4 A S A CONTRACTOR

REPORT

DYNAMICS A N D STABILITY
OF MECHANICALSYSTEMS
WITH FOLLOWERFORCES

by GeorgeHerrmann
Prepared by
STANFORDUNIVERSITY

Stanford, Calif.
for

NATIONALAERONAUTICSANDSPACEADMINISTRATION

WASHINGTON, D. C.

NOVEMBER 1971

.I

No.

2. Government
Accession

1. Report No.

NASA
~

CR-1782
~~~

4. Title and Subtitle

DYNAMICS
FORCES

AND

3. Recipient a wuwg

STABILITY

OF

MECHANICAL

5. Repot Date

November
.
1971

SYSTEMS
W I Y X FOLLOWEX

.~

6. Performing Organization Code

..

~~

. .. ~.
-.

8. Performing Organization Report No.

7. Authorls)

George

NO.

~~

Herrmann
~- .

~~~

10. Work Unit No.

136-14-02-02

"..

Organization
Address
9. Performing
and

Name

University
Stanford
California
Stanford,

No.
11. Contract or Grant
NGL 0 020-3

94305

NGR 1%007-0%~

Covered

~~

13. Period
Type of Report and

2. SponsoringAgencyNameandAddress

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

14. SponsoringAgencyCode

Washington, DC 20546
5. SupplementaryNotes

""

6. Abstract

The

monograph

centers

on

problems

of

stability

of

equilibrium

of

mechanical

systems

with

follower forces. Concepts of stability and criteria of stability are reviewed briefly, together
with means of analytical specification
of follower forces. Nondissipative systems with two
degrees

of

freedom

are

discussed,

and

destabilizing

effects

due

to

various

types

of

dissipative

forces both in discrete and continuous systems, are treated. The analyses are accompanied by
some quantative experiments and observations on demonstrational laboratory models.

__ . ."
7. Ke;

.
. ..

Words(Suggested by Auth&)

~~

18. Distribution Statement

Follower forces
Unclassified

Stability

Unlimited

Damping
Critical loads
..__
.
.
~.

"

"

19. Security Uanif. (of this report)

Unclassified

"-1

20. Security Classif. (of this page)

For sale by the NationalTechnical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151

...

"

I'

"

PREFACE
The p r i n c i p a l aim of t h i s monograph i s t o p r e s e n t a coherent and f a i r l y
comprehensive account of recent progress
i n t h e area ofdynamics and s t a b i l i t y
ofmechanicalsystemswithfollowerforces.
By " r e c e n t , " q u i t e s p e c i f i c a l l y ,
is meant t h e p e r i o d a f t e r 1963, t h t y e a r o f p u b l i c a t i o n
of t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n of t h e f i r s t book (by V. V. B o l o t i n ) d e v o t e d i n i t s e n t i r e t y t o none l a s t i c s t a b i l i t y , i . e . , problems w i t h
conservativeproblems of the theory of
follower forces.
The last decade has witnessed a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p a n s i o n o f i n t e r e s t i n
t h i s problem area, but the progress has been reported piecemeal
by a v a r i e t y
of i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s and s c a t t e r e d i n numerous j o u r n a l s .
Even thoughadvances are b e i n g c o n t i n u a l l y made, i t s t i l l a p p e a r s t o be
j u s t i f i e d t o a t t e m p t t o presentanaccountofrecentdevelopments
and t o
p l a c e them i n t o a r e l a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e .
I n t h i sa t t e m p t ,t h ea u t h o r ' s
own
work and t h a t of h i s c o l l a b o r a t o r s h a s r e c e i v e d , q u i t e n a t u r a l l y , p a r t i c u l a r
emphasis.
I t i s hoped t h a t t h e monograph may p r o v e u s e f u l a s
a source of information
on t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t f o r t h e r e s e a r c h
worker and p r a c t i c i n g e n g i n e e r .

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER I:

INTRODUCTION

.............................................
Column
..............
......................
AND
...............
WITH
OF
.....
.............................

1.1

S t r u c t u rS
a lt a b i l i t y :

1.2

Aim and
Scope
of

Buckling

t h e Monograph

CHAPTER 11: CONCEPTS OF STABILITY

CHAPTER 111:

CHAPTER I V :

FOLLOWER
FORCES

NONDISSIPATIVE SYSTEMS

TWO DEGREES

3.1

An I l l u s t r a t i v e Example

3.2

General System w i t h Two Degreesof

FREEDOM

..........
3.2.1
Governing
Equations
..........................
3.2.2
Parameter Ranges .............................
3.2.3
Slmrmary of R e s u l t s ...........................
3.2.4
S p e c i a l Case w1 - w2 .........................
DESTABILIZING
...................................
4.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................
4.2 I l l u s t r a t i v e ExamplesofSystems
w i t h Two Degrees
of Freedom ..........................................
4.2.1
A Model ......................................
4.2.2
Critical Loads ...............................
4.2.3
Case of
Vanishing
Damping ....................
Degree of I n s t a b i l i t y ........................
4.2.4
4.2.5
A More General Model .........................
Root Domains of C h a r a c t e r i s t i cE q u a t i o n
......
4.2.6
Nature of Boundaries Separating Different
4.2.7
Root Domains .................................
4.2.8
Influence of Damping R a t i o on I n s t a b i l i t y
Freedom

EFFECTS

4.2.9
4.3

...................................
......................................
..................................
.......
.........
.................................
............

Mechanisms
P o s s i b i l i t y of Elimination
Effects

Damping andGyroscopicForces
Degrees Freedom
of

4.5

Destabilizing
E f f e c tisn
Continuous

4
5
9
9
16
16
18
22
23
25
25
25
25
27
29
31
32
33
37

40
42

i n Systems w i t h Two

Discrete Systems w i t h Many Degreesof

Introduction
Cantilevered
Pipe

of D e s t a b i l i z i n g

4.4

4.5.1
4.5.2

Freedom

Systems

Conveying F l u i d

45

48

55
55
55

Page
4.6

4.7
CHAPTER V:

CHAPTER V I :

.....................................
.........
a
........
............................
.......................................
.......................................
........................................
............................
...............................
.....................................
....................................
.................................
..............
...........................
............................
......................................
..................................
.................................
............
...........................
......................... ..

D e s t a b i l i z i n g E f f e c t s Due t o Phenomena Otherthan

Linear Viscosity

63

4.6.1
4.6.2
4.6.3
4.6.4

63
63
68
71

Thermoelastic and H y s t e r e t i c Damping

Magnetic Damping i n
Discrete System
Magnetic Damping i n a Continuous System
RetardedFollowerForce

Uncertainties

73

CONTINWUS SYSTEMS

77

5.1

Introduction

77

5.2

D e f i n i t i o n so fS t a b i l i t y

77

5.3

Analysis of S t a b i l i t y

82

METHODS OF ANALYSIS
6.1

6.2

Discrete Systems

89

6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
6.1.5

89
89
96
97
98

Introduction
A "Generalized Energy" Function
A General Approach
Exceptional Cases
Remarks

Continuous
Systems
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5

Introduction
S t a b i l i t y of a n Elastic Continuum
The Adjoint System
An Approximate Method o f S t a b i l i t y A n a l y s i s
I l l u s t r a t i v e Example

...............................
CEIAPTEX V I I : POSSIBILITIES OF PHYSICAL REALIZATION ..................
7.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................
6.3

7.2

EnergyConsiderations

7.2.3
7.2.4
7.2.5

7.4

...................
......................................
of
and
..........................
...........................
.......
of
..........
in
..............
of Bars
.........

I n s t a b i l i t y Modes of CantileveredBarsInduced
F l u i d Plow Through Attached Pipes
7.2.1
7.2.2

7.3

89

S t a b i l i t y o f a Bar
P a r a l l e l F l u i d Flow. Taking
i n t o C o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e Head Resistance
Subjected t o Radiant Heat

vi

99
101
103
106
106

110
111
111

by

General
Derivation of Equation
Motion
Boundary Conditions
S t a b i l i t yA n a l y s i s
Analysis of F l u t t e r by I n d i r e c t Wethod
The E f f e c t
Small C o r i o l i sF o r c e s

Stability

99

112
112
112
115
119
121
123
123

Page

.....................
........................................
an
.................................
......................................
....................................
.......................................
and
...........
..............................
................
..............................

CHAPTER VIII: LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS AND MODELS

8.1
Introduction
8.2

Instability of a Mechanical System Induced by

Impinging Fluid Jet
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
8.2.4
8.2.5
8.2.6

8.3

General
Description of Model and Supporting
Equipment
Theory
Experimental Procedure
Results
Discussion of Results. Conclusions a d
Recomnendations
Nonlinear Divergence Analysis

Demonstrational Models

...........................................................
...............................................................
FIGURES 1.1 .1.2 ................................................
FIGURES 3.1 .3.14 ...............................................
FIGURES 4.1 .4.28 ...............................................
FIGURES 6.1 .6.4 ................................................
FIGURES 7.1 .7.5 ................................................
FIGURES 8.1 .8.22 ...............................................

125
125
126
126
127
128
133
135
137
139

REFERENCES

143

TABUS

151
155-156
157-171
172-199
200-203
204-208
209-234

vii

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1

Structural Stability: Column Buckling

The structural engineer

and the applied mechanician are usually becoming
acquainted with the area of structural stability through Euler's problem
elastic column buckling.
There are several different ways in which the problem of column
can be presented
t o the beginner, but one
of the most instructive ones is
through an eccentrically loaded cantilevered column (Fig. 1.1) as was done
recently by Ziegler[1].*

of

buckling

It is assumed that the column is homogeneous, obeys linear elastic Hooke's

law (Young's modulusE) and is of constant cross-section. Let
4 be the length
of the column, E1 the flexural rigidity, e the eccentricity
of the (compresto
sive) load P and f the deflection at the free end. The load P is assumed
be of the "dead" type, i.e., a weight which does not change in magnitude and
direction as a possible consequence
of the deformationof the column. If the
slope of the deflected column w(x)
axis is assumed to be small as compared to
unity, the bending moment at section x is

On the other hand in elementary theory of beam bending the bending

M moment
is known to be proportional to the curvature,
i.e.,

Elimination ofM in the abovetwo relations leadsto the differential equation

of the deflection curve

or

+P w =
E1 E1

W
'
'

- (e + f)
~

~"

_~- ~
~

~~

Numbers in brackets indicate references compiled in a listing beginning

on page143.

The g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n of t h i s e q u a t i o n c a n b e w r i t t e n i n t h e
2
abbreviation P/(EI) = x

form, w i t h t h e

w = A c o s n x + B s i n n x + e + f

(1.5)

The unknown c o n s t a n t s A, B and f are t o be determined from the boundary conditions

= 0

w(0) = w'(0)

w(4) = f

and

(1.6)

which l e a d s t o t h e s o l u t i o n

w =-

e
COS

Kk

(1- c o s H x )

and t h e end d e f l e c t i o n

1
f = e ( c o s H R
It i s seenfrom

this l a s t e x p r e s s i o n t h a t i f

t h e d e f l e c t i o n s a t t h e f r e e end f become i n f i n i t e , r e g a r d l e s s how small t h e

e c c e n t r i c i t y e. The column i s s a i dt ob u c k l eu n d e rt h ec r i t i c a ll o a d
(bucklingload)
2
P1 = IT E 1

(1.10)

4R2
are obviously
Due totheassumptionsintroduced,theaboverelations
small d e f l e c t i o n s . I f
a c e n t r a l l y loaded column i s considered
validonlyor
equaand i f t h e a n a l y s i s i s basedon amore e x a c t ( n o n l i n e a r ) d i f f e r e n t i a l
t i o n of t h e d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e ,
which allows for large slopes
of this curve,
t h e dependenceof P on t h e end d e f l e c t i o n f can be established, with the
res u l t illustrated in Fig.
1.2.
I n t h e r a n g e of the load

< P < P1

t h e r e i s only one e q u i l i b r i u m p o s i -

t i o np o s s i b l e , namely, t h a t of t h e s t r a i g h t column (f = 0). Thisequilibrium

of
position is stable in the sense that small disturbances or imperfections
v a r i o u s s o r t s are notfollowed by l a r g e d e v i a t i o n s from t h i s p o s i t i o n . I n
the range P >P1, by c o n t r a s t , t h e p e r f e c t l y s t r a i g h t
column (f = 0) i s s t i l l

i n equilibrium, but this equilibrium

i s unstable since small disturbances
will
c a u s e t h e column t o move away from t h i s p o s i t i o n ( f # 0 ) . The s t a b l e e q u i l i b rium p o s i t i o n s i n t h i s r a n g e , P>P1,
are l o c a t e d on a symmetric curvewhich
branches from the straight line

f = 0 a t t h e p o i n t P = P1.

It i s t h u s s e e n t h a t b u c k l i n g o f
a column is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e phenomenon o f b i f u r c a t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m p a t h s , a concept intimately associated
w i t h E u l e r ' s n o t i o n of s t a b i l i t y and i n s t a b i l i t y .
T h i s concept of Euler in analyzing stability served technology
w e l l , particularly in the area of structural engineering
and s t r u c t u r a l mechanics, as
appliedtobuckling
of beams, frames,plates,
etc., and variouscombinations
of s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s , s u b j e c t e d t o d e a d l o a d s .
It was found,however,
t h a t this concept cannot be applied indiscriminatelytothestability
problemofanymechanicalsystem.Specifically,
systems which are not subjected to dead loads but rather to forces due to an
stai n t e r a c t i n g medium have o f t e n t o beanalyzed d i f f e r e n t l y w i t h r e g a r d t o
b i l i t y . Exaaples o f s u c h m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m s i n c l u d e a i r f o i l s p l a c e d i n a n
airstream,turbinebladesinteractingwithwater,flexiblepipesconveying
f l u i d , e l a s t i c systemssubjectedtoimpingingfluid
jets, as well as c e r t a i n
types of e l e c t r o - m e c h a n i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n s .

A common f e a t u r e of such mechanical systems, or rather of forces acting

is t h a t t h e s e f o r c e s a r e n o t d e r i v a b l e
from a p o t e n t i a l (by c o n t r a s t
onthem,
t o deadloads)and
as a r e s u l t a s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s based on Euler's concept
o f b i f u r c a t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m may break down.
a more fundamentalapproach t o problems of s t a b i l i t y
Forsuchproblems
has t o befollowed,onewhich
is, for instance, based on the
dynamicmethod
of i n v e s t i g a t i n g small motionsinduced a s a r e s u l t of p e r t u r b a t i o n s o f t h e
p o s i t i o n s of equilibrium. One f i n d s t h e n t h a t s t a b i l i t y
ofa
mechanical
system subjected to forces which
are n o t d e r i v a b l e froma p o t e n t i a l may, gene r a l l y , be l o s t e i t h e r t h r o u g h o s c i l l a t i o n s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a m p l i t u d e o r
In t h e
through a nonoscillatorymotion away from t h e e q u i l i b r i u m p o s i t i o n .
former case no b i f u r c a t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m e x i s t s and t h e r e f o r e E u l e r ' s method
breaks down. I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e t h e dynamicmethod l e a d s e s s e n t i a l l y t o t h e
same r e s u l t s a s E u l e r ' s s t a t i c methodof a n a l y z i n g s t a b i l i t y .

A s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p e r t y of f o r c e s which a r e n o t d e r i v a b l e from a p o t e n t i a l
i s t h e i r dependenceon t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s p o s i t i o n o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n
of t h e s y s t e m upon whichthey are acting. That
is these forces follow in
some a p r i o r i
this reasonthey havebeen
p r e s c r i b e d manner themotionofthesystem.For
termed n o t o n l y n o n c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r c e s , b u t a l s o c i r c u l a t o r y f o r c e s , c o n f i g u ration-dependent forces or simply follower forces.

