Netzer2003andWadeson2010,
JaussenandSavignac19091914)15.Thenumber
of the rockcut tombs of Petra and Hegra is
around 900 tombs. The carving of these hewn
facadesstartednormallyfromtoptobottomas
canbeconcludedfromtheunfinishedtombs.
Regarding the Lycian ones, Zahle recorded
one thousand and eightyfive known examples
andthesewereclassifiedintoformajorcatego
ries: monumental tombs, pillar tombs, Gothic
sarcophagus and rockcut housetombs (1983:
14243), and few tombs were decorated (Keen
1998:185).
The innovation of the rockcut architecture
inNabataeaduringtheNabataeanperiodwasa
suddenbreakthrough.Thissuddenappearance
of rockcut architecture is surprising, and this
typeofarchitecturewasnotcommoninthere
gion at all prior to the appearance of the Na
bataeans in the middle of the first millennium
BC. Its appearance may be attributed to social
and cultural transformations as well as exoge
nous influences attributed to contacts with
otherregionalandinternationalcivilizations.
External influences are obvious in Nabataea
andcanbeseeninmostofthematerialremains
and this includes the adaptation of Assyrian,
Egyptian, Anatolian and Greek architectural
and artistic elements. The monuments clearly
provideanopportunitytocontrastimagefrom
the GrecoRoman world as well as and the
Greekinfluenceisclearisclearinthepresence
of pediments, metope and triglyph, entabla
tures, cornices as well as capitals. Judith
McKenzieconcludedthatthebaroquearchitec
tureofPtolemaicAlexandriaasdepictedinsec
ond style Pompeian architecture wall painting

ZEYADALSALAMEEN

is reflectedin theclassicalarchitecture ofPetra

(1990:3359).
As a matter of fact, the facades do not only
portray imported architectural features but na
tiveelementswereincorporatedalso.Thesein
clude the pure Nabataean capital that appears
inaconsiderablenumberoffacades,imagesof
vases and eagles which appear also in some of
therockcutfeaturesofHegra.
ThearchitectureoftheLycoCarianandNa
bataeans represent the diverse nature of their
societies and points to settlement hierarchy in
both regions. Both civilization hewn and cre
ated rockcut facades with precise calculation
and full symmetry. Additionally, there are cer
tain design principles which reflect a unity in
themethodologicalapproachthatwasadopted
tocutthemonuments.

A.Decorationoftheexternalsurfacesofthe
LycoCarianandNabataeanfacades
Some of the rockcut facades in Caria and
Lycia are furnished with Doric capitals,
metopes and triglyphs as well as pediments
(triangular gables) and these Greek elements
developedbetweentheseventhandfourthcen
turies BC. The tympanum in one of the Carian
facades is decorated with two shields in relief
andthereisanacroterionoverthepedimentin
the form of a stylized palmette (Roos 1985: 42,
pl. 11,29,65). We have similar examples from
Nabataea.TheTreasuryfaadeprovidesagood
example for cultural interaction reflecting
external artistic influences. In the lower storey
ofthefaadetheresixCorinthiancolumnsand
afriezeanditscentralpartissurmountedbya
pediment.Theupperstoreyisfurnishedwitha
tholos made between two bays crowned by
brokenpediments.
The south western Anatolian rockcut fa
cadesweresometimesdecoratedwithgablesor
the Syrian arch. Some of these pediments are
surmountedwithemblematicdesignaswellas
acroterion sculpture (Cormack 2004:53). This is
alsoparalleledtothepedimentoftheTreasury
inPetra.

THENABATAEANSANDASIAMINOR

63

Plate(3)Nabataean(totheright)andLycianrockcuttombs(totheleft)(PhotographedbytheAuthor)

ZEYADALSALAMEEN

64

There are some similarities with regard to

the decoration of the external surfaces of the
rockcut faades between the Nabataean and
LycoCarian cultures. Columns are common in
both cultures, and they are either engaged or
freestanding,butthetypesofthecapitalarenot
the same as different capital orders were em
ployed suchas the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian
(Cormack 2004:52) and sometimes there is a
plain ledge protruding over the top of the en
gagedcolumnthatremindsusoftheNabataean
one. The Nabataeans, on the other hand, used
the NabataeanCorinthian as well as the plain
capitalsthatarenotdecorated.
Itisacommonlyheldopinionamongschol
ars that the Nabataeans followed the Greco
Roman, Hellenistic and Ptolemaic architectural
patterns (McKenzie 1990:99). Interestingly,

there are similarities in the design, nature and

ownership of the LycoCarian and Nabataean
rockcuttombs.
Lycian facades are mostly unornamented
except the profiles on the doorframe and the
carved ornaments at the upper corner of the
doorway (Cevic 2003:99). The simple Lycian
facades have one major entrance and another
false one beside it. Reliefs on the LycoCarian
rocktombsarerareandthecarveddecorations
that exist in many cases are the egg and dart
decorationandpalmettesontheacroteria(Roos
1989:66). The majority of the Nabataean
tombs16, on the other hand, are unadorned
consisting of similar simple features, but of
course there are some exceptional facades that
arearchitecturallysophisticatedmonuments.