1.2

A i m andScopeof

t h e Monograph

The p r e s e n t monograph c e n t e r s on problems of s t a b i l i t y of equilibrium of

as a c t i n g o n memechanicalsystemswithfollowerforces.Followerforces,
chanicalsystems, may be of aerodynamic,hydrodynamic,
electromagneticor
thermalorigin.Furthermore,theyoccurfrequently
i n a u t o m a t i cc o n t r o l
s y s tems

The beginnings of analyses of stability of mechanical systems with follower f o r c e s goback t o t h e late n i n e t e e n - t w e n t i e s and are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
name ofNikolai[2,3]
i n Russia. Comprehensive,fundamental
s t u d i e s were carr i e d o u t by Z i e g l e r [4-71 i n t h e f i f t i e s i n Switzerland. Thebookby
Bolotin
[8], devoted i n i t s e n t i r e t y t o n o n c o n s e r v a t i v e p r o b l e m s
of t h e t h e o r y of
elastic stability, presents a well-rounded state
ofknowledge a s ofadecade
ago.
S e v e r a l a r e a s of s t a b i l i t y problems of mechanical systems with follower
area of a e r o e l a s t i c i t y ( c f . G a r r i c k
[g])
forces, such as thehighlydeveloped
and s t a b i l i t y of r o t a t i n g s h a f t s , w i l l n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e p r e s e n t
monograph since these areas have already received considerable attention.
The primary purpose of the present
monograph i s l i m i t e d i n t h e s e n s e t h a t
last decade, i.e., a f t e r t h e
a t t e n t i o n is confinedtothedevelopmentsofthe
p u b l i c a t i o n of [SI, andnarrowed down f u r t h e r by emphasizing the analytical
and
e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n which t h e a u t h o r and h i s coworkers were involved
last sevenyears.
A review of t h e work, i n c l u d i n g
duringtheperiodofthe
numerous references,throughtheyear
1966, is contained i n r e f e r e n c e [lo].
Concepts of s t a b i l i t y i n m a t h e m a t i c a l terms, as.well as criteria of stab i l i t y are reviewed b r i e f l y i n t h e s t i l l introductory Chapter 11, t o g e t h e r w i t h
111 i s devoted
means of a n a l y t i c a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n of followerforces.Chapter
t o a d i s c u s s i o n of n o n d i s s i p a t i v e (i.e., p u r e l y elastic) systems with two
degreesof freedom. An i l l u s t r a t i v e example i s considered f i r s t and a g e n e r a l
linearsystemnext.
A remarkablefeatureofsystemswithfollowerforces
is
t h a t even small damping f o r c e s and c e r t a i n o t h e r v e l o c i t y - d e p e n d e n t f o r c e s
may
have a s t r o n g d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t .
Such d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t s , b o t h i n d i s Chapter I V .
The s p e c i a l
c r e t e and continuoussystems, are t r e a t e d i n d e t a i l i n
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which mustbe introduced i n t h e a n a l y s i s of continuous systems
V. Mechanical systemswithfollowerforces
may rea r ed i s c u s s e di nC h a p t e r
q u i r ep a r t i c u l a rp r o c e d u r e si nt h e i rs t a b i l i t ya n a l y s i s .
Such methods, i n VI.
cluding energy considerations, are dealt with in Chapter
The a n a l y t i c a l work on systems with follower forces
i s sometimesbeing
c r i t i c i z e d as being purely mathematical and as having no r e l e v a n c e t o a c t u a l
mechanicaldevices and s t r u c t u r e s . To c o u n t e r t h i s argument, s e v e r a lp o s s i b i l i t i e s of p h y s i c a l r e a l i z a t i o n of mechanical systems with follower .forces
are
examined i n Chapter VII. Qualitativeobservationsondemonstrationallaborat o r y modelsand q u a n t i t a t i v e e x p e r i m e n t s are r e p o r t e d i n C h a p t e r V I I I .

CHAPTER I1
CONCEPTS OF STABILITY AND FOLLOWER FORCES
The term " s t a b i l i t y " a s s i g n s a q u a l i t y t o a state of a systemwhich
signifies that possible disturbances
of the system w i l l n o t e s s e n t i a l l y change
is n e c e s s a r i l y vague and p r e c i s e
t h e state. T h i s q u a l i t a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n
mathematical meaning is t o beassigned t o t h e terms "state," "disturbances"
and " e s s e n t i a l change. I'
The required mathematical apparatus has been supplied by Liapunov

[ll].

Let us consider a d i s c r e t e s y s t e m w i t h r degrees of freedom described by r

g e n e r a l i z e d c o o r d i n a t e s q , and l e t us examine t h e s p e c i a l case of t h e state
i
of e q u i l i b r i u m

is d i s t u r b e d a t a time t = t0' a t any i n s t a n t t i t s state will

If thesystem

be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by (generallynonvanishing)coordinates
velocities

4,

dqi
dt

and canbethought

Euclidean space with coordinates

qand
i

by g e n e r a l i z e d

of as a p o i n t i n a 2r-dimensional

zk

Zk = z,(t)

(k = 1,2,0..2r)

The state ofequilibrium

(2.1)
for any e > 0 we c a n f i n d a 6
suchthat

> 0, depending on

(2.2)

a c c o r d i n gt o Liapunov, i s said t o b e s t a b l e if
E only (and p o s s i b l y on to)

2r

z 2 C 6

at

t =

k-1
implies
2r
k=l
I nt h eo p p o s i t e

case t h e state (2.1) is c a l l e d u n s t a b l e .

The s t a t e i s c a l l e d a s y m p t o t i c a l l y s t a b l e i f

i t is s t a b l e and i n a d d i t i o n

2r
k=l

T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l d e f i n i t i o n of s t a b i l i t y by Liapunov has been refined and

supplemented i n v a r i o u s ways and reference should be
made t o t h e comprehensive
texts by Minorsky Cl.21, Krasovskii [13], b S a l l e and Lefschetz [14], and Hahn
[lS],
A h o s t of "fine" d e f i n i t i o n s has been introduced, eogos uniform stability, quasi-equiasymptotic stability, total stability, stability in the
whole,
etc., [15] i n o r d e r t o c l a s s i f y p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s
of d i s t u r b a n c e s ,

of t h e p r e s e n t monograph i t a p p e a r s t o b e s u f f i c i e n t t o
terms, namely,

For the purposes

employ j u s t t h r e e

1) Asymptotic s t a b i l i t y
2) Efarginal s t a b i l i t y
3) I n s t a b i l i t y
"ypes 1) and 3) havebeendefinedabove,
Type 2) c h a r a c t e r i z e s a state which
is s t a b l e , a g a i n as defined above, but not asymptotically stable.
Expressed verbally, one can say that a state of e q u i l i b r i u m i s asymptot i c a l l y s t a b l e i f small d i s t u r b a n c e s , i n f l i c t e d upon the system a t a c e r t a i n
time, The state i s IQargiMlly s t a b l e i f t h e d i s t u r b a n c e s
time,decreasewith
with time, and i t is u n s t a b l e i f t h e d i s do n e i t h e r d e c r e a s e n o r i n c r e a s e
turbances increase with
the,
Side by s i d e w i t h L i a p u n o v ' s c o n c e p t o f s t a b i l i t y ,
it is p o s s i b l e and
meaningful t o i n t r o d u c e alternate d e i n i t i o n s , The two o t h e r most c u r r e n t
ones are due t o P o i n c a r d ( o r b i t a l s t a b i l i t y )
and t o Lagrange(boundedness of
of equimotions and o r b i t s ) , b u t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n v a n i s h e s f o r t h e s p e c i a l c a s e
librium states. F u r t h e r , i t would be of i n t e r e s t t o examine thebehaviorof
and under a r b i t r a r i l y l a r g e d i s t u r b the system under continuous disturbances
ances.For
a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n of v a r i o u s c o n c e p t s o f s t a b i l i t y
ofdynamicalsystems,reference
is made t o H a g i r o s [16),Generalization
of
is not readily accomplished, becausr the
these concepts to continuous systems
n o t i o n of a metric has t o be introduced, cf, Chapter
V,
liming accepted a d e f i n i t i o n of s t a b i l i t y , t h e f i r s t s t e p i n t h e a n a l y s i s
of t h e state of equilibrium of a s y s t e m i w o l v e s t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n of criteria
whichwould permit to decide whether
a given state is a s y m p t o t i c a l l y s t a b l e ,
m a r g i n a l l ys t a b l eo ru n s t a b l e .
In dynamical, d i s c r e t e s y s t e m s ~ P J Oc a t e g o r i e s
on t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of the soof criteria have been evolved, one being based
called Liapunov's function (Liapunov's direct method), the other being based
on
the examination of s o l u t i o n s of equations of motionand, in continuous system8,
modal expansions. In problemsof
s t a b i l i t y ofequilibriumtheformer
is related to the energy criterion
which i n t u r n , f o r c e r t a i n s y s t e m s ,
is equivalent
t o t h e static c r i t e r i o n ( E u l e r method), The latter is u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o
as
the kinetic criterion or the vibration criterion. For
a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of
s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a r e f e r e n c e is made t o [5-7,141,
The a p p l i c a b i l i t y of s t a b i l i t y criteria, as emphasized by Z i e g l e r [1,5-7,
i n themechanicalsystem.
Ifthe
f o r c e s depend e x p l i c i t l y on time, they are c a l l e d i n s t a t i o n a r y , i f t h e y
do
not,they
are c a l l e d s t a t i o n a r y .
The s t a t i o n a r y f o r c e s g e n e r a l l y
depend on

173, stronglydepends on t h e f o r c e s p r e s e n t

boththegeneralizedcoordinates
and g e n e r a l i z e dv e l o c i t i e s .
If v e l o c i t y of p o s i t i o n , t h e y are
dependentforcesdo
no w.orlc i n anyelementarychange
calledgyroscopicforces(e.&Coriolisforces);ifthey
do negativework,
they are r e f e r r e d t o as d i s s i p a t i v e ( e e g o v i s c o u s damping,drag).
Among t h e
velocity-independent forcess i.e., f o r c e s whichdepend on generalized coordiare d e r i v a b l e from a single-valued ponatesonly,oneencountersthosewhich
as f o r example, g r a v i t a t i o n a lf o r c e s ,
are termed nont e n t i a l , These,such
c i r c u l a t o r y( o rc o n s e r v a t i v e ) .
All othervelocity-independentforces
are ref e r r e dt o as c i r c u l a t o r y , or n o n c o n s e r v a t i v e ,o rf o l l o w e rf o r c e s .S t r i c t l y
speaking, dissipative, instationary
and f o l l o w e r f o r c e s are a l l nonconservative
f o r c e s ,b u tt h e
terms c i r c u l a t o r y f o r c e a , f o l l o w e r f o r c e s
and nonconservative
f o r c e s are used i n t h e literature with the same meaning and w i l l be employed
i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y i n t h i s work.,

The bulk of t h e p r e s e n t monograph i s concerned with various classes of

mechanical aystem whose common f e a t u r e i t is t h a t f o l l o w e r ( o r c i r c u l a t o r y ,
or "nonconservative")forces
are alwayspresent.
To i n v e s t i g a t et h e state of
be based on l i n e a r i z e d e q u a t i o n s
e q u i l i b r i u m of s u c h s y s t e m s , t h e a n a l y s i s c a n
of motion (or equilibrium, i n c e r t a i n c a s e s ) i n t h e v i c i n i t y
of t h e state t o be
characterized.Sincefollowerforces
are s t a t i o n a r y ,t h es y s t e m
of equations
obtained is autonomous(no e x p l i c i t timedependence)and
homogeneous(no f o r c i n g
t e r n s ) .I nd i s c r e t es y s t e m st h ec i r c u l a t o r yn a t u r e
of t h ef o l l o w e rf o r c e s
maniis not symmetric, while
i n continuous
fests itself in that the force matrix
is nonself-adjoint.
systems the boundary value problem
I n t h i s monograph both, extensions of Liapunov's direct methodand t h e
"solution" method a r e employed,withemphasisonthe
l a t t e r . .%nd i s c r e t e spstens one i s thenconcernedwith
a study of s o l u t i o n s of the type
or

which l e a d s t o
equation [18].

a study of therootn 1 (or ~1 ) of t h e a s s o c i a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

k
If t h e r e a l parts of a l l t h e ' c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r o o t s Ak are nega-

tive(ortheimaginary

p a r t s of a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r o o t s

t h e syoten i s a s y m p t o t i c a l l ys t a b l e .
a c t e r i u t i c r o o t s Ak i s p o s i t i v e (OK

By c o n t r a s t , i f

ycare

positive),

a t l e a s t oneof thecharis unstable.

wk is negative), the system

If a l l t h e r o o t s Xk are pure imaginary

(or yc pure real), the system i s margi-

n a l l yu t a b l e( c r i t f c a l
case). Liapunov'stheorems assert t h a tl i n e a r i z e da n a l y s i s i s a p p r o p r i a t ef o ra s y m p t o t i c a l l ys t a b l e
and unstableaystems.In
case
of m a r g i n a l o t a b i l d t y of a linearized system, no statement can be
made regarding
the behavior of t h e actual nonlinear system.
The n a t u r e oftheroots

(or w ) canbedeterminedwithoutcalculating
k

therootothemselves.
A v a r i e t y of methodshavebeendgveloped
forthispurpose
[18Ip one of themostwidelyusedbeingassociatedwiththe
names of Routh and

Hurwitz."
V a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s of f o l l o w e r f o r c e s as a p p l i e d t o c o n t i n u o u s
bodieshavebeendiscussed
by Sewell [19], Nemat-Nasser [ 2 C ] , and Shieh and
Masur [21).
For additional references, relating in particular the
two areas of stab i l i t y and c o n t r o l , t h e r e a d e r
i s r e f e r r e d t o t h e recent bibliography by Wang
[1081.

It has been c a l l e d r e c e n t l y t o t h e a u t h o r ' s a t t e n t i o n

by P. C. Parks
[ l o 6 1 t h a t i t was Hermite [lo71 who h a s e s t a b l i s h e d c o n s i d e r a b l y earlier t h e
c o n d i t i o n s g e n e r a l l y known as the "Routh-Hurwitz c r i t e r i o n . "

CHAPTER 111

NONDISSIPATIVE SYSTEM WITH TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM

3.1

An I l l u s t r a t i v e Example

TO i l l u s t r a t e some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t y p e s of dynamic b e h a v i o r , i n t h e
v i c i n i t y of an e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n , o f
a mechanical system subjected
l e t usconsider a double pendulum, Fig. 3.1, composed
t o a follower force,
of two r i g i d b a r s of equal lengths a , which c a r r y c o n c e n t r a t e d masses ml= 2m,
m2= m.

The p o s i t i o n of e q u i l i b r i u m

cpl=

(Q2*0 is t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d when t h e

when comsystem is s u b j e c t e d t o a f o r c e P a c t i n g a l o n g t h e b a r s ( p o s i t i v e
p r e s s i v e ) .F o rt h i sp u r p o s e
a perturbedconfiguration
(ql# 0, q2# 0 , butboth
small) is i n v e s t i g a t e d .I nt h i sp o s i t i o ne l a s t i cr e s t o r i n g
c(cp2-cp1) are induced a t t h e j o i n t s
t o form anangle

and t h e d i r e c t i o n

w2 w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d i r e c t i o n

moments ccp and

1
of theload P is s p e c i f i e d

of t h e b a r i n t h e e q u l l i b -

r i m QOSitiOn.
This systemhasbeeninvestigated
by Z i e g l e r [5] f o r t h e s p e c i a l c a s e
a = 1, which may be termed thecase of purelytangentialloading.In
Ref.
[22] t h ef u l lr a n g e
- m < CY < hasbeen examined. As can be e a s i l y v e r i f i e d ,
P (and thusthesystem)
i s c o n s e r v a t i v eo n l yf o r
= 0 . The system
theload
may be considered a two-degree-of-freedom model of a c o n t i n u o u s c a n t i l e v e r .
a l i n e a r i z e df o r m u l a t i o n ,c o n s i s t si nt h ed e The a n a l y s i s , r e s t r i c t e d t o
two n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s of f r e e v i b r a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n of
terminationofthe
t h el o a d i n g .F o rs u f f i c i e n t l y
small loadsbothfrequenciesare
real and the
system i s t h u s s t a b l e u n d e r a n a r b i t r a r y
small d i s t u r b a n c e , e x h i b i t i n g bounded
i s i n c r e a s e d ,i n s t a b i l i t y
may occur by
harmonic o s c i l l a t i o n s . As theload
a t thecriticalloading
e i t h e r one frequency becoming z e r o ( s t a t i c b u c k l i n g )
and theningeneralpurelyimaginary,orthe
two frequencies becomingcomplex,
havingpassed a common real value a t t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d i n g ( m a r g i n a l s t a b i l i t y ) .
The ensuingmotionunder
a supercritical force in the first case
i s nonoscill a t o r yw i t ht h ea m p l i t u d ei n c r e a s i n ge x p o n e n t i a l l y( d i v e r g e n tm o t i o n ) ,
and the
c r i t i c a ll o a dc a n
be d e t e r m i n e ds t a t i c a l l y by theEuler method. In thesecond
case the ensuing motion
is an oscillation with a definite period but with an
found by
exponentiallyincreasingamplitude,
and t h e c r i t i c a l loadcannotbe
theEuler method becausenoassociatedadjacentequilibrium
exists. The f i r s t
casecould be c a l l e d " s t a t i c i n s t a b i l i t y " i n viewof
thebehavior a t t h e c r i t i c a ll o a d ,
and t h e second "dynamic i n s t a b i l i t y . "I na e r o e l a s t i c i t y ,
however,
analogous phenomena havebeen termed "divergence" and " f l u t t e r , " r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
[ 2 3 , 2 4 ] , and we propose t o employ t h i s t e r m i n o l o g y i n t h e s e q u e l .

Lagrange'sequations

i n t h e form
Qk

T-V, k = 1,2)

(L

are used t o e s t a b l i s h t h e l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s
energy T is

V of t h e r e s t o r i n g moments is

the potential energy

and t h e g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e s

Ql

Qk (due t o a p p l i e d l o a d i n g )

are

- QV21

P"Y
.,

=I

of motion, in which t h e k i n e t i c

(3.4)
Q2 =

(1-a)(P23

These forms l e a d t o t h e e q u a t i o n s
3m.t 2'p,

+ 12G2 +

of motion

(2C-Pl)'p1

y i e l dt h ef r e q u e n c ye q u a t i o n

where
PO

2 4
= 2m 4

p2 =

IIlE 2 [7c

p4 = c 2

10

2(2-cr)PA1

(l-a)[3cPR

(P4I21

(aP4-c)cp2 = 0

The f o u r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r o o t s

will o c c u r i n p a i r s , t h e p o s i t i v e

two v a l u e s of w2 o b t a i n a b l e d i r e c t l y

tiverootsofthe

and nega-

from thefrequency

a n e g a t i v e w2 one r o o t d e s c r i b e s a n e x p o n e n t i a l l y d i v e r g e n t

equation.For

motion; w2 = 0 corresponds to neutral equilibrium, the appearance of an ad(static buckling,divergence).

A complex
j a c e n te q u i l i b r i u mc o n f i g u r a t i o n
2
valueof w y i e l d s one r o o t d e s c r i b i n g a n o s c i l l a t i o n w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
arnplit u d e( f l u t t e r ) .

of w

as long as bothvalues

The system i s t h u ss t a b l eo n l y

are real and p o s i t i v e . We are i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e manner i n which w v a r i e s

of CY.
This i s accomplished by i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e
v i t h P fordifferentvalues
curves of

P v e r s u s real values of

.2
w

Expanding t h e
e q u a t i o n i n w2 and

A(w2I2 + B(w2PI,)

where t h ed i s c r i m i n a n t ,

C(PJ!)~

B2

+ D(w2) + E(P1)

-I-F = 0

(3.9)

4AC, i s

4m214 [ 2 (1-a)+ a 2 ]
S i n c et h i se x p r e s s i o n

P,

UI

, real)

(3.10)

is alwayspositive,thefrequencycurves

(P versus w2;

are a l l of thehyperbolictype.

Except f o r d e g e n e r a t e cases, which s h a l l be n o t e d , t h e r e are but two

generaltypesofhyperbolas,withregardtoorientationinthe
real w2, PI,
p l a n e ,t h a t may be encountered. These two t y p e s ,q u a l i t a t i v e l y ,a r e
of
"conjugate" orientations.
Inthefirsttype,each

of the two branchesofthehyperbolayields

single(real)value
of w2 foreveryload
and the two valuesnevercoincide.
I n s t a b i l i t y may occur only in the
form of divergence or divergent motions.
I nt h e

second generaltype

of hyperbola,the

two valuesof

, for

any

loadproducing
real v a l u e s of
, l i e on the same branch of thecurve.For
is one c r i t i c a l load a t which t h e two values coincide.
eachbranchthere
Regardless of the behavior indicated
by the real v a l u e s of w2 on the branches,
these two c r i t i c a l l o a d s a l w a y s b r a c k e t
a s i n g l e ,l i m i t e dr a n g e
of theload
2

"between" the two branches of t h eh y p e r b o l a ,f o r

which t h ev a l u e s of w a r e
are ofthefluttertype.Sincethesystem
must
complex and t h ef r e em o t i o n s
small l o a d s , t h e s e c r i t i c a l loadsmustbe
of the
bestableforsufficiently
same s i g n f o r any given value of
e.

11

The s o l u t i o n of the frequency equation

2
192

7c

is

fl-g21 -4cQ,,8:.cr>

2(2-cr)PA 7 {4(P,t)2[2(1-~}-

+-41c

2 112

4mA 2

(3.11)

can be p l o t t e d f o r any a. We d e t e r m i n e , f i r s t ,
1,2
t h ec r i t i c a ll o a d sc o r r e s p o n d i n gt oc o i n c i d e n c e
of frequencies(occurring
i n t h e secondtypeofhyperbola)
by s e t t i n g t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t e q u a l t o z e r o
fromwhich

P versus

i nt h ee q u a t i o nf o r

u)

w1,2

T h i sy i e l d s , o rt h ec r i t i c a ll o a d s ,i nn o n d i -

mensionalform,theequation
(3.12)
Realvalues of t h e s e c r i t i c a l l o a d s a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
secondtype
of hyperbola, complex v a l u e sw i t ht h ef i r s t .
We wishtodeterminethetrans i t i o n a lv a l u e s of a. Thus, s e t t i n gt h i sd i s c r i m i n a n te q u a lt oz e r o ,

+ a2] =

( 8 -[2(l-a)
c ~ )-~ 41
yieldstheroots

atr = 0.345,

(3.13)

1.305.

Substitutingthisequationintothatfor

u)

192

yields

(3.14)
with a = atr = 0.345,1.305.
Thus two t r a n s i t i o n a l v a l u e s of CY are obtained, a t each ofwhich
the
hyperbolasdegenerateinto
two i n t e r s e c t i n gs t r a i g h tl i n e s .
Between these
of hyperbola i s found t oo c c u r ,
and the phenomevalues of
thesecondtype
non of f l u t t e r i s t h u sl i m i t e dt ot h i sr a n g e
of a. The c o r r e s p o n d i n gc r i t i c a l
loads are a l l positive(compressive).
Considernexttheconstant
method i s e q u i v a l e n t t o s e t t i n g
thehyperbolas

p4

on t h eP - a x i s .S e t t i n g

loads,innondimensional

i nt h ef r e q u e n c ye q u a t i o n .
The Euler
4
0(w2= 0 ) , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o i n t e r c e p t s of

term p
=I

= 0 we obtainfortheEulerbuckling

form
(3.15)

12

For real values of the load

t i c a l v a l u e s of a(acr =

5
3,

we musthave

(I

CY

> 1. Thus t h e r e are c r i -

l ) , marking t h e limits of a r a n g e i n which no ad-

jacentequilibriumpositionoccursinthesystemfor

We n o t e f r a a t h e

or

form of p

thatthe

any value of the load.

lower c r i t i c a l v a l u e

of

01

is a

function of the elastic

and geometricparameters of thesystem, and under a
v a r i a t i o n of these parameters might increase indefinitely, approaching
one as
a l i m i t . Thus, f o r CY
1 t h e r e is a class ofsystemsorloadingswhereinthe
absence of an adjacent equilibrium configuration for any value
of the load i s
a f u n c t i o n o ft h ee l a s t i c
and geometricparameters.
However, f o r a = 1 , t h e
terms i n p4 involving P d r o p o u t e n t i r e l y , l e a v i n g
a p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e exp r e s s i o n which c o n t a i n st h ee l a s t i cp a r a m e t e ra l o n e .T h e r e f o r e ,i nt h i ss p e c i a l casealone, we may s a y t h a t i t i s t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of t h e l o a d i n g i t s e l f
which results i n t h e a b s e n c e of any p o s s i b l e a d j a c e n t e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n .
W
e noteherethatinthecase
of a uniform continuous cantilever subjected to
a
load characterized by the same type of parameter, the Euler
method r e v e a l s a
similar c r i t i c a l v a l u e of the parameter, which i n t h a t c a s e
is one h a l f .
A t h i r d s e t of v a l u e s of (Y of i n t e r e s t is denoted by a', and i s a s s o c i a t e d
with a coincidence of anEulerloadwith
a c r i t i c a l l o a df o rf l u t t e r .T h i s
2
2
2
occurs when a value of w , a t which wz = u)22, i s zero. Thus we set u)
= 0,
1,2
which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o s e t t i n g
p2 = 0 , p4 = 0 , simultaneously; i . e . ,

[7c

2(2-cr)PRl = 0

(3.16)

and

s$cond y i e l d s a
Solvingthe f i r s t e q u a t i o n f o r PQ and s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o t h e
q u a d r a t i ce q u a t i o ni n
CY,
t h e r o o t s of which a r e found t o be (Y = 0.423,1.182.
0 <
c 1, a s t h i s
I nt h es e q u e l
we r e s t r i c t o u rd e t a i l e da t t e n t i o nt o
range i s somewhat more meaningfulphysically and i s s u f f i c i e n t t o d e m o n s t r a t e
a connection between t h ev a r i o u si n s t a b i l i t y
phenomena. Figure 3.2 shows the
frequencycurvesforthevariousvalues
of cy of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n t h i s
range. From t h e s ec u r v e s ,i n
which bothbranchesofthehyperbolas
and t h e i r
asymptotes are shown for completeness, we candetermine by i n s p e c t i o n t h e part i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r of thefrequencycurvefor
any (y i n t h e r a n g e
0 s CY S; 1, and
of t h e i n d i v i d u a l c u r v e s i n t h i s
we proceed now t o a d i s c u s s i o n of the behavior
range and t h e v a r i o u s s t a b i l i t y
phenomena t h a t t h e y i l l u s t r a t e .

For 0 S

CY

< cytr thehyperbolas

are a l l of t h e f i r s t t y p e ,

and the behavior

i s as previouslydiscussed.
The frequencycurves and t h ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c behav i o r of thenonconservativesystems
are q u a l i t a t i v e l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from
theconservativecase.Obviously,theEuler
method would yieldthelowest
buckling load, which h e r e marks the boundary between the single stable
and

13

"

unstablerangesoftheloading.
A k i n e t i c a n a l y s i s would y i e l dn o t h i n ga d d i draw c l o s e r
t i o n a l . With i n c r e a s i n g v a l u e s of CY i n this range,thehyperbolas
t o t h e i r a s y m p t o t e s and f i n a l l y d e g e n e r a t e i n t o two s t r a i g h t l i n e s a t cy = u

tr '

as previouslynoted.This
the characteristic roots.
For values

case marks t h e f i r s t o c c u r r e n c e o f

of u g r e a t e r t h a n

a coincidence of

atr i n t h i s r a n g e , h y p e r b o l a s

of t h e second

type,withtheconjugateorientation,occur
and p u l l away from their asymptotes
The upperbranch l i e s e n t i r e l y i n t h e
secondquadrant,corwithincreasing
responding to divergent motion,
and s u c h a n i n s t a b i l i t y f o l l w s f l u t t e r w i t h
increasingload.

CY.

< CY < CY'

thecoincidence of f r e q u e n c i e s on the
tr
2
lowerbranchoccurs
a t n e g a t i v e v a l u e s o f w , with divergent motion already
c h a r a c t e r i z i n gb o t h modes. Thus i n t h i s c l a s s
of systemsthe boundarybetween
t h e s i n g l e s t a b l e and unstableranges of theloading parameter is marked s o l e l y
by the appearance of a n a d j a c e n t e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n t h e f i r s t
mode,
The system is u n s t a b l ef o r a l l
and is o b t a i n a b l e by theequilibriumapproach.
higherloads.
The c r i t i c a ll o a d sc o r r e s p o n d i n gt oc o i n c i d e n c eo ff r e q u e n c i e s
do not mark any bound between s t a b i l i t y and i n s t a b i l i t y .
I nt h i sr a n g e ,f o r

CY

Thus, forsuchsystems,theEuler
methed would y i e l d t h e c r i t i c a l load
withregardtostability,even
though the phenomenon of f l u t t e r is p o s s i b l e a t
sane higherloadings.Conversely,thesole
u s e of t h ek i n e t i c method, if employed so as t o d e t e r m i n e m e r e l y t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c o i n c i dence of f r e q u e n c i e s , would leadtoerroneousconclusions.
= CY',
w2 a t the coincidence of the frequencies
The sequence of i n s t a b i l i t i e sw i t hi n c r e a s i n gl o a d
the preceding range
of

For

CY

is zero.

CY.

on t h e lowerbranch
i s the same as i n

2
For a > CY'
the coincidence of frequencies occurs a t p o s i t i v e v a l u e s of w
and t h i s c r i t i c a l p o i n t now marks the bound between a s t a b l e and unstable range
of theload.
However, f o r CY'
< CY < aCr thelowerbranch
s t i l l i n t e r s e c t st h e

l o a d a x i s , and the two c o r r e s p o n d i n g c r i t i c a l l o a d s , b o t h o c c u r r i n g i n t h e f i r s t

mode, now b r a c k e t a separate range of i n s t a b i l i t y throughdivergentmotion.
i t displays,fordifferentloads,
Such a system i s r a t h e r r e m a r k a b l e i n t h a t
losses of stability
by both divergence and f l u t t e r .
Thus f o r

CY'< CY

< aCr we have a r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g s e q u e n c e

of free motions

w i t hi n c r e a s i n gl o a d ,r e s u l t i n gi nm u l t i p l er e g i o n s
of s t a b i l i t y and i n s t a b i l i t y .
This is i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 3 . 3 by t h e f r e q u e n c y c u r v e f o r t h e a r b i t r a r y v a l u e
of (Y = 0.5.
Such a s y s t e m h a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f r e e m o t i o n s
which includesuccessivelystableoscillations,divergentmotion,stableoscillations,flutter,
and
a l l higherloads.Insuch
a s i t u a t i o nt h el o w e s t
t h e nd i v e r g e n tm o t i o na g a i nf o r
c r i t i c a l l o a d marking the appearance of a n i n s t a b i l i t y would s t i l l be a buckling
load,obtainable
by t h e E u l e r method. However, t h ee x i s t e n c e of t h e second range
of s t a b i l i t y , above t h e second"buckling"load,
as w e l l as i t s upper limit, would
be revealed only
by a d e t a i l e d k i n e t i c a n a l y s i s .

14

For a = cycr t h e two bucklingloads,bracketingthelowerregion

of i n s t a -

b i l i t y ,c o i n c i d e and thefrequencycurve
i s tangenttotheload
axis. Thus i n
thiscasethere
is a d i v e r g e n c e i n s t a b i l i t y a t t h a t i s o l a t e d l o a d , w i t h
no
associateddivergentmotionforneighboringloads.
The sequence of i n s t a b i l i t i e s
i s otherwise the same as f o r a' < a < acr.
t h el o w e s tc r i t i c a l o a d
was always a bucklingload,obtainable
cr
by theequilibriumapproach,
and variedcontinuouslywith
Above a
noadcr
j a c e n te q u i l i b r i u mc o n f i g u r a t i o n so c c u r
and the lowest c r i t i c a l l o a d is t h a t
correspondingtothecoincidence
of thefrequencies.There
i s thus a d i s c o n t i lowest c r i t i c a l l o a d , a t cy = cycr. Systems
n u i t y (jump) i n t h e magnitudeofthe
For

cy.

i n t h e class

cyCr

< cy

1 possess a s i n g l e r a n g e

of s t a b i l i t y and of i n s t a b i l i t y ,

with a sequence of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f r e e m o t i o n s o f s t a b l e o s c i l l a t i o n s , f l u t t e r ,
and f i n a l l y d i v e r g e n c e f o r a l l higher loads.
The foregoing discussion could
beextended t o t h e v a l u e s
of a o u t s i d e t h e
However, a p l o t
range 0 < a 5: 1, but i s omittedhereforthesakeofbrevity.
shovingthevariationinallthecriticalloadsfor
a w i d e r range of a, including
theentireregion
of f l u t t e r i n s t a b i l i t y , and withtheasymptoticbehavior
of
thecriticalloadsfordivergenceclearlyindicatedforextremevalues
of a, is
g i v e ni nF i g .
3.4.
Consideringsystemscorrespondingtogivenvalues
of a , t h i s p l o t i l l u s (and types) of i n s t a b i l i t y
t r a t e s t h a t in systemsdisplayingmultipleregions
undercompressiveloading,thelowestcriticalload
may c o r r e s p o n d t o e i t h e r
d i v e r g e n c eo rf l u t t e r .A l s oi l l u s t r a t e d
is t h ee x i s t e n c e of systemsdisplaying
i n s t a b i l i t y by divergenceforbothcompressive
and t e n s i l e l o a d s .
With the a i d of theparameter a i n t h e s i m p l e model analyzed here, we have
attempted to show a connection between i n s t a b i l i t y phenomena of divergence and
f l u t t e r by demonstrating a g e n e r i c r e l a t i o n s h i p betweensuch disparate frequency
curves as t h o s e c h a r a c t e r i z i n g (y = 0 and Q- = 1. Thus,suchcurves
(and s y s tems
c h a r a c t e r i z e d bythem)
may be s e e n t o be not of a s i n g u l a r or i s o l a t e d n a t u r e ,
b u t p a r t of a continuous"spectrum" of frequencycurves.

The j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r c o n s i d e r i n g t h e e n t i r e r a n g e
of
= < (y < + may be
made clearerthroughthefollowingobservation.
The type of l o a d i n gs p e c i f i e d
may be considered as the result of a s u p e r p o s i t i o n of two component loads,cor( Q - 0 0 ) and t a n g e n t i a ll o a d i n g
r e s p o n d i n gt oc o n s t a n t - d i r e c t i o n a lv e r t i c a ll o a d i n g
(a= 1 ) , t h e two beingkeptin
a c o n s t a n t r a t i o as theloading is v a r i e d .I n
such a p e r s p e c t i v e , 0 <cy < 1 c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s e component loadshavingthe
same sense. Then,
< 0 and a > 1 correspondstothese
component loadshaving
opposite senses, with their relative magnitudes determined
by themagnitude and
s i g n of a, and w i t h p o s i t i v e l o a d a l w a y s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
a resultantcompressive
loading
Q)

The e f f e c t of weightsofthemasseshasnotbeenincludedhere,butourinsmall such c o n s t a n t l o a d s t h e p r i n c i p a l e f f e c t

v e s t i g a t i o n si n d i c a t et h a tf o r
c o n s i s t si ns h i f t i n gt h ef r e q u e n c yc u r v e si nt h ep o s i t i v e( n e g a t i v e )d i r e c t i o n

15

o ft h ea b s c i s s af o r
a suspended (inverted,Fig.3.1)
model. R e f e r r i n gt ot h e
frequencycurve i n F i g . 3.2 f o r a = 1, we c a n s e e t h a t t h e s h i f t c a u s e d
by stab i l i z i n g c o n s t a n t f o r c e s would r e s u l t i n a n i n t e r c e p t of theupperbranchof
This i s , i n f a c t , t h e c a s e a n a thehyperbola on t h e (u2 = 0 c o o r d i n a t ea x i s .
lyzed by Z i e g l e r [SI, i n which the Euler method yielded a h i g h e r c r i t i c a l l o a d
thanthekinetic
method,andwhich
hascontributedtothegeneraldiscrediting
problems.This
of t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h es t a t i ca p p r o a c hi nn o n c o n s e r v a t i v e
p a r t i c u l a r case i s somewhat e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e s i t u a t i o n o c c u r r i n g h e r e i n f o r
1 < (y < atr, i n which,undercompressiveloading,thesystem
becomes u n s t a b l e

through f l u t t e r , w i t h t h e h i g h e r c r i t i c a l l o a d , f o r d i v e r g e n c e ,
quence.
3.2General

ofno

conse-

System with Two Degrees of Freedom

3.2.1
Governing
Equations
Letus now g e n e r a l i z e t h e s p e c i f i c r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n
two degrees offreedom.
Let q 1, 92 be the
and consider a generalsystemwith
principalcoordinates

of thesystem

and t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n

ql= q2= 0

i s t o be i n v e s t i g a t e dw i t hr e g a r dt os t a b i l i t y .
The system i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
i n e r t i a (masses m and m ) and by r e s t o r i n gs p r i n gc o n s t a n t s
k andk2.
Further,
1
2
1
i t i s subjectedtofollowerforces
whose magnitude i s dependent on a s i n g l e parameter. The l i n e a re q u a t i o n s of motion may be t h e nw r i t t e n as

m i i l + klql + aTIPql

+ k2q2 + a;lPql

mii2

where a*

ij

+ aT2Pq2

= 0

+ a;2Pq2

= 0

(3.18)

a r e assumed t o be given.