Plate(4)Nabataeancapitals(left)LycoCariancapitals(right)(PhotographedbytheAuthor)

B.LocationsoftheLycoCarianandNa
bataeanfacades
Most of the Lycian tombs are normally lo
catedinpublicplaceswithinthecitywallsindi

catingthattheirdecorativestylesweremeantto
serve propagandistic as well as funerary fea
tures serving as highly visible symbols of their
owners wealth and power (Childe 1978:47).
The sculptured decorations on a considerable

THENABATAEANSANDASIAMINOR

65

numberoftheLycianfunerarymonumentsap
pear to be a mixture of Greek, Near Eastern as
well as local Anatolian elements and the rock
cuttinginLyciawasconductedbyartistsfamil
iar with the Greek carving patterns and tech
niques (Childe 1978:37). As far as the Na
bataeans are concerned, tombs are also located
normallyinsidethecity,likethoseinPetra,pre
sentingthesocialandwealthypositionoftheir
owners,andtheirsculpturaldecorationsappear
tobeamixtureofNearEasternaswellasMedi
terranean and conducted by sculptors familiar

with the arts of the Mediterranean basins west

asthesouthwestcoastofAnatolia.
C.Constructiontechniqueintherockcuttombs
inLycoCariaandNabataea
IntensiveinvestigationsinNabataeaandthe
LycoCarian rockhewn architecture have re
vealed similarities in the construction tech
niques. Cutting facades in the rock was con
ducted normally from top to bottom in both
culturesandthisisprovedbytheabundantex
amples of the unfinished facades scattered in
areasbelongingtothesecivilizations.

Plate(7)theunfinishedtombinCaunosinCaria(left)andPetra(right)provingtheadoptionofthesamecutting
technique(PhotographsbytheAuthor)

D.Rockcuttombinternalarrangementsin
LycoCariaandNabataea
Most of these tombs belong to families and
theirinternalsizeiscomparativelysmallandall
is entered through steps. The Lycian burial
chambers have flat ceilings and most were
designedwiththreeburialscouches(triclinia)17
with enough space between couches to allow
movement(Cevic2003:105).
Generally speaking, most Lycian rockcut
tombs contain three rockcut benches used for
burial along three walls of the chamber. Some
Lycian rockcut chambers are furnished with
niches cut into the side and rear walls. The
Nabataeans, on the contrary buried their dead
inrockcutgravesinthefloorofthechamberor

in loculi (niches) hewn in the side and back

walls of the chamber itself, similar to some of
theLyciantombs.
The triclinia were constructed within the
Nabataean funerary complexes near the tombs
and not inside it, even though some tombs do
not have adjoining triclinia. The Turkmaniyah
tomb inscription in Petra hints the triclinium
was part of the Nabataean tomb complex
(Healey1993:p.238).
Triclinia in Petra are either linked with
tombs or cultic and residential units, but are
mostlyassociatedwithfunerarycomplexes.The
distributionoftheburialsinsidetheNabataean
andLycoCariantombsisnotthesame.

ZEYADALSALAMEEN

66

Plate(5)TheinterioroftherockcutcavesinLycia(totheleft)andNabataea(totheright)
(PhotographedbytheAuthor)

PlanandElevationofaLycianTomb
(Cevic2003:Figure14)

BabelSiqTriclinium(McKenzie1990pl.28)

Plate(6)ShowingtheinternalplanoftheNabataeanandLycianrockcuttombs

There are differences in term of the general

distribution of the burial places. The Lyco
Carian tombs rise up the rock face like multi
storey apartments (Cevic 2003:101) meanwhile
the Nabataean tombs are not arranged in the

sameLycianmanner,butthereisoneexception
fromPetra.
Tosumup,itisevidentthatthearchitectural
elements adopted by the Nabataean and Lyco
Carianarchitectsintheirrockcutfacadesseem

THENABATAEANSANDASIAMINOR

67

tohavemanysharedsimilaritieswithregardto
thestyle,techniqueandfunctionandallcanbe
considered as monumental constructions in
tended for public display and to achieve the
desiredfuneraryfunction.

and impose fines upon any one violates the

regulationsofthetombs.
The Lycian language, on the contrary, be
longs to the IndoEuropean language family
and most of the texts written in this language
are sepulchral (Bryce 1986:42 ff) and these are
carved on the rockcut tombs and concerned
primarily with instructions for burials. Bryce
summarized the information contained in the
Lycian sepulchral inscriptions into the follow
ingcategories(1986:72):
1. Statement of ownership and identifica
tionofthetombowner.
2. Thelistofeligibletomboccupants.
3. Accommodation arrangement within
thetomb.
4. Statement of what constitutes a viola
tionoftheownersinstructions.
5. The disciplinary agents responsible for
punishingoffendersandsometimesthe
penaltytobeinflicted
6. Arrangementsmadewiththelocalminti
7. Aquasidatingformula
8. Instructionsforsacrificialritesinhonor
ofthedeceased.