With t h ea b b r e v i a t i o n s
tui

= k /m
i i

(3.19)

= a i p i

theequationsofmotiontake

81 +

on t h e form

91 + a11Pq1 + 5 2 P q 2 = 0
(3.20)

We wish t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e p o s i t i o n
of e q u i l i b r i u m f o r v a r i o u s r a n g e s
of P and
For t h i s purpose we i n v e s t i g a t e
f o rv a r i o u sr a n g e s
of thesystemparameters.
s o l u t i o n s of thetype

16

k
which l e a d t o t h e
(-U

1,2

(3.21)

homogeneous set

2
2
h1+CYllP) A1

+ u12P%

(3.22)

and f i n a l l y t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n

where

5 = w

si =

i = 1,2

a curve ofsecond
Thisequationrepresent8
be w r i t t e n i n t h e normalform
F = as2

+ 2bSP + cP2 + 2d5 + 2eP + f

where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e g i v e n

= 0

and may

(3.25)

by

The i n v a r i a n t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e

A'

degree(aconicsection)

(3.24)

are

(3.27)

and
(3.28)

6 =
If A # 0, equation (3.25) r e p r e s e n t s a r e g u l a r second degreecurve,
an ellipse for

6 > 0

a parabolafor

6 = 0

a hyperbola for

6 <0

namely,

while, if
lines.

A =

two r e a l o r i m a g i n a r y s t r a i g h t

0 , thecurvedegeneratesinto

by o s c i l l a t i n g
f i e s y s t e m may l o s e s t a b i l i t y , as we h a v e s e e n , e i t h e r
withincreasingamplitudes(flutter)or
by moving t o a n o t h e r p o s i t i o n ofequiThe c r i t i c a l v a l u e s of P are a s s o c i a t e dw i t hs t a t i o n a r y
l i b r i m (divergence).
p o i n t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e f o r
5 > 0 ( f l u t t e r ) and w i t h p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o nw i t ht h eP - a x i s( d i v e r g e n c e ) .
The ranges of system parameters CY
ij
and w w i l l be determinedin which e i t h e r f l u t t e r o r d i v e r g e n c e o r b o t h f l u t t e r
i
and divergence may occur.
3.2.2
Parameter
A.

Ranges

c'12~21 > 0

It w i l l be shown t h a t i n t h i s c a s e
no f l u t t e r c a no c c u r .F i r s t
we determinethepoints
of i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e
(which is a
hyperbola)withtheP-axis
which are
P = - (e

Po r=

*JZ
/c
)

for c # 0

(3.29)

c = 0

(3.30)

f/2e

The d i s c r i m i n a n t
(3.31)

is p o s i t i v e and t h e r e f o r e t h e r e e x i s t s
sect ion.

To f i n d s t a t i o n a r y p o i n t s
have t o c a l c u l a t e

a t least one real p o i n t of i n t e r -

of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u r v e P ( 5 , P )

= 0 , we

(3.32)dF/dP
(aF/ap)
= - (aF/ag)/
aF/bP # 0 , i t w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t

and s e tt h i sd e r i v a t i v ee q u a lt oz e r o .I f
t o examine

aF/ag

= 25

+2

b ~ 2d =

(3.33)

is t o be s o l v e df o r
and a s u b s t i t u t i o n made i n t o t h e
Thisequation
e q u a t i o nf o rt h ec h a r a c t e r i s t i cc u r v e
which i n t u r n , s o l v e d f o r
P, y i e l d s
P =

- (I(e-bd)

f i(e-bd)2- (c-b)2(f-d2)

I n terms of systemparametersthediscriminant

18

] /(c-b2)
is

(3.34)

(e-bd)

(c-b ) (f-d )

--

a12Q21 (52 -5 1) 2 / 4

(3.35)

of t h e syatem are
i
(The s p e c i a l case w1 = w2 w i l l be d i s c u s s e ds e p a r a t e l y . )
This

L e t us assume f i r s t t h a t t h e

distinct.

two n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s

u)

impliesthatthediscriminantin
Eq. (3.34) i s negative and thus no real
points with a horizontal tangent exist, indicating impossibility
of occurrenceofflutter.
For c 2 0 and e < 0 , t h e s o l u t i o n s P o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n
are
p o s i t i v e . The system i s m a r g i n a l l y s t a b l e f o r
a l l values of P i nt h er a n g e
- CD < P < P1, where P1 is the smaller valueof P f r w Eq. (3.29)and u n s t a b l e
for P

P1 (see F i g .3 . 5 a ) .S i m i l a r l y ,f o r

c > 0 and e > 0 , bothsolutions

of Eq. (3.29) are negative. Hence, thesystem i s m a r g i n a l l ys t a b l ef o r

Pl < P < m (where P1l < P2
and u n s t a b l e f o r P s P1 ( s e e F i g . 3 . 5 ~ ) . I f

I I)

c < 0 , t h e two r o o t s of Eq. (3.29)have

d i f f e r e n ts i g n s .I nt h i s
i s given by P < P < P1, while the
region ofmarginalstability
2
P 2 P1 and f o r P i P2 (seeFig.3.5b).

stable for

B.

case the
system i s un-

a12a2 1 = O

If CYl2 and/or cr21 = 0, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n t a k e s

on the form

which r e p r e s e n t s two s t r a i g h t l i n e s which may b e considered as t h e l i m i t i n g

case of thehyperbolas of theprevioussectionapproachingtheirasymptotes.
Again f l u t t e rc a n n o to c c u r
and s t a b i l i t y can be l o s t by divergenceonly.
The
3.6.
regions of m a r g i n a l s t a b i l i t y and i n s t a b i l i t y are g i v e n i n P i g .
I nt h es p e c i a lc a s e

a 11 =

= 0 theeigenvaluecurvedegeneratesinto

two s t r a i g h t l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o t h e P - a x i s .
any valueof P.

c.

cr12ff21

Thus no i n s t a b i l i t yc a no c c u rf o r

>0

a)Existence

of F l u t t e r

w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d i n which f l u t t e r may
Inthissubsectiontheranges
W
e s o l v e Eq. (3.33) f o r P
occurorcannotoccur.
P

({+d)/b

b # O

and s u b s t i t u t e i n t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n w i t h t h e

AS2

2Bf

+c

= 0

(3.37)
result
(3.38)

19

whichhasthesolutions

51, I1 =
5

*/z)
for A

/A

(B

= C/2B

(3.39)

for A = 0

(3.40)

where
2

C = cd2

2bed

A =

ua11-cy22)

4a12cy21]/4

+ b 2f

and
(3.42)
A # 0.

We f i r s tc o n s i d e rt h ec a s e

With t h en o t a t i o n
(3.43)

we o b t a i n

NI,I1

*/z
=S

5,

C ( X - Y ) ( V X - ~ )2-(1Cv)f(x"y)
~P
(1-V)p]/4

which may conveniently be w r i t t e n i n t h e

(3.44)

form

where
(3.46)

S i m i l a r l y w e write A i n t h e
A =

- hlh2/4

form
(3.47)

where
h l = y - x - 2 p
(3.48)
h 2 = y - x + 2 p

20

Thus we f i n d
1,II

%,I1 =

5181

1.11

82

(3.49)

lhlh2

are l i n e a r f u n c t i o n s of x and y , i t i s e a s y t o s p e c i f y
i
which 5, o r
r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r t p o s i t i v eo rn e g a t i v e .

Since gi and h

sII,

ditionafor

conThe

r e s u l t i o given i n F i g . 3.7 i n which t h e s h a d e d a r e a i n d i c a t e s t h a t b o t h

are negative and f l u t t e r c a n n o t o c c u r , w h i l e
in the remaining
solutions

si

3i

area a t least one

In the case

i s p o s i t i v e and f l u t t e r may occur.

A = 0 we had 5 = c/2Bwhich

may be w r i t t e n as

The s o l i d l i n e s i n F i g . 3.8 show t h e r e g i o n where

l i n e s i n d i c a t e 5 < 0.

I t remains t o i n v e s t i g a t e h a t happens i f b = 0 .
e q u a t i o n sd e g e n e r a t ei nt h i sc a s et o

F E 5 2 + c P2+ 2 d 5 + 2 e P + f

0 , whilethebroken

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

(3.51)

a 0

and

aF/ar:

= 25

+ 2d

(3.52)

It f o l l o w st h a t

% = - d > O
and t h e e q u a t i o n f o r

P is now

+ 2eP + f -

CP

(3.53)

d2 = 0

(3.54)

whose s o l u t i o n s are

P =

(f-d)/2e

for c f 0

(3.55)

for c = 0

(3.56)

Since

c(f-d 1 =

- ct12~21(~2-51)2/4> 0

t h e r e is always a real s o l u t i o n for P which means t h a t f l u t t e r

f o r b = 0.

(3.57)
may occur

21

b) Existence of Divergence
The d i s c r i m i n a n t D of equation (3.29) MY

b e w r i t t e n as

(3.58)
where
tl = y
t2 = y

vx
M

It can be shown t h a t t
c

xy

+ p2

+ 2pJv
(3.59)

- 2pJv
i

0 arc equationsofthetangentstothehyperbola

= 0.

Real p o i n t s of i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h t h e P - a x i s e x i s t i f
D 2 0 . The p l a i n
area i n F i g . 3.9 i n d i c a t e s t h e r e g i o n where D > 0 , i.e., where divergence i s
p o s s i b l e , while t h e shaded area i n d i c a t e s t h a t D < 0 , where divergence i s not
possible.
Forthe case c = 0 we have t o u s e e q u a t i o n
(3.30)and
findthatthe
T and T' a t which the tangents
solution P is finite except for the points
ti = 0 touchthehyperbola
c
0 (seeFig.3.9).Fig.
3.10 combines Figs.
i n which f l u t t e r o r d i 3.7 and 3.9 and s h w s a complete plot of the regions
3.10 c a n e a s i l y be
v e r g e n c e ,r e s p e c t i v e l y , may occur or cannotoccur.Fig.
c o n s t r u c t e di f p = -cy a
and v =
are given.
12 21

s2/%l

3.2.3

SunoPary of R e s u l t s

P i s increased or decreased
from i t s i n i t i a l
Iftheloadingparameter
value (which need n o t be zero), the system
may e i t h e r remain s t a b l e , or i t
may l o r e s t a b i l i t y by f l u t t e ro rd i v e r g e n c e .
The r e s u l t s of thecorresponding
Fig.3.12
i n d i c a t e sq u a l i t a t i v e l yt h e
a n a l y s i s are suuunarized i nF i g . 3.11.
ranges of s t a b i l i t y f o r t h e l o a d i n g p a r a m e t e r
P forthevariousregions
ofthe
3.11.
S i n c es u b s t i t u t i n g -cull f o r cyll and
system parameters g i v e ni nF i g .
of t h e P - a x i s , therangesofstabif o r aZ2o n l y r e v e r s e s t h e o r i e n t a t i o n
-a22
a prime are obtained
lity for the regions
ofsystemparametersindicatedwith
give a c o m p l e t ep l o tf o r
by s u b s t i t u t i n g -P f o r P. Thus, Figs. 3.11and3.12
the ranges of s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s y s t e m f o r t h e
case Q 12Q21 O *
I n many problems t h e i n i t i a l v a l u e of t h e f o r c e P i s zero, andone i s
o n l y i n t e r e s t e d i n how s t a b i l i t y i s l o s t f i r s t i f a p o s i t i v e ( o r n e g a t i v e )
3.13 shows whether s t a b i l i t y i s l o s t
f o r c e P i s a p p l i e d and increased.Fig.
by f l u t t e r o r d i v e r g e n c e , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

22

3.2.4

Special Case cu, = w,,

If the two natural frequencies of the system coincide, the characteristic

curve degenerates into two real
or imaginary straight lines. The characteristic equation (3.23) may then be writtenas
[CP + b(b+

&

+ (b-

)(5-t0)][cP

$%)(r-so)]

(3.60)

= 0

for c# O

(2bP

+5

- so) (5 - so)

for
c

= 0 (3.61)

where

It is easily seen that for

al2aZ1> 0 and for a12a21 = 0 the results given
The results for al2aZ1C 0
in Figs. 3.5 and 3.6 hold if one sets5, = 5,.
are illustrated in Fig. 3.14.
If the system parameters fall into the regions
11, I11 or IV, only divergence may occur. For system parameters in regionI,
flutter will occur or each nonvanishing value
of P, while for system parameters corresponding to point Q no instability will occur for any value ofP.

23

CHAPTER IV
DESTABILIZING

EFFECTS

4.1Introduction
It has been discovered by Ziegler
[SI not quitetwo decades ago that internal damping may have
a destabilizing effect in a nonconservative elastic
system. He considered a double pendulum with viscoelastic joints as a model
of an elastic bar with internal damping and let a tangential force act at
free end. The critical loading obtained in complete absence of damping was
found to be considerably higher than by including damping at the ofoutset
the analysis and then letting the damping coefficients approach zero (vanishing damping) in the expression for the critical force.

the

This rather surprising and seemingly paradoxical finding was ascribed in

later studies by Ziegler
[6,7] to the possibility that internal damping is inadequately represented by linear damping forces which are linear combinations
of the generalized velocities and that the hysteresis effect should be taken
into account.
The

destabilizing effect of damping was further elaborated upon by Bolotin

considered a general two-degree-of-freedom system not related to any
particular mechanical model and who found additionally that the destabilizing
effect in the presence of slight and vanishing damping is highlyondependent
the relative magnitude of damping coefficients in the two degrees freedom.
[8] who

Additional insight into the destabilizing effects of linear viscous

damping in systems with follower forces may be gained by not merely applying
stability criteria but by studying also the roots of the characteristic equation (cf. Ref. [25]).
Further, the results of the mathematical stability investigations may be interpreted in physical terms by introducing the concept
of degree of instability.It becomes then possible to carry out a gradual
transition from the case of small damping to the case of vanishing damping
and relate both of these cases to ofthat
no damping.

4.2

Illustr-ative-

~-

4.2.1

Examples

of-~with
Systems
..
Two~Degrees of
~

Freedom

A Model

For this purpose again a two-degree-of-freedom model is considered, Fig.

4.1, composed of two rigid weightless bars of equal length
R, whichcarry concentrated massesml = 2m, m2 = m. The generalized coordinates
ql,. % are again
taken to be small.A load P applied at the free end is assumed to be acting
at an angle
Q (pure
follower force). At the joints the restoring moments
cq, + bliPl and (3-4
+)
b ( * @ ) are induced.
2 4- 1

25

The kinetic energyT, the dissipation 'function

D, the potential energy
V,
and the generalized forcesQ1 and Q, are

Lagrange's equations in theform

are employed to establish the linear equations motion

of

which, upon stipulating solutionsof the form

yield the characteristic equation

pori

4
+

2
3
P p + P2n + p3n

with the coefficients

Po

5 2

+ 6B2

p1 = B1
p2

2F

P3 = B1 + Bp
Pq = 1

26

+ B1B2

+ p4

= 0

(4.5)

and t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s q u a n t i t i e s

Intheabsence
biquadratic

4.2.2

ofdamping

(B1=BZ=O), t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n

io a

C r i t i c a l Loads

From t h e assumed formof

t h e time-dependence f o rt h ec o o r d i n a t e s

cp

and

on t h e b a s i s of t h e k i n e t i c s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n ,
i t i s evidentthatif
all
f o u r r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n a r e d i s t i n c t , t h e n e c e s s a r y
and
sufficientconditionsforstabilityarethattherealroots
and t h e real
p a r t s of the complex r o o t ss h o u l d be a l l negativeorzero.Incase
of equal
t
r o o t st h eg e n e r a ls o l u t i o n
of cp w i l l haveterms which c o n t a i n powersof
i
as a f a c t o r . I f t h e
r e a l p a r t s of e q u a lr o o t s are negative,thesystem
will
be s t a b l e ( v i b r a t i o n w i t h d e c r e a s i n g a m p l i t u d e ) , b u t i f t h e s e
real parts a r e
zero or positive, stability
w i l l notexist(vibrationwithincreasing
amplitude).
Let us t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n f i r s t t o t h e c a s e
ofan i n i t i a l l y undamped
as a function of F a r e
system. The f o u rr o o t s
of t h e b i q u a d r a t i c e q u a t i o n
( as p e c i a lc a s e ,
a = 1, of the problem t r e a t e d i n S e c t i o n
3.1)

"1,2,3,4

= 1
2,

(.p - ($ - J2)]1'2*

p - ($+

J2)31'2}

(4.9)

which,depending on the values of F, may t u r n o u t t o

be pureimaginaryroots,
real r o o t s . The n a t u r e of t h e s ef o u rr o o t s
as F v a r i e s
complex r o o t s ,o rp u r e
is graphically illustrated in Fig.
4.2 i n which the values of t h e r o o t s a r e
given by t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t s
of t h e r o o t c u r v e s
and the horizontal plane
which i s perpendicular to the F-axis and passes throughthegivenvalue
of F.
The i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n F i g .
4.2include
a p e r s p e c t i v e oftherootcurves,
and
alsotheorthographicprojections
on t h e real plane (Im n = 0 ) , theimaginary
plane (Re n = 0 ) and the complex plane (F = 0 ) .
It i s found t h a t t h e r e w i l l always be two r o o t s w i t h p o s i t i v e
real p a r t
7
if F >
,f2 = 2.086 = Fe.For
F = Fe t h e r e e x i s t two pairs of e q u a l r o o t s

5-

27

whose real parts are a l l zero.