LycianandNabataeantombinscriptions
A chain of languages was used throughout
theancientworldduringthesecondhalfofthe
second millennium BC and these include Ara
maic and the Anatolian sub branches of the
IndoEuropean languages. As a matter of fact,
thereisnolinkbetweentheselanguagesaseach
belongstoadifferentlinguisticfamily.
Aramaic was the main written language
adoptedbytheNabataeansanditwasthelan
guage of diplomacy, trade and administration
used by the Assyrians and NeoBabylonians
becoming the lingua franca of the Achaemenid
period(553BCE330BC).
The most important Nabataean inscriptions
are those sepulchral ones uncovered in Hegra
in northern Arabia and these are usually writ
ten above the entrances of the rockcut tombs
(Healey 1993) The length of these inscriptions
reachtenlinessometimesandtheycontainthe
namesoftheowner(s)aswellashislegalrights,

Plate(8)TombinscriptionfromLycia(left)andNabataea(right)(photographedbytheAuthor)

The information included in the Nabataean

tomb inscription follows the same Lycian pat
ternandcontainsalmostthesameinformation.
There are striking similarities between the Na
bataean and Lycian rockcut tomb inscriptions
as seen in the comparative table below. Both
typesoftextsareformulaic,theformulaevary,

but within different limits (Pembroke 1965:218;

Healey 1993:1, 2, 3) and both contain regula
tionsconcerningthetombownershipaswellas
the names of eligible tomb occupants. The fol
lowing table shows these similarities between
the sepulchral inscriptions written on the Ly
cianandNabataeantombs:

ZEYADALSALAMEEN

68

Statement of own
ership and identi
fication of the
tomb owner as
wellaslistofeligi
ble tomb occu
pants (the persons
who are eligible to
be buried in the
tomb is the owner
of the tomb, his
wife and their de
scendents, his par
entsaswellascol
laterals
Regulations con
cerning the tomb
ownership.
Accommodation
arrangement
withinthetomb.

Lycianevidence
this tomb Khertuhi has built
(it), (son) of Tu. For himself
and (his) wife and his children
and the descendents of his
grandmother(Bryce1978:223).

NabataeanParallel
this is the tomb and platform and enclosure
which Hawshabu son of Nafiyu son of Alkuf,
the Taymanite, made for himself and his chil
dren and Habbu, his mother, and Rufu and
Aftiyu, his sisters and their children (Healy
1993:1).

others, (however) let it not be

permitted (?) To their descen
dents to place them within
(Bryce1978:221).
and he has allocated the upper
chamber to his wife and the de
scendents of Mnneteida, and he
has allocated the lower chamber
to his own household (Bryce
1978:223)

and noone has the right to write for this

tomb any deed of entitlement or to bury in it
anynonrelativeotherthanbyhereditarytitle
(Healey1993:3).
and to Aminu belongs a third of this tomb
andburialchamberandtoArsaksahtwothirds
ofthetombandburialchamber.Andhershare
of the burialniches is the east side and burial
nichesandsoforAminu,hisshareofthebur
ialnichesisthesoutheast(?)sideofthebur
ialnicheswhichareinit(Healey1993:24)
and whoever alters or does not do according
to what is written above shall be liable to our
lord in the sum of two thousand Haritite
Selas(Healey1993:9).
Andletnostrangerbeburiedinthis...andif
anyone does other than this, he shall be liable
to our lord in the sum of a thousand Haretite
selas(Healey1993:5).
andmayDushara,thegodofourlordcurses
whoever removes this Wushuh from this bur
ialnicheforever(Healey1993:11).

Statement of what
constitutesa viola
tionoftheowners
instructions.

and whoever places anyone

(else) with them in the chamber
ofthis(tomb)orlaysoutanyone
(else) there, and whoever
erases/alters these instructions
willpaymuntatacattleasapen
altytothemotherofthesanctu
ary(Bryce1986:84).
The disciplinary if (anyone) places anyone (else)
agents responsible uponthem,thehuwedrigodsand
for punishing of the Lycian itlehi will punish
fenders and some him(Bryce1981:81).
times the penalty
tobeinflicted

The Lycian and Nabataean tombs were

owned mostly by families and the inscriptions
of these families contain details about arrange
mentsinsidethetomb,whichweremostlybuilt
by males during their lifetime and in some
casesitwasthewomanwhodidthis(Pembroke
1965:225;Healey1993:1).