F

Thus thesystem

i s u n s t a b l ef o r

< Fe a l l r o o t s are d i s t i n c t and pure imaginary and thus the system

Fe.

For

i s mar-

g i n a l l y st a b l e .
We considernext

a s l i g h t l y damped system,assuming

= B2 = 0.01.

No

s i m p l ee x p r e s s i o n sf o rt h ef o u rr o o t s
of t h e q u a r t i c e q u a t i o n e x i s t ; t h e
numerical results o b t a i n e d a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 4 . 3 ,
where a p e r s p e c t i v e
view is supplemented by t h r e ep r o j e c t i o n s of t h e same threeplanes as i n
Two r o o t s w i l l have a p o s i t i v e r e a l part f o r F > 1.464 = Fd.
Fig. 4.2.
Stability can be investigated directly without determining the roots
of
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n by applying the Routh-Hurwitz c r i t e r i a , which r e q u i r et h a t a l l c o e f f i c i e n t s p ( j = 0 ,
4) of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n

...,

and t h eq u a n t i t y

= P1P2P3

be p o s i t i v e .
provided

P0P3

(4.10)

P I P4

For p o s i t i v e damping t h e s es t a b i l i t yc o n d i t i o n sa r es a t i s f i e d ,

p2 = 2[-

+ -21 (7+B1B2)]

>0
(4.11)

where

2)

Forthesystemto
= B1/B2, 0 S

33B1B2+4B2
2
2(B1 +7B1B2+6B2 )
4B1

X = 2 (B12+7B1B2+
6B2

{- F + [

+ $ B1B2]}

be s t a b l e F must s a t i s f y t h e f o l l o w i n g

B <

>0

two i n e q u a l i t i e s ,

2
F < 48+338+4.LBB
2 1 2
2 (p2+7(3+6)

Since
2
48 + 338

+4 <2

2 (P2+78+6)

forwhatever (3 i n i t s range, i t is e v i d e n t t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d
governed by thesecondinequality,i.e.,

- Fd

28

(4.13)

w i l l be

48+338+4+LBB
2 1 2
2 (f12+78 + 6 )

(4.14)

whichdepends
cients.

on t h e r a t i o as well as the magnitudes of the

For Bi << 1, as w e l l as i n t h e

damping c o e f f i -

l i m i t of vanishingdamping,

F becomes
d

4fj2+ 33@ + 4
Fd

(4.15)

2 (fl2+7B+6)

which i s highly dependent on

@ and i s i n g e n e r a l smaller b u t n e v e r l a r g e r
r a t i o of Fd t o Fe v e r s u s @ is p l o t t e di nF i g .
4.4.
It i s noted
than Fe.The
t h a t when @ = 4

+ 5 J2

= 11.07, Fd/Fe r e a c h e s i t s maximum v a l u e 1.

The de-

s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t i s t h u se l i m i n a t e di nt h i sp a r t i c u l a r
case, similar t o t h a t
For B = 0 , Fd/Fe reaches i t s minimum v a l u e 0.16; i . e . ,
found by B o l o t i n [8].
t h e maximum d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t i s a b o u t 8 4 p e r c e n t i n t h e p r e s e n t
degree-of-freedom system.

two-

of Vanishing Damping

4.2.3Case

The two d i s p a r a t ev a l u e so ft h ec r i t i c a ll o a df o rn o
vanishing damping (B
processasthe

damping (B

0 ) j u s t i f y a more d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n

= 0 ) and

of t h e l i m i t i n g

damping c o e f f i c i e n t s a p p r o a c h z e r o .

L e t u s examine f i r s t t h e l i m i t i n g p r o c e s s f o r t h e r o o t s
of t h e c h a r a c t e r It canbe shown w i t ht h ea i d
of thetheory of e q u a t i o n s [26]
i s t i ce q u a t i o n .
t h a t i f Bi << 1 and F < 4.914 t h i s e q u a t i o n w i l l havefour complex r o o t s . L e t

t h e s er o o t s

be
(4.16)

Then onecan

w r i t e [26]

2(y1+ A1)

p1
-PO

where po, pl, and X are as d e f i n e d earlier.

(Y1

(4.17)

Forvanishing

damping

hl = 0
(4.18)

29

Hence
y2 = I 2

or

(4.19)

Thus
(4.20)

and a s u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e s e f o u r r o o t s i n t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n
show t h a t t h e y are t h e same as i n t h e c a s e
ofnodamping.
Inthecase

of F

4.914,

thefourroots

w i l l a l l be r e a l f o r

will
small B

Let

i'

(4.21)

In the

u = v = 0
1 1
e i t h e ra l t e r n a t i v e ,s u b s t i t u t i o ni n t ot h ec h a r a c -

l i m i t of vanishing damping one can show s i m i l a r l y t h a t e i t h e r

o r ul=-vlandu2=v2.For

teristicequationrevealsthattheroots
damping.

are the same as i n t h e c a s e

of no

Thus theconclusion i s reachedthatwhatever

F therootsofthecharacof
teristicequationfor
no i n i t i a l damping (B = 0 ) are i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e
i
vanishing damping (B
0 ) . Thisimpliesthatthemotions
of thesystem,for
i
sane g i v e n i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s , and whateverF, w i l l be i d e n t i c a l i n t h e c a s e
of no damping (B = 0) and vanishing damping (B 4 0).
i
i

W
e focusattentionnext
on theloading F i n t h e two cases and before
p a s s i n gt ot h e
l i m i t consider small damping (B << 1). The p o s i t i v e real part
i
of t h e r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n i n t h e r a n g e
Fd < F < F f o r s e v e e
r a l small values of B and, as anexample, B1 = 0 ( i . e . , B = 0) havebeen
cal2
c u l a t e d and t h e r e s u l t s a r e d i s p l a y e d i n F i g . 4 . 5 ,
where F i s p l o t t e d as a
function of R e Cl f o rn i n ev a l u e s
of B
This f i g u r ei l l u s t r a t e st h a tf o rt h e
2'
l a r g e r v a l u e s of B2, Fd r e p r e s e n t s t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d b e c a u s e f o r
F > Fd some
p a r t . A small i n c r e a s e of the
r o o t s w i l l have a n o n v a n i s h i n gp o s i t i v er e a l
loadabove Fd w i l l r e s u l t i n a l a r g ei n c r e a s e of t h i s r e a l p a r t .
For small

valuesof

B2, however,eventhough

Fd i s s t i l l s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g t h e c r i t i c a l

load, i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e is lessened,because

30

a small i n c r e a s e of theload

above

Pd w i l l n o t r e s u l t

anylonger

i n a l a r g ei n c r e a s e

of Re

n.

Largeincrease

R e I) w i l l now be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h small i n c r e a s e of a loadwhich

lowerthan Fe. Forvanishing damping R e I) = 0 f o r any F < Fe.

of

is s l i g h t l y
W
e thus con-

of F as a c r i t i c a l
d
and a t the l i m i t ofvanishing damping

c l u d et h a td u r i n gt h el i a i t i n gp r o c e s st h es i g n i f i c a n c e
load i s g r a d u a l l yt r a n s f e r r e dt o
(Bi

F
e'
be considered as t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d .

0) Fe h a s t o

It i s apparent now

thatthisconcluaioncouldonly
be reached by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r o o t s
ofthe
c r i t e r i a of
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n and not by m e r e l y a p p l y i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y
Routh-Hurwitz. F u r t h e r , t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e s t a b i l i t y
c r i t e r i a y i e l d i n gd i f ferent critical loads for no
damping and or vanishing damping c a n b e b e t t e r
understood by having considered small damping.

4.2.4
(Bi

Degreeof

Instability

It was e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n t h a t f o r v a n i s h i n g
damping
0 ) thefourroots
of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n become i d e n t i c a l t o

damping (B

= 0) w h i l e t h e s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a a l o n e
i
era1yielddisparatecriticalloadsinthese
two cases.

those ofno

would i n gen-

To e s t a b l i s h a f u r t h e r c o n n e c t i o n between the mathematically derived

c r i t i c a ll o a d sf o r
no damping (B = 0) and vanishing damping (B 4 0 ) i t api

pears h e l p f u l t o i n t r o d u c e i n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n
a concept which might be c a l l e d
"degree of i n s t a b i l i t y " and whichembodies a r e l a x a t i o n of theconcept of i n According t o
s t a b i l i t y as used when a p p l y i n g t h e k i n e t i c s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n .
t h i s l a t t e r c r i t e r i o n a system i s s t a b l e i f a s u i t a b l e d i s t u r b a n c e r e s u l t s i n
a bounded motion i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n ; e . g . , t h e
system is u n s t a b l e i f a d i s t u r b a n c e l e a d s t o o s c i l l a t i o n s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
amp l i t u d e( f l u t t e ri n s t a b i l i t y ) .F o rt h i st y p e
of l o s s of s t a b i l i t y one can s t a t e
t h a t from a p r a c t i c a l p o i n t of view i t w i l l c e r t a i n l y m a t t e r how f a s t t h e amp l i t u d e si n c r e a s e .
For example,should
a s u i t a b l e i n i t i a l d i s t u r b a n c e be merelydoubled i n a
time i n t e r v a l which i s l a r g e as compared t o ,s a y ,
some r e f e r e n c ep e r i o d ,w h i l e
t h e d u r a t i o n of the system beingsubjectedto
a nonconservativeforce i s by
comparison r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t , t h e
system may be c o n s i d e r e d p r a c t i c a l l y s t a b l e ,
i t i s unwhile,mathematically,ofcourse,
one would have t o c o n c l u d e t h a t
stable.

I n o r d e r t o weaken t h e k i n e t i c s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n ,
one could prescribe
a r b i t r a r i l y theallowableincrease
of t h e d i s t u r b a n c e and would thenobtain
f o r a givenvalue of theload a c r i t i c a l time, n o t u n l i k e i n t h e c a s e
of creep
rate
buckling. A s a n a l t e r n a t i v e , one couldintroduceanothermeasureofthe
ofamplitudeincrease.
By a n a l o g yt od e c a y i n go s c i l l a t i o n s ,
where thelogar a t e of
r i t h m i c decrement servesthepurpose
of q u a n t i t a t i v e l y a s s e s s i n g t h e
decay, we canusethe
same q u a n t i t y a l s o as a measure of t h e rate of amplitude
i n c r e a s e . Thus
6 = log

*n
-

(4.22)

*n+l

31

where A is theamplitude of t h eo s c i l l a t i o n a t a c e r t a i n time t and A

is
n
n+l
theamplitude a t t + T, where T is t h ep e r i o d .I nt h ep r e s e n t
problem,neg6 genel e c t i n gt h e terms of decayingmagnitude i n the g e n e r a ls o l u t i o n of cp
i'
when the character a l l y w i l l be t i m e - i n d e p e n d e n t f o r f l u t t e r m o t i o n s , e x c e p t
r i s t i c equation has equal pure imaginary roots.

The k i n e t i c s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n r e q u i r e s
a t i v e 6 properlycould
i t i s c o n c e i v a b l et h a t

Bl

=I

An

2:

An+l.

A neg-

its s t a b i l i t y i n anypracticalsense.

= 1 thecriticalload

B2 = B i nF i g s .4 . 6

0 ; i.e.,

be calledthelogarithmicincrement
and i n a r e a l s y s t e m
6 may a t t a i n a c e r t a i n v a l u e 6 i n a c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l

of time withoutthesystemlosing
For B = B1/B2

and 4.7.For

F i s displayed as a f u n c t i o n of
however small b u t f i n i t e n e g a t i v e v a l u e

of 6 , t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d
for vanishing damping (B
0) w i l l alwaysbe t h a t f o r
no damping (B = 0 ) , namely, F
However, t h e c r i t i c a l loadfor small damping
e
(B < 1) may be smaller than F b u t f o r f i n i t e
6 , however small, i s always
e
l a r g e rt h a n Fd. Forgiven 6 thevalue of (small) damping B which i s a s s o c i a t e d

with the

minimum value of t h e c r i t i c a l

-4

loadcan

Forvanishinglogarithmicincrement
(6
a l i m i t i n g c u r v e which w i l l c o n t a i n t h e p o i n t
thestabilityregion
is closed; i.e.,
a r es t a b l e ,i n c l u d i n gt h ep o i n t
Fdon

Fe which s e p a r a t e s s t a b i l i t y

be determined.
0) t h e f u n c t i o n F(B) approaches
Fd on theordinate.For
6 = 0

p o i n t s on thecurve 8 = 0 i n F i g . 4.7
theordinate.For
B = 0 i t i s thepoint

from i n s t a b i l i t y , b u t b e l o n g si t s e l ft ot h ei n -

s t a b i l i t yr e g i o n .T h i sl i m i t i n gp r o c e s sp r o v i d e st h u sa d d i t i o n a li n s i g h ti n t o
thegeneration of t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d
Fd.
4.2.5

A More General Model

Furtherinterestingtypes
of behavior may b e d i s c u s s e d i f t h e f o l l o w e r
f o r c e i s generalized by means of the parameter a as d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 1
without damping. The systemto be analyzed i s t h a t of Fig.4.8(cf.Ref.[27]).
D and t h e p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y
V
The k i n e t i c e n e r g y T, t h e d i s s i p a t i o n f u n c t i o n
a r et h e same as i nS e c t i o n 4.2.1,whilethegeneralizedforces
Q a r et h e same
i
asthose in Section 3.1.
The a s s o c i a t e de q u a t i o n s of motionare

which, upon s t i p u l a t i n g s o l u t i o n s of the form(4.4)

equation
4
3
2
Po"
+ PI" + P2n + P3c1 + P4 = 0

32

y i e l dt h ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c
(4.24)

with the coefficients

(4.25)

4.2.6

Root-Domains of Characteristic Equation

It was found that small damping rather than vanishing

or large damping
is the cause of the destabilizing effect,
and thus only small damping(B << 1)
i
will be considered in the sequel.
Let us introduce first the following quantities:

1 = P0P4

1
2
- 31 PIP3 + 12
P2

12 [4(cr2-10Q"l0)F2
1

a pop2p4 48
3'2'1'
+

+ 4(25cu-32)F + 731

- 163'0'

- 16 1'

p4

1
3
2
3
-[ (8a " 9 6 ~-336d224)F
2 16
- (348a2-1464~1032)F2
- (1362~~-1212)F-

1
3
- -216
p2

1611

(4.26)
cont.

33

K =p t I

- 12H2

= - 4 [ ( ~ r - 1 ) ~+ 13 { F x {(8-a)+

1
2C(a-1)2+11

6.325 [- (a-0.345)(rrl.305)]1'2~}

- 2[(cr-1)2+1]

(1-a) (82+88+12)B1B2] F
2

+ 128 + 4

{(l-a)[@

B
2

- 2[B2
where po

{(8-a)

+ 78 + 6 +

,...,p4

6.325 [- ( 1 ~ - 0 . 3 4 5 ) ( ~ ~ - 1 . 3 0 5 ) ] ] " ~ }

[4B2+ 338

+ 4 + (8 2+7p+6)B1B2]]

- 8 a ( @ + 2 ) ] F2

(1-a)(@2+11B-10)]
F

(48 +338"4)

(4.26)

and o t h e r symbols have been defined previously.

It i s known from the theory

of equations [26] t h a t :

(a) When A C 0 , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n h a s
roots.
(b) When A

>0

two real and two complex

and both H and K are n e g a t i v e , t h e f o u r r o o t s

are a l l real.

(c) When A > 0 and a t least one of H and K i s p o s i t i v e or z e r o , t h e f o u r

r o o t s are a l l complex.
These c r i t e r i a l e a d t o t h e d i f f e r e n t r o o t
domains shown i n Fig. 4.9.
The domain marked by c r o s s e s i n d i c a t e s t h e e x i s t e n c e
of f o u r real r o o t s ; t h a t
marked by d o t s c o r r e s p o n d s t o two real and two complex r o o t s ; and t h a t marked
by h o r i z o n t a l d a s h e s o r by d i a g o n a l l i n e s i n d i c a t e s t h e e x i s t e n c e
of f o u r comp l e xr o o t s .
The more d e t a i l e d n a t u r e of t h e r o o t s and t h e r e l a t e d s t a b l e
and
may bededucedfrom
the following.
unstable behavior of the system
Domain

A > 0, H <

0,

K e 0

This domain is marked by c r o s s e s i n Fig. 4 . 9 .

a l w a y sp o s i t i v e ;

34

p2 i s always negative.Applyingthe

are
4
well-known Descartes'

I n i t , p,,

pl,and

rule of

signs, r e g a r d l e s s of the sign of p3, i t is s e e n t h a t

in t h i s domain

the f o u r real r o o t s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n
a r t always p a i r 6 of two
p o s i t i v e a d two n e g a t i v e ones.Consequently,
t h i s is throughout a r e g i o n
of i n s t a b i l i t y by d i v e r g e n t motion.