The Nabataean and Lycian burials indicate

the social position of the tomb owners. Na
bataean burials and their inscriptions refer to
the relationship between the tomb type and
socioeconomic position of the owner
(McKenzie 1990:115) and the Lycian inscrip
tions reflect socioeconomic aspects also. The

THENABATAEANSANDASIAMINOR

vast majority of the Lycian tomb owners and

occupants ranked amongst the political, mili
taryandsocialelites(Bryce1979:296).Manyof
the Nabataean rockcut tombs in Hegra were
owned also by highranking military and civil
ian officials (Healey 1993: 6, 19, 24, 31, 32, 34,
38)andalsotheLycianones(Bryce1979:296).
Fines and curse formulae were common in
Asia Minor and the Ancient Near East18 and
theyarecommonalsointheinscriptionsofthe
LycianandNabataeanrockcuttombs.TheNa
bataeanandLyciansepulturetextsrefertofines
imposedonthosewhoviolatethetombregula
tions. The Greek inscriptions of Lycia contain
penaltiestobeimposeduponanypersonguilty
of tomb violation and wrongful use of a tomb
(Bryce 1979:176). A number of Lycian tomb in
scriptions refer to disciplinary agents responsi
ble for punishing persons who misuse the
tombs and Bryce classified those authorities
into two main categories: those which are dei
ties or have religious nature and those which
are secular in function and character (Bryce
1981:81)OneoftheLycianinscriptionsreadsas
followsif(anyone)placesanyone(else)uponthem,
the huwedri gods and the Lycian itlehi will punish
him (Bryce 1981:81). In another example we
findthatTarhuntandall(?)thegodswillpunish
him(Bryce1981:81).Anotherexamplesaysthat
whoever arranges anyone (else) within on top, or
whoever places anyone (else) within upon (them)
will pay aitata cattle byway of penalty qebeliyat to
the pntrenni mother of this (Bryce 1986:90). The
Nabataean tomb inscriptions from Hegra im
posed two main types of fines and penalties
uponthosewhoviolate,misuseorchangewhat
has been inscribed and this include the curse
andpaymentsthatshouldbemadeeithertothe
god or to the king or the governor (Healey
1993:1.3.5.8.16).cursesoccursfrequentlyinHe
gra tomb inscriptions (Healey 1993:1, 2, 8, 11,
16,19).OneoftheNabataeaninscriptionsreads
andmayDushara,thegodofourlordcurseswho
ever removes this Wushuh from this burialniche
forever(Healey1993:11).
Another text from Hegra reads as follows
andwhoeveraltersordoesnotdoaccordingtowhat
iswrittenaboveshallbeliabletoourlordinthesum
oftwothousandHarititeSelas(Healey1993:9).

69

It is clear from the aforementioned discus

sion that both types of texts, Nabataean and
Lycian,boresimilaritiesintermofthesequence
pattern of the statements the formulae used as
wellasresemblanceregardingthesocialsignifi
canceoftheownersofthesetombs.Thepattern,
content and arrangement of the Nabataean se
pulchral texts were not common in northern
Arabia or southern Levant before the appear
anceoftheNabataeans.ItislikelythattheLy
cian tomb inscriptions were the source that in
spired the Nabataean architects and scribes to
imitateandwritethetextsaccordingtotheLy
cianstyleofwritingsepulchraltexts.

AncientSeaTradeRoutes
LinksbetweenNabataea,AsiaMinorandthe
Greek Islands were basically attributed to
commercial activities and partnerships. Com
modities were carried through sophisticated
networks of inland and maritime routes. Judg
ingfromtheMissionarytravelsofSt.Pauldur
ingthefirstcenturyADwemightknowthesea
routes that were in use in the Mediterranean
basin during the classical periods and these
werenormallyusedforcommercialpurposes.
St. Paul made three major Missionary trips
intheMediterraneanbasin.HisfirstMissionary
JourneywasmadebetweenAD4648whenhe
visitedthenortheastMediterraneancoastfrom
AntiochandreachedtheeasternborderofLycia
in Asia Minor (Acts:1314). In this journey, he
started from Antioch and then went through
the following main stations: Salamis, Paphos,
Perga in Pamphilia, Attalia, Perge, Pisidian
Antioch,Derbe,Attaliaandfromherehesailed
backtoAntioch(Acts:1314).
The second Missionary Journey was longer
and made between AD 4951. This Journey
started also from Antioch and then he went to
throughthefollowingstations(Acts:15:364;16
18):Tarsus,Derbe,Lystraandsomeothercities
of Galatia. He then went to Troas, Samothrace,
Neapolis, Philippi, Amphipolis, Apollonia,
Thessalonica, Athens, Corinth, Ephesus and he
then returned to Palestine and arrived in the
Palestinian port Caesarea to Jerusalem and
finallytoAntioch.

ZEYADALSALAMEEN

70

Nabataeanactivities.Letusstartfromthewest,
from Italy, where epigraphic materials indicate
the existence of a temple in modern day Pouz
zoli (ancient Puteoli), which denotes the exis
tenceofaNabataeancommunitythere.Itseems
from these texts that the Nabataean god
Dusharawasknowninthisregion.

The last Journey, the Third Missionary one

tookplacebetweenAD5357.Inhisjourneyhe
desiredtoreachEphesusandhevisitedGalacia
andthenreachedEphesus.Afterthatheheaded
towards Troas and then continued his journey
towardsnorthernGreece.Hereturnedthrough
Assos and passed via Mitytline, Chios, Samos,
MiletosandthenhereturnedbacktoJerusalem
(Acts18:2328;1921)

Map(3)ShowingtheroutesofSt.Paultravels(Drawn
bytheAuthorbasedonActs)

Itmaybeassumedthattheseroutesthrough
whichSt.Paultraveledwereawellknownand
the favored one for the Levantine and Arabian
travelersandmerchants.TheNabataeanMinis
ter Syllaeus19 most likely traveled to Rome
throughthisroutearound9/8BCandleftabi
lingual inscription in Miletus in Caria during
his visit to Rome (Cantineau 1978:46). Various
Nabataean evidence has been found in the sta
tions where St. Paul passed which means that
the St. Pauls route was the same one adopted
bytheNabataeans.
Epigraphic evidence from the second cen
tury BC suggests Arabian merchants activities
in the Mediterranean basin. A bilingual
MinaeanGreek inscription from Delos men
tions Minaeans who erected an altar to their
deities there (Sidebotham 1986:98). One of the
Delphic Hymns to Apollo describes how the
ArabsmokeisspreadtowardsOlympuswhich
reflectstheuseofincenseimportedfromArabia
(Retso2003:256).
As far as the Nabataeans are concerned, it
seemsthattheywereveryactiveinthisregion.
The survival of Nabataean texts in the region
under consideration has sparked additional in
terest and aided researchers the range of the

Map(4)ShowingthemajorsettlementsintheMedi
terraneanbasinthatwitnessedNabataeanactivities
(DrawnbytheAuthor)

Small Nabataean betyls were found also in

Pouzzoli and there are many Latin inscribed
fragments that mentions DVSARI SACRVM
meaning Sacred Dushara dated probably to
theendofthefirstcenturyBCandthebeginning
ofthefirstcenturyAD(Schmid2004:420421).
Two Nabataean inscriptions were found in
Pozzuolithefirstofwhichmentionstherestora
tionofasanctuarymadeinthe8thyear(50BC)
of Malichus and this temple was dedicated for
the life of Aretas, king of the Nabataeans, and
of Huldu his wife, queen of the Nabataeans,
and children, in the month August, the 14thof
hisreign(AD5)(CISII158).
In addition, another Nabataean commemo
rative inscription was found at Pozzuoli and
records the offering of two camels apparently
by Nabataean merchants and the text reads
ThesearetwocamelsofferedbyZaidu,sonof
Taimu, and Adelze, son of Haniu, to the god
Dushara who heard us. In the 20th year of the
reign of Aretas, king of the Nabataeans, who
loves his people (CIS II 157). The last hint to
theexistenceofNabataeansinPouzzolitopeo
ple from Petra in particular in this part of the
world is an undated funerary Greek text made

THENABATAEANSANDASIAMINOR

inmemoryofTholomaiossonofThaimallosthe
Petraean who is from Petra (Durand 2008,
volume2:229).
Nabataean epigraphic evidence has been
found in Rome also. A bilingual funerary Na
bataeanLatin inscription dated to the second
half of the first century AD was uncovered
there and it is dedicated for the memory of
AbdAretas dedicated by Abgarus the Petraean
who is from Petra (CIS II 159). A bilingual
GreekLatininscriptionwasfoundinRomeand
mentions Nabataean envoys in Rome (Roche
1996:9092).
Additionally, Nabataean inscriptions have
beenfoundinanumberoftheGreekIslands.A
fragment of a bilingual NabataeanGreek text
was found in Delos20 and it is a part of an in
scription dedicated to the Nabataean god
Dushara (Roche 1996:8385). Another bilingual
NabataeanGreek text was uncovered in Cos
anddedicatedtheconstructionofrbttemple,
sanctuary to the Nabataean goddess al
Uzza/Aphrodite and written c. 9 BC (Roche
1996:7882).
There are also Greek inscriptions pertaining
to the Nabataeans in the Mediterranean basin.
A Greek funerary stele was uncovered near
Delos mentions the name of Zaidos the Na
bataean ( ) (Roche 1996: 85).
Another Greek dedicatory text inscribed on an
altarandfoundinoneoftheGreekIslandsand
mentions the name of the Nabataean god
Dushara(Roche1996:78).
ThelastGreekevidenceforNabataeanpres
enceinGreeceisaGreekinscribedmarblestele
dated to the second half of the second century
BC was uncovered in Tinos mentioning Sala
menesEdemonustheNabataean(Schmid2004:
N.26)
AsfarasthesouthwesternpartofAnatolia
is concerned, only one Nabataean text was un
covered there in Miletus. Passing by Miletus,
the wellknown Nabataean Minster Syllaeus
engraved a bilingual GreekNabataean inscrip
tion,inoneofhistripstoRome,dedicateditto
thegodDusharaforthewelfareofKingObodas
(c. 9/8 BC) (Cantineau 1978:46). The return of
thisministerfromRomeisattestedinaSafaitic
inscription dated to the second half of the first
quarterofthefirstcenturyBC(Abbadi1996).