Domains

A <0

Thesedomains are marked by d o t s i n Fig. 4.9.

complex r o o t s in t h e s e domainsbe r e p r e s e n t e d by

P1
r1

k
t t h e two r e a l and two

iQ2
(4.27)

From t h e r e l a t i o n s between r o o t s and c o e f f i c i e n t s in t h e t h e o r y of e q u a t i o n s

[ 2 6 ] and t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e e x p r e s s i o n
X i n t h e Routh-Hurwitz c r i t e r i o n ,
the following relationships hold:

- p1
= 2
PO

2(p1+r1)

(B1+6B2) C 0

(4.28)

in thesethree

As p4 is alwaysnegative

domains, t h e t h i r d

of the foregoing

equationsindicatesthat
2

r2

(4.29)

> r1

which, i n t u r n , shows t h a t t h e two r e a l r o o t s are of oppositesign.

Bence
t h e s et h r e e domains are a l s o r e g i o n s of i n s t a b i l i t y . Again, r e c a l l i n g t h a t
< 0, i t is seenfromtheforegoingfourequations
that t h e real p a r t of
p4
the conjugate complex r o o t s w i l l be n e g a t i v e i f X > 0 o r i f X < 0 and p3 < 0,
but w i l l b e p o s i t i v e i f

X < 0 and p3

> 0.

Whence it f o l l o w s t h a t d i v e r g e n t

motion w i l l p r e v a i l i n t h i s r e g i o n , of t h e type a8 sketched i n Fig. 4.10(a)

i f X > 0 o r i f X < 0 and p3 < 0, o r as i n F i g . 4.10(b) i f X < 0 and p3 > 0.

I t is noted that, if the system

identically.

Theundamped

is undamped (B1 = 0), p1 and rl w i l l v a n i s h

system w i l l thereforeundergodivergentmotion

of

35

thetype as sketched in F i g . 4.10(c).

system i s unstable.
Domain K

By d e f i n i t i o n , in a l l t h e s e cases, t h e

>0

This domain i s markedby h o r i z o n t a l d a s h e s

t h e f o u r complex r o o t s i n t h i s domainby

in Fig. 4.9.

Let us denote

(4.30)

are obtained:

Then, as b e f o r e , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s
2(y +6 ) = - -p1 =
1 1
PO

which i n d i c a t e t h a t

(B1+6B2) < 0

(4.31)

y1 and 61 ( t h e real p a r t s o f t h e

complex r o o t s ) b o t h w i l l be negative

if X

>0

two p a i r s o f c o n j u g a t e

but of o p p o s i t e s i g n i f X < 0.

Now, w i t h i n t h i s domain, we have

= 8p4 - p22 > 0

(4.32)

or
p4

7i1 p2 2

(4.33)

which, i n t u r n , l e a d s t o

- 51 (4P3 - PIP212

(4.34)

Therefore, the real p a r t s of t h e two p a i r s of conjugate complex r o o t s are of

o p p o s i t es i g n .
The n a t u r e of t h e s e f o u r r o o t s i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n t h i s
domain
the system w i l l f l u t t e r .
Domain A

> 0, H > 0, K <

This domain i s markedby

diagonallinesinFig.
4.9.
As t h e f o u r r o o t s
are a l l complex, t h e s i g n s of t h e real p a r t s of t h e r o o t s w i l l a l s o begoverned
by t h e s i g n s of X as a s s e r t e d i n t h e f o r e g o i n g .
Thus thesystem w i l l v i b r a t e
with decreasing amplitude (asymptotic stability) if the values
of Q and F are
i n t h o s e p a r t s of t h i s domainwhere X > 0. However, thesystem w i l l f l u t t e r
i f t h e v a l u e s of CY andF are i n t h o s e p a r t s where X < 0.

36

F u r t h e r s e p a r a t i o n of s t a b i l i t y from i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e p r e s e n t domain
is governed s o l e l y by t h e s i g n of X. T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d f o r t h e f o u r
cases
of $ = 0, 1, 11.071, and a, aa shown i n Figs. 4.11, 4.12, 4.13, and 4.14, v h e r e
t h e r e g i o n s shaded by d i a g o n a l l i n e s are r e g i o n s of s t a b i l i t y ; t h o s e shaded by
h o r i z o n t a l d a s h e s are r e g i o n s of f l u t t e r ; t h o s e shaded by small triangles are
r e g i o n s of divergent motion of the type
shown i n Fig.4.10(a);thoseshaded
by
type shown i n Fig. 4.10(b);and
d o t s are r e g i o n s of divergent motion of the
those shaded by c r o s s e s are r e g i o n s of divergent motion i n which t h e time i n crease of the generalized coordinates
i s of the exponential type.
It i s t o benoted t h a t , i n t h e p r e s e n t
domain (A > 0, R > 0, and K < 0),
i f t h e damping e f f e c t s v a n i s h , t h e f o u r
complex r o o t s of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
equation w i l l a l l be pureimaginary and d i s t i n c t . Thus t h e undamped system
executes steady-state vibrations
and i s m a r g i n a l l y s t a b l e t h r o u g h o u t t h e
domain,
as found i n [22].

4.2.7

NatureofBoundariesSeparatingDifferent

I nt h i ss e c t i o n ,t h eb o u n d a r i e sg i v e n

Root Domains

by X = 0, p4 = 0, and K

0 w i l l be

term boundariesgiven by X = 0
examined. Forthesake
of convenience,the
w i l l be r e s t r i c t e d t o mean only those p a r t s of the curves given by X = 0 v h i c h
l i e i n t h e domain A > 0, H > 0, and K < 0.
Boundaries X(a,F,@)

= 0

On t h e s e b o u n d a r i e s , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n h a s ,
by d e f i n i t i o n of X,
magnitudebutopposite
insign.
These two r o o t s are

two r o o t s e q u a l i n

4,2 =

t-

1/2
(4.35)

where p1 i s p o s i t i v e f o r p o s i t i v e

damping.

It i s found t h a tt h ec u r v e s

pg = 0,

p4 = 0, and X = 0 have a common p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n which i s given by

=
(Y

,B

2 + 3 8 + 1

2B2

58

2
(4.36)

F u r t h e r , as P3 = 0 and X = 0 have only one point

of i n t e r s e c t i o n a t ( a f , F
on p4 = 0, i t i s evident that, along the boundaries given
by X = 0, p3 i s
alwayspositive.Thiscan
be seen from F i g s . 4.11, 4.12, 4.13 and 4.14.
Consequently, n
are two d i s t i n c p
t u r e . i m a g i n a r yr o o t s .
The sum of t h e
1,2
o t h e r two conjugate complex r o o t s i s -p /p = vhich i s n e g a t i v e ( f o r
1 0
2 p1,
p o s i t i v e damping). Hence, alongtheboundariesgiven
by X = 0, thecharact e r i s t i c equation has two p u r e i m a g i n a r y r o o t s e q u a l i n
magnitude but opposite
i n s i g n and two conjugate complex r o o t s w i t h n e g a t i v e real p a r t . Thus t h e

37

as a r e s u l t o f some i n i t i a l d i s damped, nonconservativesystemcan

system w i l l e x e c u t e s t e a d y - s t a t e v i b r a t i o n s
turbance. It is o n l y i n t h i s case t h a t t h e
undergo euch motions.
P o i n t of I n t e r s e c t i o n of X = 0 , pg

0 , p4 = 0

A t t h i s c o m n i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t d e n o t e d by (a', F '), t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
equation has two z e r or o o t s .
The o t h e rt v or o o t s ,b e i n gg i v e n
by
(4.37)

are two conjugate complex r o o t s w i t h n e g a t i v e real p a r t . Thetwo z e r o r o o t s

w i l l induce two terms of t h e form c1 + c2t i n t h e g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n of vi.
Thus the system

w i l l execute divergent motion in

which t h e increase of 'pi i s

linearwithrespectto
time. T h i s p o i n t (a', F ') i s theonlyone
stability region for the
damped, nonconservative system is open.
P o i n t s of I n t e r s e c t i o n of p4 = 0 , X = 0 ,

a t which t h e

L e t us i n t r o d u c e t h e q u a n t i t y

- P0P3

s = PIP2

(4.38)

such that

It can be

-x

= P3S

shown t h a t t h e c u r v e s

common i n t e r s e c t i o n ,d e n o t e d

F'*

(4.39)

P 1 Pq

p4 = 0, S = 0, and X = 0 have two p o i n t s o f

by (a", F") and (CY",

F"),

where

(4.40)

2 (B+10-4~~

when B i s f i n i t e , b u t t h e p o i n t
(cym, F") apThese two p o i n t s u s u a l l y e x i s t
p r o a c h e s i n f i n i t y as B + m. A t t h e p o i n t (CY",
F"), t h e c h a r a c t e r s t i c equat i o n h a s one z e r o r o o t , one p o s i t i v e real r o o t e q u a l t o
(-p3/pO)'j2,
and two
negative real r o o t s e q u a l t o - ( - ~ ~ / p , ) l ' ~ and -pl/po;

w i l l executedivergentmotions.

38

A t t h ep o i n t

(a'", F"),

therefore,thesystem
t h ef o u rr o o t s

are

one zero root,

two p u r e i m a g i n a r y r o o t s e q u a l t o

t i v e real r o o t e q u a l t o

-pl/po;hence,

* (-p 3/p 1)'I2,

a d onenega-

after the initial disturbance, the

system w i l l e x e c u t e s t e a d y - s t a t e v i b r a t i o n s a b o u t a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n u h i c h in
g e n e r a l i s n o t t h e p o s i t i o n whose s t a b i l i t y is being studied.
Boundaries p4 = 0, Excluding Points

(cyt, F

'), (a#,F"),

and (cyc, FY)

Along t h e s e b o u n d a r i e s , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n h a s o n e z e r o r o o t
three other roots given
by

p0n

+ P p + p2n

+ pg

and

(4.41)

and f o r small damping (Bi C< l), t h e t h r e e

where, by thetheoryofequations

c 0, butone real and two complex i f p2 2 0. I n

F < F' o r a > a" along p4 = 0 , t h e f o u r r o o t s are found

r o o t s a l l w i l l be real i f p2
the range of either

t o beone z e r o r o o t , onenegative real r o o t , and two conjugate complex r o o t s

withnegative real p a r t . The n a t u r e of t h e s e f o u r r o o t s i n d i c a t e s t h a t , a f t e r
the initial disturbance, the system
may e x e c u t e t r a n s i e n t v i b r a t i o n s and then
come t o rest a t a p o s i t i o n which i n g e n e r a l i s n o t t h e p o s i t i o n whose s t a b i l i t y i s beingstudied.This
phenomenon can be i n t e r p r e t e d as a s t a b i l i z i n g
e f f e c t of v i s c o u s damping because the same system with no damping would execute
d i v e r g e n t motion.
The curves p

= 0 (i.e.,

=
I 0), p4 = 0 , and

K = 0 have two common in-

t e r s e c t i o np o i n t s a t (0.423, 2.219) and (1.182,4.281).

I n t h e r a n g e of
along p4 = 0, t h e f o u r r o o t s are one zero root, one positive

F' < F s 2.2.9

real r o o t , and two conjugate complex r o o t s w i t h n e g a t i v e

real p a r t . I n t h e
range 2.219 c F < 3 along p4 = 0, t h e f o u r r o o t s are one z e r o r o o t , one p o s i t i v e real r o o t , and two negative real r o o t s . Thus, i n t h e r a n g e
along p4 = 0, thesystem w i l l execute divergent motions.
I nt h er a n g e

FM < F

4.281 along p4 = 0, t h e f o u r r o o t s

of F t < F < 3

are onezero

r o o t , onenegative real r o o t , and two conjugate complex r o o t s w i t h p o s i t i v e

real p a r t ; and t h u s f l u t t e r w i l l occur. In the range
F > 4.281 along p4 = 0,
t h e f o u r r o o t s are one zero root, one negative
real r o o t , and
real r o o t s ; hence the system w i l l undergo divergent motions.
Boundary K

= 8p4 - p22

The exact curve of

two

positive

= 0

K = 0 is
(4.42)

39

As B. and,hence,

p1 and p3 are assumed small, of t h e o r d e r

-3
of 10

, the

three terms i n p a r e n t h e s e s are higher-order terms and may beneglected.

8p4

- p22 , _ 0

last
Thus

(4e43)

i s a boundary curve which i s c l o s e t o t h e

1
p22 f o r p i n X, w e have

exact curve K = 0.

Substituting

f"

8 (P1P2'4P3)

(4 044)

w h i c h i n d i c a t e s that the system t r i l l b e u n s t a b l e when cy and F are on t h e

boundary curve g i v e n by K = 8p4
pZ2 = 0, except a t t h e p o i n t where X v a n i s h e s

anr! pg is p o s i t i v e ( s t e a d y - s t a t e v i b r a t i o n s ) .

The i n s t a b i l i t y mechanism, on

t h e whole, w i l l b e of t h e f l u t t e r t y p e , e x c e p t
a t t h e p o i n t s where t h e exact
e s p r e s s i o n s o f IC and H are a l l negative (divergence).
4.2.8

Damping R a t i o on I n s t a b i l i t y Mechanisms

Influenceof

it was e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t s t a b i l i t y i s p o s s i b l e
In the preceding sections,
only i n t h e r e g i o n (A > 0, H > 0, and K < 0), which is marked by d i a g o n a l
l i n e s i n F i g . 4.9.
I n this r e g i o n , t h e s i g n
o f X governs the type of motion,
i.e., the system i s s t a b l e i f X 2 0 and u n s t a b l e i f X < 0.

Critical l o a d s f o r d i v e r g e n c e , i f

any, are g i v e n byp4

= 0; i.e.,

they

are
(4.45)

On t h e o t h e r hand, critical l o a d s f o r f l u t t e r , i f
X = 0, L e e , they are

where 1 #

cy

any, are alwaysgiven

by

cyoa and

(4.47)
The two vertical l i n e s
of X = 0.

For

cy

cy

LY

= cyo (Figs. 4.11 t o 4.14) are asymptotes

= 1, t h e c r i t i c a l load i s g i v e n by
= 4e2

Ff l u ( F l

40

= 1 and

+ 338 + 4

2(B2+ 78 +6)

(4.48)

which a a s s t u d i e d i n S e c t .
i f ~ R Y ,becomes

4,2,2,

For cy =

aOp t h e c r i t i c a l load f o r f l u t t e r ,

(4-49)
The curves of c r i t i c a l l o a d s f o r B = 0, 1, 11.071,
F i g s , 4.11, 4,12, 4.13, and 4.14.

and

Q)

are i l l u s t r a t e d i n

For cy = 0 (conservatiwe case) i n Fig. 4.11, t h e p o i n t (0, -l), which is

a n i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t of m o branches of the curves given
by X = 0, i s itself
on t h e boundary g i v e n by X = 0; t h e r e f o r e , t h i s p o i n t c o r r e s p o n d s t o s t e a d y state v i b r a t i o n s of thesystem.
The p o i n t (0, -1) i s t h u s also a p o i n t rep r e s e n t i n g s t a b i l i t y r a t h e r t h a n a p o i n t w h i c h i n d i c a t e s an i s o l a t e d c r i t i c a l
load f o r t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e s y s t e m
(a,= 0) w i t h damping. However, depending on
t h e r a t i o of damping c o e f f i c i e n t s , a nonconservative system (a,B 0) may have
at
multiple critical loads for flutter, i n addition to those for divergence,
t h e same v a l u e of a anywhere i n t h e r a n g e cy
0, e x c e p t f o r 519 < a, s 1 where
c r i t i c a l l o a d s f o r f l u t t e r o n l y w i l l occur,Fig.
4.11 i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t , f o r
0, f l u t t e r will o c c u r f o r any CY,
except cy = 0, w h i l e F i g , 4,12 shows t h a t
t h e smallest range of Q i n which f l u t t e r i s p o s s i b l e becomes minimum
(519 < o! < 1.305) when t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e i d e n t i c a l ( L e e , 8 = l),

It was found i n Sect. 3.1 t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f n e i g h b o r i n g

e q u i l i b r i u m p o s i t i o n s was s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by the behavior of the
nonconsewative loading and also by t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e
system. A f u r t h e r res u l t of t h i s s t u d y is t h a t t h e r a t i o o the damping c o e f f i c i e n t s may exert an
analogous influence and may t h u s r e n d e r t h e static c r i t e r i o n i n a p p l i c a b l e f o r
stasystems i n which, without damping, t h e c r i t i c a l load could be determined
tically,Forinstance,
i t is seen that, in the range
1/2 < CY < 519, t h e stat i c s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n i s a p p l i c a b l e i f 8 = 03 (see F i g , 4.14) b u t b r e a k s
down i f p = 0 (see Fig, 4.11) ,
Similarlytoapplicability,thesufficiencyofthe
static s t a b i l i t y
Criterion (in the sense of supplying
a l l c r i t i c a l loads) also depends
on t h e
r a t i o of damping C o e f f i c i e n t s . To e x e m p l i f yt h i s feature, l e t u s examine
a g a i n F i g s , 4.11 sand 4.14.
I n t h e r a n g e cy < 1/2, we n o t e t h a t t h e s t a t i c
stabilfty criterion is sufficient if p =
but proves to be insufficient if
$ = 0. The e q u a t i o n p = 0 expresses, i n fact, t h e s t a t i c s t a b i l i t y cri4
t e r i o n , ioe., t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e static e q u i l i b r i u m of the system i n t h e
v i c i n i t y o f i t s n e u t r a lc o n f i g u r a t i o n .
n u s t h e static s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n
is implied i n t h e k i n e t i c s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n , w h i c h is u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t i n
determining a l l critical l o a d s for the nonconservative system.
Q)

It i n p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e r a n g e of a, i n which f l u t t e r cannot occur,

and t h u s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e k i n e t i c c r i t e r i o n is n o t r e q u i r e d ,
Eowever,
t h i s r a n g e will depend on t h e r a t i o of t h e damping c o e f f i c i e n t s . To determine
this range, we c o n s i d e r the e x p r e s s i o n Ffla d e r i v e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n , F l u t t e r
cannotoccur

if t h e q u a n t i t y (p 2 228

+ 1)

CY

+ 3 3 8 ~-

9p appearingunderthe

41

s q u a r e r o o t in t h a t e x p r e s s i o n i s negative,
following ranges:
cy2a1 and

CYSCY

Thus f l u t t e r may occur i n t h e

(4 50)

i$
f > a o, r $ < a

or

1 >cr>a2

cy

if

al

>$

(4.51)

>a2

where

(4.52)
and

(4.53)
I f $ = al or $ = a20 the range

i n which t h e k i n e t i c s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n

must

be considered w i l l be only CY 2 3/11, Consequently, i f t h e r e exists any range

of CY which i s outside the foregoing specified ranges, the
static s t a b i l i t y
c r i t e r i o n a l o n e w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o d e t e r m i n e a l l t h e c r i t i c a l loads, despitethenonconservativenessoftheloading,
However, a c c o r d i n gt ot h ep r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , i f cy < a
' or cy > CY",
t h e static s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n d e f i n i t e l y w i l l be a p p l i c a b l e b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s u f f i c i e n t i n d e t e r m i n i n g
all
c r i t i c a l loads.

4.2.9

P o s s i b i l i t y of Elimination of D e s t a b i l i z i n g E f f e c t s

Critical l o a d s f o r f l u t t e r i n t h e undamped system analyzed i n Sect. 3,1

are given by t h e e q u a t i o n K(a9 F, Bi) = 0 w i t h t h e terms due t o small damping
neglected; Le.,

by t h e e q u a t i o n

K(cY,~?) =

- [ 4 ( 2~-2act-2)F 2 + 4 ( ~ - 8 ) F + 411

(4 54)

are given by

Critical loads f o r f l u t t e r i n t h e damped system analyzed here

X(abF9B)

=0

(4.55)

whose l o c i c o n s t i t u t e , i n f a c t ,
a family of c u r v e s i n t h e a F plane with $
as theparametricconstant.Differentcurves
of t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d f o r f l u t t e r
will b e o b t a i n e d i f d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s are a s s i g n e d t o B i n X(cu,F,B) = 0 .

To s t u d y t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n between the curves of critical loads given by

#(a,F) = 0 andX(a,F,p)
= 0 , l e t us examine t h e e w e l o p e of the family of
curves defined by X(a,F,B) = 0 . It is known that, i f anenvelopeexists,
it
must s a t i s f y
X(ar,F,B)

42

= 0

(4.56)

ad
(4.57)

p in these

Elimination of

two e q u a t i o n s y i e l d s

= , 0F )
(F-2)[ ( ~ - c Y ) F - ~ ] [ ~ ( ~ - c Y ) F - ~ ] ~ - K ( c Y

(4.58)

where K(cu,F) is as definedbefore.

However, t h i s e q u a t i o n may c o n t a i n some
c u r v e s which are o t h e r t h a n t h e e n v e l o p e . D e l e t i n g t h e s e , t h e t r u e e n v e l o p e
is found as g i v e n by
[(l-a)F

- 23

K(cY,F) = 0

(4.59)

Thus t h e c u r v e f o r c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r l o a d s of the system with nodamping is a

branch of the envelope of the family of curves of the
critical flutter loads
of t h e same systemwith damping. This r e m a r k a b l e r e l a t i o n shows a s i g n i f i c a n t
connectionbetweenthe
two governing equations of the
critical loads for
f l u t t e r of t h e undamped and t h e damped systems.
I n consequenceof t h e f o r e g o i n g r e l a t i o n ,
i t a p p e a r s p o s s i b l e t o eliminate the destabilizing effect
of damping on the c r i t i c a l l o a d s f o r f l u t t e r i n
a curve of t h e
t h e damped system i f we choosethevalueofwhichdefines
family X(a,F,p) = 0 t a n g e n t t o K(a,F) = 0 (the envelope) a t t h e g i v e n v a l u e
of a. E l i m i n a t i n g F i n X(a,F,p) = 0 and(a/ap)X(cr,F,p)
= 0, we findthat
t h i s v a l u e of B is g i v e n by t h e p o s i t i v e , real r o o t of t h e q u i n t i c

- 3 ) ( 7 ~-~3 ) ( 4 a - 3)B5- ( 8 9 64~-~5 , 9 3 63~+~ 8 , 1 9 62~ ~

4
- 3 , 8 7 0 ~+~ 594)B4 - ( 1 2 , 8 0 0 ~-~ 6 0 , 9 2 83~+~ 8 2 , 6 8 02~ ~

CY

- 3 8 , 6 6 4 ~+~ 5832)B3-

3
2
4
( 8 0 , 1 2 8 ~ ~ 3 6 5 , 2 8 0 ~+ 5 0 2 , 4 1 6 ~ ~

2 3 4 , 5 7 6 ~+
~ 34,992)p2-

2
1 , 9 2 5 , 8 5 6 ~ ~ 8 7 4 , 8 0 0 ~ ~ 128,304)p

4
3
(353,280~~ 1,480,320~~

4
(838,656~~

3
2
2 , 9 4 1 , 0 5 6 ~ ~ 3 , 4 1 1 , 0 7 2 ~ ~ 1 , 4 6 9 , 6 6 4 ~+
~ 209,952) = 0

and t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d f o r f l u t t e r i n t h i s

which w i l l be i d e n t i c a l t o t h e
w i t h no damping.

(4.60)

case is g i v e n by

critical loads for flutter

of t h e same system

For example, i f t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t ofdamping

1 is d e s i r e d , B mustbe e q u a l t o t h e p o s i t i v e ,
real r o o t of
f o r t h e case CY

43

the quintic

- 86B3 - 884$2 - 26128 - 2448 = 0

+ 6B4

$5

(4.62)

i.e.,
$ = 4

+ 5 J2

which, t o g e t h e r w i t h
F

=C

57

CY

- J2

= 11.071

(4.63)

= 1, y i e l d s

= 2.086

(4.64)

The c r i t i c a l l o a d f o r CY = 1 i n t h e undamped systemdetermined i n [5,22,25]

is i d e n t i c a l t o t h e v a l u e
we obtained i n t h e f o r e g o i n g .
The complete elimin a t i o n of t h e d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t f o r t h i s
case i s t h u s a t t a i n e d , as i s ill u s t r a t e di nF i g .
4.13. For Q = 314, a similar procedure w i l l show t h a t t h e
d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t i s completely removed when B = m. T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n
Fig. 4.14.
The p o s s i b i l i t y of a complete elimination of t h e d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t d e pendson t h e e x i s t e n c e o f
a p o s i t i v e , real r o o t i n t h e f o r e g o i n g q u i n t i c .
The
range of CY where t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t is o f i n t e r e s t t o
us is, of course, 0.423 i a 5 1.305.
However, i t is found t h a t i n t h e r a n g e
317

<

CY

< 314

(4.65)

no p o s i t i v e , real r o o t . Thus, i n t h i s range,thesystem

will
t h eq u i n t i ch a s
always experience some d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n f o r w h a t e v e r v a l u e of 8 i n i t s range
O r f 3 s m .

For instance,
for the system with
Fe =
while the

l e t us c o n s i d e r t h e
no damping i s

(37 58

6 J5)

case

1.48~+ 11.48

= 0 . 6 , where t h e c r i t i c a l load

= 2.033

critical load for the system with

Fd

CY

+2

(4.66)
damping i s given by

- +t8+6)ro.36e2+
2,888
6.4)(a0- 0.6)

(3.28

+ 0.361~1~

(4.67)

where

2+ 128 -t 4
CYo '8(B

(4.68)

+ 2)

The r a t i o of Fd t o Fe v e r s u s B i s p l o t t e d i n F i g .
v a l u e of Fd/Fe increases

4.15.

It i s n o t e d t h a t t h e

as f3 i n c r e a s e s and approaches29/5(37-6

J5)

= 0.984,

i n s t e a d of 1, as theupper limit when B a p p r o a c h e s i n f i n i t y ; i.e., t h e d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t of damping i s a t least 1.6 p e r c e n t i f t h e v a l u e

of CY i s kept
a t 0.6.

44

I n the range 1.182 < a < 1.305, t h e undamped system has multiple c r i t i c a l
loads for flutter given
by K(cy,F) = 0 . However, a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e r o o t s
of t h e q u i n t i c shows t h a t , f o r any cy i n t h e r a n g e 1.182 s a 5 1.285, t h e r e is
o n l y o n e p o s i t i v e , real r o o t which d e f i n e s a curve of the family
X(a,F,@) = 0
tangenttothe
lower p a r t of K(cy,F) = 0. Thus, i n t h e r a n g e 1.182 5 cy 5 1.285,
t h e damped system has no c r i t i c a l loadwhich i s given by t h e upper p a r t of
K(a,F) = 0.

As a n a l t e r n a t i v e , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
of e l i m i n a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s of damping
could also be studied
by e q u a t i n g t h e f r e q u e n c i e s f i r s t
and t h e n t h e c r i t i c a l
forces,obtainedwith
and without damping. The frequencyofthe
undamped
system i s given by
Im

n = $ [7

- 2(2-cy)F] 1/2

(4.69)
damping i s given by

while the frequency of the system with

'I2

(B1+B2)

B1

Equatingthe
28 (a

(l-cy)(B1+2BZ)F

+ 6B2

two expressions and e l i m i n a t i n g F i n

- $)(a - i)B2+

4(16ar2- 33a

1/2

(4.70)

K(cy,F)

= 0 leadsto

+ 9)B + 4(182a2-2970 + 81)

= 0

(4.71)

which, i n t u r n , g i v e s t h e r a n g e
of Eq. (4.65) i n which e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e
damping.
damping e f f e c t i s n o t p o s s i b l e f o r p o s i t i v e
Fig. 4.16 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e f u n c t i o n @(cy) which i n s u r e s e l i m i n a t i o n of
damping effects.Forcompleteness,therequiredvalues
of negative e i n
the range 3/7 < a < 3/4 have a l s o been i n d i c a t e d .

4.3

Damping and GyroscopicForces

i n Systems w i t h Two Degrees of Freedom

The j o i n t e f f e c t s of f o l l o w e r f o r c e s , l i n e a r v i s c o u s
damping,and
gyros c o p i c f o r c e s (i.e., velocity-dependent forces whichdo no work) havebeen
Considered was t h e s y s t e m w i t h two degreesoffreedom
s t u d i e d i n Ref. [28].

(4.72)

The matrices a

ij

and bcanberesolveduniquelyinto
ij

a syrmetrical and a n t i -

symmetrical p a r t :
(4.73)

45

where

rl1 t" y+rw;}

a72 = a*
2 1 = (a12+a21)/2,
P

and

= (a12-a21)/2

b1j=

b22

b21

b;l

(4.74)

(4.75)

b22

where
b:2

= lb:

= @12+b21)/2,

U)

By a s u i t a b l e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e

= (b12-bz1)/2

(4.76)

form

(4.77)

i t i s p o s s i b l e t o make e i t h e r a;2

o r b* tovanish.Choosingthe
f i r s t pos12
s i b i l i t y and w r i t i n g a g a i n ql, q2, b12
f o r q1, q2, bT2, thefollowing

...

sys tem of equations

ie obtained:

(4.78)

(is n o n c i r c u l a t o r y ) if p = 0 , i t
The systemhas a p o t e n t i a l e n e r g y f u n c t i o n
i s p u r e l y c i r c u l a t o r y f o r all= a22= 0, i t i s nongyroscopic for w = 0 , and is
undamped i f bll= b12= bZ2= 0.
S o l u t i o n s are sought i n t h e

form
(4.79)

whichlead

t o the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n
4
coA

+c

13

+ c2A2 +

c3x

c4 = 0

(4.80)

where
c
c

46

= 1
= b

11

b22

(4.81)
cont

c2 = a 11 + a22
c3 = allb22

(bllb12'

2
+w

bl;)

+ a22b 11 + 2pw
2

c4 = a l l a 2 2

(4.81)

For s t a b i l i t y I t i s r e q u i r e d t h a t

C1C2C3

ci 2 0 (i = 1,2,3,4) and t h a t i n a d d i t i o n

- c0c32 - c1 2c4 > 0

(4.82)

If cl= c 3= 0 t h i s a d d i t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n t a k e s
c2

on t h e form

4c0c4 > 0

(4.83)

c = 0 but c # 0 (or cl# 0 but c3= 0) t h e f i r s t i n 1

3
e q u a l i t y c a n n o t be s a t i s f i e d and thustheequilibrium
i s alwaysunstable reg a r d l e s s of t h e a c t u a l v a l u e s of the nonvanishing c
It i s t o be n o t e d t h a t i f

i'

Let u s now examine t h es p e c i a lc a s e

coefficientsci

of an undamped system, bi,=

The

0.

a r et h e n

c1 = 0 ,

c2 = a l l

+ a22 + tu2 ,

c 3 = Zpw,

c4 = alla22 + P

(4.84)
Since c = 0 and c # 0 thesystem i s u n s t a b l e r e g a r d l e s s how small t h e
1
3
f o l l o w e r( c i r c u l a t o r y )f o r c e s
and t h eg y r o s c o p i cf o r c e sa r e .
Another s p e c i a l c a s e
tained i s
a l l = aZ2 = a

of i n t e r e s t i n which e x p l i c i t r e s u l t s c a n

> 0,

bll = b22 = b > 0 ,

b12 = O

be ob(4.85)

Then we have
cl=2b,c2=

2a

+ u)2 ,

c3= 2 (ab+pcu) ,

c = a
4

+p

(4.86)

For s t a b i l i t y we must r e q u i r e
(4.87)

It i s again seen from t h e second i n e q u a l i t y t h a t n o s t a b i l i t y

is possiblefor
damping c o e f f i c i e n t b h a s t o b e s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e ,
b = 0 o r f o r small b.The
namely

47

(4.88)
t oi n s u r es t a b i l i t y .I nt h ea b s e n c e
s t a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n is

ofpurelygyroscopicforces,

w = 0, t h e

b > p/Ja
4.4

(4.89)

D i s c r e t e Systems w i t h Many Degrees of Freedom

Generalizingthefindingsconcerningdestabilizingeffects
found w i t h
s p e c i f i c examplesofsystemswith
two d e g r e e s of freedom, i t is p o s s i b l e t o
s t a t e a number of theoremswhich are a p p l i c a b l e t o a r a t h e r broad class of
In p a r t i c u l a r , i t canbe
systemswith N d e g r e e s of freedom,(Ref.[29]).
shown t h a t n o t o n l y s l i g h t v i s c o u s
damping,but a l l s u f f i c i e n t l y small
velocity-dependent forces may induce a d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t .
The systemconsidered i s assumed t o be holonomic andautonomous,and
is s u b j e c t e d t o a s e t o f g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e s ,
= Qj(F); j =I 1,2,...,N,which
Qj

are d e f i n e d as l i n e a rf u n c t i o n so f
a r e a l , f i n i t e parameter F. Thisparameter, (0 < F < w ) , is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e x t e r n a l l y a p p l i e d
forces,
= 0 f o r F = 0.
Qj

Let
(j

be t h ee q u i l i b r i u m

1,2,...,N

s t a t e ofthesystem.

(4.90)

With M = [M

jk

] t h eg e n e r a l i z e d

mass

m a t r i x , and

N
(4.91)

j, k t 1
t h es t r a i ne n e r g yf u n c t i o n ,
assumed t o be p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e , t h e e q u a t i o n s
of motionofthe
undamped system may be w r i t t e n as
j , k = 1,2,...,N
where t h e summation convention on a l l r e p e a t e d i n d i c e s
be employed i n the sequel.
L e tu s

assume t h a t t h e g e n e r a l i z e d f o r c e s ,

f u n c t i o n so ft h eg e n e r a l i z e dc o o r d i n a t e s
Q j = FKjkqk

where K = [K

48

jk

Q j,

(4.92)

is implied and w i l l

are given as l i n e a r

1,2,...,N
j , k =(4.93)

] is a nonsyrmnetric m a t r i x , and F a r e a l , f i n i t e p a r a m e t e r .

For F = 0 , (4.92) r e p r e s e n t t h e e q u a t i o n s
of f r e e o s c i l l a t i o n of t h e undamped
systemwhich we assume t o p o s s e s s N d i s t i n c t , n o n - z e r o f r e q u e n c i e s .
I nc o n j u n c t i o nw i t h

(4.92) we s h a l l c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e a r s y s t e m
j = 1,2,.

where

is an infinitesimal quantity,

(4.94)

a g e n e r a l l y non-symmetric

G = [Gjk]

matrixwithprescribedconstantelements.For
Eqs. (4.92).