71

Nabataean texts has been uncovered also in

Sidon on the Eastern Mediterranean coast and
this bilingual NabataeanGreek inscription was
written on a marble tablet and dedicated in
honorofAretasprobablythefourth(CISII160).
Itisclearfromtheprecedingdiscussionthat
the Nabataean archaeological finds concentrate
on the largest and most well known cities and
IslandsintheMediterraneanBasin.Thismeans
that they were energetic, mobile and active
people.Thenumberanddistributionofthedis
covered texts indicate to a fairly strong Na
bataean knowledge of the cultures that existed
inthispartoftheworld.
The most prominent Nabataean evidence
uncovered in the Mediterranean basin is the
Nabataean texts which have been discussed
above.TheotherimportantNabataeanevidence
uncovered in various parts of the world, and
indicatestheworldwideNabataeanactivities,is
the distinguished Nabataean pottery. This has
been uncovered in Egypt, the Arabian Gulf
states,variouspartsofArabiaaswellasPales
tine(seeDurand2008,volumeII:104106).Na
bataean pottery in the Mediterranean basin is
scanty and the only fragment of a Nabataean
painted ware comes from Antioch (Schmid
2007:14).
Three sites in the Mediterranean basin and
Europe presented Nabataean coins which are
mostly dated to the region of the Nabataean
kingAretasIV(9BCAD40)andsomeofthem
are dated to the region of the last Nabataean
king Rabel II (AD 70106) and these were all
found in Antioch and Cyprus (Roche 1996 77;
Schmid2004:420).
Finally, Johnson assumes that pottery un
quentaria probably of Nabataean origin have
beenfoundinanumberofnonNabataeansites
in Asia Minor and Europe and this include
Dacia,Rome,YugoslaviaandArgos(1987:689).
Heseesthatthesimilaritiesofthesepotteryob
jects to Nabataean forms probably represent
tradeitems(1987:69)
ImportedItemsfromAsiaMinorandtheMedi
terraneanBasintoNabataea
TheimportedpotterytotheNabataeanking
dom fromother placeswasabundant.Archaeo
logicalfieldworksconductedinanumberofNa

ZEYADALSALAMEEN

72

bataean sites confirm that the Nabataeans par

ticipated in long distance trade, and conse
quently a monetary system was developed to
facilitate their commercial transactions21. Field
work carried out in some Nabataean cities like
PetraandObodahaverevealedavarietyoffor
eignmaterialevidencereachingNabataeawhich
suggestsanincreasedscopeofimportation.
NabataeantradewiththeGreekislandsand
probably the western Mediterranean was
seemingly prosperous. Pottery originated from
the Mediterranean basin have been found
mostly in the Nabataean sites of Petra and
Oboda (Durand 2008 volume II: 130132).
Inscribed amphorae fragments dated to the
period between the third and second century
BC and imported from Rhodes and Cnidos
have been found in Petra, Oboda and Nessana
(see for example Horsfield 1942: nos. 101103;
alKhairy1991:fig.51.;Negev1986:9).

Map(5)Showingthelocationsofthemajorquarries
fromwhichmarblewasimportedtoPetra(Drawnby
theAuthorbasedonReid2004:131134;AppendixB)

One of the most common types of the im

portedpotterytoNabataeawastheEasternand
Western Sigillata. Various types of the Eastern
Sigillata have been uncovered particularly in
PetraandObodaanddatedbetweenthesecond
century BC and the first century AD. (for
exampleseeNegev1986,Schneider1996:N.19
28; Sieler 2004, figs. 911). Western Sigillata
importedfromItalyandGualanddatedmostly
tothefirsttwocenturiesADhavebeenfoundin
Petra and Oboda (Negev 1986: fig 44; Sieler
2004: 51; Horsfield 1942: nos. 388391).
Excavations conducted at Oboda and Petra

revealed pottery fragments imported from

Western Europe and this include fragments of
the Pompeian redglazed ceramic (Schneider
1996: n. 117119) as well as imported Roman
pottery(Negev1986:figs.132134).
Imported pottery from Asia Minor, dated
betweenthesecondcenturyBCandfirstcentury
AD has been found in Oboda and Kh. Dharih
(Durand2008:volumeII:127129).Quantitiesof
Eastern Sigillata fragments imported from Asia
Minor have been discovered in these two
Nabataean sites, and it has been suggested that
they originated particularly from the Gulf of
IskenderunaswellasEphesusinsouthwestern
Turkey (for example see Negev 1986, Schneider
1996: N. 1928; Sieler 2004, figs. 911; alKhairy
1991:figs118).
In addition, fragments of glazed ceramic
originated from Asia Minor and dated to the
period between 50 BC and AD 50 have been
foundinObodaandPetra(Durand2008II:133
137). The imported ceramic to Nabataea
includes lamps imported from Asia Minor and
dated approximately to the first century BC
have been discovered in some Nabataean sites
such as Oboda and Petra and these were
originated from Ephesus (Negev 1986: nos.
10951098;Grawehr2006:nos.551555).
Finally,marblewasimportedintoNabataea
most likely from quarries in Asia Minor. Mar
ble, which was not available locally, has been
uncoveredinanumberofNabataeansitessuch
asPetraandKh.edDharihandithasbeensug
gested that these all originated from Anatolia
(Chambon2002:85;Kreikenbom2002).Quanti
ties of marble22 were discovered in Petra and
these are dated to the Nabataean, Roman and
Byzantineperiods.FromthePetraSmalltemple
abundant marble has been revealed and these
were analyzed using Isotopic Analysis and the
samples tested have proven that this marble
wasentirelyoriginatedinwesternAnatolia,the
Balkan Peninsula and the Cyclades (Reid
2004:131134,seeAppendixB).

CONCLUSION
TheNabataeansandtheOccidentwerecon
cernedwiththearomaticstradeoftheArabian
Peninsula and this led to active overseas com

THENABATAEANSANDASIAMINOR

merce which made possible the splendors of

various Nabataean architectural and artistic
elementsmostlynotalocalinnovationinchar
acter.
Long distance trade for the frankincense,
which sprang up during the classical period,
had direct and remarkable impact on the Na
bataean architecture, culture, economy and ur
bandevelopmentespeciallyinthecapital,Petra
and greatly accelerated the growth of the Na
bataean civilization. Foreign cultural concepts
were transmitted over time and they are obvi
ousinanystudyonNabataea.Thediffusionof
south western Anatolianand Greek cultures in
Nabataea may be attributed certainly to trade
relations.
Inmanyaspectsofitslife,Nabataeareflects
multiple outside influences from different di
rections. There are artistic, architectural and
iconographic similarities between Nabataean
and other parts of the world including the
GrecoRoman world, Anatolia, Mesopotamia,
Mesopotamia and of course Arabia. The study
revealed similarities between the Phrygian
rockcutculticfeaturesandtheNabataeanones
even thought they were not contemporaneous.
It also revealed common similarities between
theNabataeanandLycoCarianrockcuttombs
in terms of construction techniques, style, the
decoration of the external surfaces of these
rockcutfacadesaswellasthecontentofsepul

73

chraltextsinscribedonthetombswhichfollow
the same sequence patterns, statements and
formulae. The uncovered archeological evi
dence in Nabataea supports this assumption.
Imported artifacts and items from Asia Minor
havebeenfoundinsomeNabataeansites,espe
cially at Petra and Oboda, and those include
quantities of the Eastern Sigillata fragments in
addition to quantities of marble that has been
uncoveredinmostlyinPetra.IsotopicAnalysis
hasproventhatthismarblecertainlyoriginated
inWesternAnatolia.
The distribution of Nabataean artifacts such
as pottery, coins and inscriptions is a reliable
indication of trade activities. Nabataean rela
tionswithItaly,GreeceandsouthwesternAna
toliaisclearfromthediscoveredarchaeological
evidence. The study of the discovered material
remains indicates that the Nabataeans were in
deed a strong presence in the Mediterranean
andAnatolia.
To sum up, the largescale expansion of the
Nabataean commercial activities initiated eco
nomicandculturalinteractionlinkingnorthern
ArabiaandsouthwesternAsiaMinor.Cultural
materials uncovered in Nabataean sites testify
to this contact and to the transmission of cul
tures from these regions in Nabataea. As a re
sult, this situation initiated social complexity
especially in the two major populated cities in
Nabataea:PetraandHegra.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thewritingofthispapercouldnothavebeencompletedwithouttheassistanceandencourage
mentofmanypeopleandinstitutions.ForemostamongthemistheCouncilofAmericanOverseas
ResearchCentersandGettyfoundationforgrantingmeafellowshiptoconductthisresearchandto
spendamonthinTurkeywhichwasinstrumentalinsteeringmyrawideasintothoughtsandar
gumentscontainedherein.DuringmyvisitIhadtheopportunitytobenefitfromthelibraryofthe
American Research Institute in Ankara ARITand to benefit from discussions with a number of
scholars interested in south western Anatolian archaeology. Many thanks are due to Dr Ilknur
Ozgen from Bilkent University for helping me during my visit to some of the Lycian sites. Many
thanksareduealsotoMr.BenCoocksonfromtheBilkentUniversityforprovidingmewithphoto
graphsofsomeLycianrockcutfacadesandtoLucyWadesonforreadingthedraftversionofthis
paper.

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NOTES
1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11.

12.
13.
14.

ThisistheresinofBoswellia,Carterii,B.FrereanaandB.Sacra(Dalby2000:167).ItgrewinAra
bia,mainlyinsouthernArabia,andEastAfrica,includingSomaliland(vanBeek1960:72)andit
was used as a medicine and as an ingredient in perfume in addition to other cultic and reli
gioususes(ibid83).Thefrankincensetradeisknowntohaveexistedpriortothefirstmillen
niumBC.TheDeiralBahrireliefsdatedtothe15thcenturyBCandinscriptionsofThutmoseII
recordthetributeofthechiefsofRetenuPalestine,includingjarsofincenseandmyrrhwhich
arementionedaspartoftheharvestoftheLandofRetenu(Groom1981).
This is the resin of Commiphora myrrha and other species (Dalby 2000:168). It was used like
frankincense. In addition, it was used as an ointment, perfume, medicine and in embalming
(HerodotusIII107;seealsoGroom1981).Theuseofthisitemgoesbacktothe15thcenturyBC
asevidencedintheTempleofHatshepsutatDeiralBahri(vanBeek1960:72).Theproductis
widely attested in literature. Strabo mentions that it is a product of Chatramotitis) in Arabia
(XVI.IV.4).FurtherinformationconcerningtheuseofmyrrhisprovidedintheMateriaMedica
of Discorides who says that it is applied to the face mixed with cassia and honey. It clears
sycosis when rubbed in with ladanum, wine and myrtle wine, strengthens falling hair and
healssoresintheeyes(Dalby2000:119).
FormoreinformationabouttheNabataeansintheclassicalsourcessee(Hackletal2003).
FormoreinformationabouttheNabataeanssee(Hammond1973;McKenzie1990;Bedal2003;
Negev1986a;Schmid2001;Hackl2003).
In his studyon the Nabataeaninscriptions from the southernHauran Littmann classified the
foreignnamesintheseinscriptionsintothefollowingcategories:GreekandLatinnames,Per
sianEgyptian,AramaeansandHebrewnames(1914:XVIIXVIII).
For more details about the Nabataean finds outside the borders of Nabataea see for example
(Roche1996;Schmid2004;Wenning1987;Potts1991andDurand2008).
FormoreinformationabouttheHittitessee(Bryce1998;Macqueen1999)
ForinformationabouttheLydianssee(Christopher2003)
FordetailsregardingtheArchaemenidAsiaMinorsee(Christopher2007)
TheLycianswerementionedinvariousancientresources.TheywerecalledLukkaintheHit
titeandEgyptiantextsthataredatedtotheLateBronzeageandtheywereofthemostimpor
tantTroysalliesinthewaragainsttheGreeks.(Bryce1986:3).
ThereabilingualGreekAramaicinscriptionwrittenaboveoneoftheentrancesoftherockcut
facadesandthisistheonlyAramaictextfromthatarea.ItreadsasArtima,sonofArzapiya,
madethisossuary,andwhoever(this)ca(ve..that(belongs)tohim(Lipinski1975:162164)
formoredetailsregardingtheseinfluencesseeforexampleBrnnowandDomaszewski1904
1905:15861,169,172;McKenzie1990:3359;Anderson2005.
Carian influenceon therockcut tombs of late Hellenistic/ early Roman period Jerusalem has
beendiscussedbyBerlin(2002).
Art and architecture are considered the most outstanding Nabataean achievements. They re
flectinternationalNabataeaninteractionaswellasabsorptionofforeignartisticelementsand

78

15.
16.

17.
18.
19.
20.

21.
22.

ZEYADALSALAMEEN

incorporatingtheminahomogeneousstylethatreflectsuniquenessandanabilitytoproduce
thismixtureinafascinatingway.McKenzieseesthatmostofthedesignsoftheNabataean
rockcuttombsweremoreinfluencedbytheHellenisticartofAlexandria(1990:3359).
For detailed information about the classifications and typologies of the Nabataean faade
tombssee(Wadeson2010).
The Nabataean tombs, which are all found associated with settlements, are divided into two
main groups regarding their construction features: stone built and rockcut tombs. The grave
goods uncovered in these tombs are relatively limited and restricted particularly to female
tombs???. There are some indications pointing to the existence of the cult of the dead in Na
bataea as some rockcut tombs were constructed beside rockcut features that might indicate
somekindoffuneralceremonies(Examples??).
Chamberwiththreebenches
Foradiscussiononthisparticularsubjectsee(Stanley1959).
JosephusmentionedthattheNabataeanMinsterSyllaeustravelledtwicetoRome(Antiquities
XVI.9.2;XVI.10.89;XVII.3.2;XVII.4.3).
InhisstudyoftheoriginanddesignofNabataeanwatersupplysystemOlesoncomparesthe
NabataeanpubliccisternsuncoveredinHumaymainsouthernJordanwiththepubliccisterns
seenatDeloswhicharesimilarintheirdesignandassumedsimilaritiesbetweentheNabataean
and Hellenistic ones (Oleson 1995:717). Oleson says At Delos, for example, Nabataean mer
chantscouldhaveseenthistypeofcisterninoperationandeasilyhavecomprehendthesplen
didlysimpleprinciplesofthedesignanditsappropriatenesstoconditionsinNabataeanlands.
Itisalsopossible,althoughultimatelyprobablyimpossibletodocument,thattheNabataeans
noticed the roofing designs in the context of military structures rather than cisterns, and
broughtithometofacilitatetheconstructionofdwellings(Oleson1995:718).
FormoredetailsregardingtheNabataeannumismaticssee(Meshorer1975).
Thismarbledecoratednotonlythefreestandingsculpturebutwasusedalsotoproducestatues
(McKenzie2003:1969)