..,N

E =

0 , Eqs.(4.94)

r e d u c et o

we s h a l l p r o v e t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d
of system
I nt h ef o l l o w i n gs e c t i o n s
of system (4.94) when 0(e2)can
(4.92) is anupper bound f o r t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d
be n e g l e c t e di n comparisonwith O ( e ) .
Only t h e e f f e c t ofvelocity-dependent
f o r c e s on t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d
of t h e s y s t e m f o r f l u t t e r
w i l l be considered. The
i s d i s c u s s e di n
e f f e c t of t h e s ef o r c e s on t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d f o r d i v e r g e n c e
Refs.[6,7].
I nt h ep r e s e n tc o n t e x t ,t h e r e f o r e ,t h e
theoremsproved
i nt h es e q u e la r e
by f l u t t e r .
applicableonly when a l i n e a r s y s t e m l o s e s s t a b i l i t y
It i s a l s o of importance t o n o t e t h a t
anautonomous,
l i n e a r , dynamic
l o s e s t a b i l i t y by f l u t t e r i f and only i f a s o l u t i o n of the form

aystemcan

k = 1,2,

qk = %eiwt;

...N,

admits, a t least, one

u)

with negative imaginary

p a r t . F u r t h e r , we w i l l employ t h e well-known property of l i n e a r autonomous

dynamic systems of thetype(4.92)thattheroots
of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c equat i o n a r e e i t h e r real or pairs ofcomplex conjugate numbers.

of s l i g h t v i s c o u s damping. Thus we asLetus f i r s t c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t

sume t h a t G = [G ] i s a s y e t r i c , non-negativematrix.
jk
We t a k e s o l u t i o n s of (4.92) and (4.94) i n t h e formqk = %e i w t ; i = J-1,

and o b t a i n

2Mjk%

-I- (xjk-PKjk)+

U)

= 0

(4.95)

Systems(4.95)
and (4.96) a r ee a c h a set of l i n e a r , homogeneous equations
They h a v e ,t h e r e f o r e ,n o n t r i v i a ls o l u t i o n si f
and only i f t h ed e t e r i n Ak.
minant of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s

of

%,

i n each s e t , i s e q u a lt oz e r o .

Thesecon-

ditions yield
d e t la

jk

= 0

(4.97)
(4.98)

49

2
where a
=
w M
FK ) , and d e t a
denotesthedeterminant
of
j kj k
-k @
j kj k jk
t h e matrix [a 1.
jk
For F * 0 , Eq. (4.97) y i e l d s t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c i e s
of t h e f r e e v i b r a t i o n of t h e undamped system. W
e assume t h a tt h e s ef r e q u e n c i e s

(wl

w22 e

... e

WN

are d i s t i n c t and non-zero. We now i n c r e a s e F and assume t h a t f o r a c e r t a i n

value of F, sayFey Eq. (4.97) y i e l d s , a t l e a s t , a doublenon-zerofrequency.

(
u
:

w
(seeFig.4.17(a)),while
2
a l l o t h e r (N-2) frequencies of t h es y s t e ma r ed i s t i n c t
and non-zero.
I f F is
now increased beyond t h i s c r i t i c a l v a l u e Fe, Eq. (4.97) w i l l y i e l d a p a i r of

F = Fe,

L e tu ss u p p o s et h a t ,f o r

is e q u a lt o

w i l l oscillatewithan
complex conjugate roots and, consequently, the system
e x p o n e n t i a l l yi n c r e a s i n ga m p l i t u d e( f l u t t e r ) .
We s h a l l r e f e r t o
F again as
e

the critical

loadforthesystemwithout

damping.

L e t us now consider Eq. (4.98).For

F = 0, t h e r o o t s of t h i se q u a t i o n
are a l l located on t h el e f t - h a n ds i d e
of theimaginaryaxisinthe
complex
i w plane. As we i n c r e a s e F , a t l e a s t , oneof
t h e s er o o t sa p p r o a c h e st h e
imaginary a x i s , and f o r a c e r t a i nv a l u e of F , say F
Eq. (4.98) y i e l d s , a t
d

l e a s t , a real v a l u ef o r
thiscriticalvalueFd,

w (seeFig.4.17(b)).If
F is now increased beyond
a t l e a s t , one of t h er o o t s of (4.98) becomes complex

withnegativeimaginarypart.
e shallreferto
flutter. W
damping.

The s y s t e m ,t h e r e f o r e ,l o s e ss t a b i l i t y
Fd as t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d f o r t h e s y s t e m w i t h

In the sequel
we w i l l f i r s t s t u d y a system with
more generalsystems.
and t h e n e x t e n d o u r r e s u l t s t o

W
e expand thefrequencyequation

two degrees of

by

freedom

of the damped system as follows

de t
where akS i s the c o f a c t o r of theelement

assume t h a t d e t
Then, f o r d e t

1G.

# 0 ( t h e case of d e t

jk
l a s t term on theright-handsideof

Theorem 1.
load, F

50

jk

Eq.

1 + ciu, G j ka k j = 0

The c r i t i c a ll o a d ,F e ,

jk
\G

la

1.

Moreover, we
jk
= 0 w i l l be d i s c u s s e dl a t e r ) .

i nt h ed e t

jk
l k f i n i t e and c of i n f i n i t e s i m a l o r d e r ,

(G

d e t\ a

(4.99)and

we may n e g l e c t t h e

obtain

j,k = 1,2

is anupper

when O(s: ) canbeneglectedincomparisonwith

(4.100)

bound f o r t h e c r i t i c a l
O(e).

Proof.For

P = Pd, Eq.

(4.100) has, a t least, one real r o o t ,

u)

= w, and

t h e o t h e r r o o t s are e i t h e r real o r complex w i t h p o s i t i v e i m a g i n a r y p a r t s ( t h e

is excluded, as i t
p o s s i b i l i t y ofcomplex r o o t w i t h n e g a t i v e i m a g i n a r y p a r t
c o n t r a d i c t st h ea s s u m p t i o nt h a t
Pd i s t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d ) .T h e r e f o r e ,f o r
F = Pd and

d e t la
G

jk

jk

rkj are both real and we musthave

and G

I=0

akj =

(4.101)

However, d e t la

Fd

1 aj k I

real , d e t
jk

UI

jk

j,k

1,2

(4.102)

real r o o t s i f

0 cannotadmit

> Fe.

Therefore

Fe.
Let u s n o t e t h a t

can bemade

Fd canequal

e q u a lt ot h ed o u b l er o o t

of(4.101)

depends on the other parameters of the system

as exemplifiedinSect.
4.2.
We now r e t r a c t t o

Eq.

real r o o t of (4.102)

i f and only i f t h e

(4.99)and

This, of course,
e
and may notalways be achieved,
for F = F

considerthecase

when d e t I G

jk

0.

The frequency equation of t h e damped systemwith two degrees offreedom i s

now given by
Eq.
(4.100),independently
of theorder of magnitudeof
e.
F o l l o w i n gt h el i n e
of reasoning similar t o t h a t used i n t h e proof ofTheor e m 1, we c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d
of thesystemwithout
damping i s
anupper bound f o r t h a t of the system with
damping,no matter what the order
theorem.
of magnitude of c may be. Therefore, we s t a t et h ef o l l o v i n g
Theorem 2.
two degreesof
systemwith

The c r i t i c a l l o a d , F e ,

of thesystemwithout

damping with

freedom i s an upper bound f o r t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d ,

damping f o r a l l f i n i t e v a l u e s

of s when d e t IG

Fd,of

I=

the

0.

jk
of a property of
The proof of Theorem 1 w a s aninmediateconsequence
the frequency equation of the system with
damping and with two degrees of
freedom. The problem becomes more complicated i ft h es y s t e mh a s
more than
two degrees offreedom.
However, one may s t i l l use a similar l i n e of reasoning.
We expand Eq.
d e t lajk+ s i t G
jk
jk

( 4 . 9 8 ) ,c o l l e c tt h et e r m s

I = det

la

1 + sit G

of

l i k e power i n e , and o b t a i n

2
akj+ O(s )

The f i r s t term on theright-handsideofthisequation

..., j S k = l , 2 , . . N

(4.103)

i s a polynomialof

degree N i n w2 and may be w r i t t e n as

(4.104)

51

term G

S i m i l a r l y ,t h e
be w r i t t e n as

jk

akj, which is a polynomialofdegree

(N-1)

in

2 , can

u)

(4.105)
(4.103)becomes

Therefore, Eq.
2

2
2
d e t l a . + siw G
= P(w ) + iew R(w ) + O(s ) +
Jk
jk
2
We n e g l e c t O(s ) and h i g h e r i n Eq. (4.106)and
obtain

P(w2)

iSW

2
R(w )

...

(4.106)

(4.10 7)

W
e now s e t w = 1

f o rt h ef r e q u e n c ye q u a t i o n
ofsystem(4.94).
2
2
s u b s t i t u t e i n t o P(w ) and R(w ) t o o b t a i n

+ icy

and

(4.108)
2

R(A+iey) = R(A )
Therefore, Eq.

(4.107)

+ O(e) +

...

becomes
(4.109)

Neglecting terms of order higher than

P(X

1=

0,

"

E, we musthave

Ro ,
2P'(X2)

P'(X2)
(X2)

dpo #

(4.110)

of thesystem
The f i r s t e q u a t i o n i n (4.110) i s thefrequencyequation
without dampingand t h e s e c o n d e q u a t i o n d e f i n e s , t o t h e f i r s t o r d e r
of approx i m a t i o n i n , t h e e f f e c t o f s l i g h t
dampingon t h e f r e q u e n c i e s of thesystem.
2
The c o n s t r a i n t g i v e n byP'(A
) # 0 indicates that the perturbation
method
2
breaks d m whenP(h
) = 0 admitsdoubleroots.For
F = 0 , therootsofequa2
t i o n P(X ) = 0 are a l l real and d i s t i n c t . Thus i n t h i s case, t o t h e f i r s t
o r d e r of approximation i n e , t h e r o o t s of Eq. (4.107) are
n

52

oscillations only with an exponentially decaying amplitude

a l l yk; k = 1,2,. .,N are p o s i t i v e , real numbers.

and, t h e r e f o r e ,

damping i s s t a b l e f o r a l l

W
e s h a l l now assume t h a t t h e s y s t e m w i t h
F < Fd and c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g cases:

< Fd < Fe

(a)

(b)

Fe c F < Fd;

(4.112)
2

< Fd

P(X ) = 0 y i e l d s N d i s t i n c t r o o t s .
FromEq.
(4.111) w e
Forcase(a),
t h e n o b t a i n yk; k = 1,2,. .,N, which are, by our assumption, a l l p o s i t i v e ,

real numbers.

For case (b), P(X)2 = 0 has, a t least, one p a i r of complex conjugate

by X
(ct f i B ) and from(4.111)
obtain
r o o t s . We d e n o t et h e s er o o t s
1,2
(4.113)
which i n d i c a t e s t h a t , f o r

> Fe, thesystemwith

damping admits, a t l e a s t ,

onecomplex
frequency w i t h negativeimaginarypart.This,therefore,
i s s t a b l e f o r Fd > Fe.
t r a d i c t st h ea s s u m p t i o nt h a tt h es y s t e m
forcedtotake

Fd s Fe i n o r d e r t o

L e t us n o t e t h a t , f o r
F = Fd
2
d i s t i n c t r o o t s of P(), ) = 0. The
2
herebreaks down i f P ( h ) =I O(s)
however, concern ourselves with a
admit t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of Fd = Fe.

remove t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n .
= Fe, Eqs.

The c r i t i c a l l o a d ,

for the critical load,

(4.111) can beused

onlyforthe

p e r t u r b a t i o n method,which
was introduced
2
while R(X ) i s non-zero.
W
e shallnot,
d e t a i l e d s t u d y of t h i s c a s e h e r e and simply
In f a c t , as Fd > Fe rendersthesystem

unstable, we can only conclude that

following theorem.
Theorem 3.

conW
e are thus

F < Fe.
d

Therefore, w e may s t a t e t h e

Fe, of system(4.92)

Fd, of t h e s y s t e m w i t h s l i g h t

i s anupper

bound

damping when e i s s u f f i -

cientlysmall.
Foranarbitraryspecifiedmatrix

G = [G.

Jk

] due t o any type of velocity-

dependentforces(includinggyroscopicforces),system
(4.94) may become s e l f exciting.That
is, f o r a n i n f i n i t e l y s m a l l v a l u e
of F, thefrequencyequation
of t h i s system may possess complex r o o t s w i t h n e g a t i v e i m a g i n a r y p a r t s . I n
F = 0 as t h e c r i t i c a l loadof
t h i s system.
t h e s e cases we s h a l l a g r e e t o d e f i n e
d
On t h e o t h e r hand, thefrequencyequation
of system (4.94) may y i e l d r o o t s
F = O(e).
Thisindicatesthatthis
w i t ho n l yp o s i t i v ei m a g i n a r yp a r t sf o r

53

system i s s t a b l e f o r small v a l u e s of theloadparameter

F. However, as we
i n c r e a s e F, o n e o f t h e s e r o o t s
may move toward the imaginary axis i n t h e i w
p l a n e .T h e r e f o r e ,f o r
a c e r t a i n v a l u e o f P, say Fd, thefrequencyequation
ofsystem (4.94) may y i e l d a non-zero, real r o o t . I n t h i s case, i f we then
i n c r e a s e F beyond t h i s c r i t i c a l v a l u e Fd, the frequency equation w i l l have a
rootwithnegativeimaginarypart
and thesystem w i l l f l u t t e r . W
e s h a l l ref e r t o Fd as t h e c r i t i c a l loadofsystem
(4.94).
On t h e b a s i s o f t h e
above
same chain of arguments outp r e l i m i n a r i e s i t i s now p o s s i b l e t o f o l l o w t h e
l i n e d p r e v i o u s l y and e s t a b l i s h t h e f o l l o w i n g more g e n e r a l theorems.
Theorem 4.

The c r i t i c a l load, Fe, ofsystem

c r i t i c a l load, Fd, ofsystem

for the

bound

when c i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s m a l l .

The c r i t i c a l load, Fe, ofsystem

Theorem 5.

upper bound f o r t h e
6

i s anupper

need not be a symmetric, p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e matrix.

G = [G,,]

of

(4.94)

(4.92)

when d e t ( G .

Jk

c r i t i c a l load, Fd,ofsystem

I = 0.

G = [Gjk]

need notbe

(4.92) w i t h N = 2 i s an
(4.94)

for all finite values

a symmetric, p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e

matrix.
From t h e above r e s u l t s w e immediatelyconcludethat,
i n a linearsystem
(i.e. c i r c u l a t o r y )
w i t h N degreesoffreedom,subjectedtononconservative
forces,notonlyslightviscous
damping but a l l s u f f i c i e n t l y small v e l o c i t y dependentforceshave,
i ng e n e r a l , a d e s t a b i l i z i n ge f f e c t .
Moreover, t h e
c r i t i c a l load,Fd,
i s highlydependent upon t h e s t r u c t u r e of the matrix

3 but i s always bounded fromabove by t h e c r i t i c a l load Fe. T h i si n Jk

a t t h e limit as c + 0, Fd i s i n g e n e r a l less t h a n F
Let
d i c a t e st h a t ,e v e n

G = [G.

e'

us explore this point in

more d e t a i l f o r a system with two degrees of freedom.

For e f i n i t e , t h e s t e a d y
s t a t e motion o f thesystem i s p o s s i b l e i f t h e
frequency of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s a t i s f i e s t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s
(see Eq. (4.99)):

I n t h i s case, one may s o l v e t h e secondequation i n (4.114) f o r w as a f u n c t i o n

a reofF and t h e n s u b s t i t u t e t h e r e s u l t i n t o t h e f i r s t e q u a t i o n t o o b t a i n
l a t i o n s h i p betweenF and c. I n t h i s manner a s t a b i l i t y c u r v e , i n t h e F - s
plane, may be constructed (see Fig. 4.18).
However, from Theorem 1 we i m mediatelyconcludethat,ingeneral,th-;curvesuffers
a finite discontinuity
a t c = 0. This means t h a t , a l t h o u g h f o r
E = 0 t h e c r i t i c a l load i s Fe, f o r
c

0
'

t h e c r i t i c a l load i s given byFd

is, i n g e n e r a l , a n i s o l a t e d p o i n t i n t h e
e
This phenomenon was i n t e r p r e t e dp h y s i c a l l yi nS e c t .

T h e r e f o r e ,t h ep o i n t
(Fig. 4.18).

54

which i s , i n g e n e r a l ,

less than Fe.

F-c plane
4.2.

4.5

&tabd.li&ngEffecfs
4.5.1

i n Continuous Sys tems

Introduction

It w a s shown i n S e c t . 4 . 4 t h a t i n
a general circulatory syrtem with
N
degrees of freedom not only slight viscous
damping, b u t a l l s u f f i c i e n t l y small
velocity-dependent forces, such
as C o r i o l i s f o r c e s i n v i b r a t i n g p i p e s
conveying
fluid, or other gyroscopic forces,
may have a d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t .

For a continuoussystem, however,which p o s s e s s e s a n i n f i n i t e number of

degreesoffreedom,nosuchtheorems
are as y e t e s t a b l i s h e d .
To s t u d y t h e e f f e c t of viscous damping forces in such systems
most i n v e s t i g a t o r s , i n g e n e r a l ,
a d i s c r e t e one by means o f , f o r example,
reduce f i r s t t h e c o n t i n u o u s s y s t e m t o
the Galerkin method,and
then study the reduced, discrete system
[8,30,31].
But, as was shown i n S e c t . 4.4, a d i s c r e t e s y s t e m d o e s , i n f a c t , a l w a y s h a v e
t h i sp r o p e r t y ,e x c e p ti nv e r yp a r t i c u l a rc a s e s .T h e r e f o r e ,
by thisapproach
one does not know w h e t h e r t h e o r i g i n a l c o n t i n u o u s s y s t e m a l s o e x h i b i t s t h e
same behaviororwhether
i t i s producedonlythroughthereductionprocedure.
Let us show t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e
of s u f f i c i e n t l y small velocity-dependent
f o r c e s i n a c o n t i n u o u se l a s t i cs y s t e ms u b j e c t e dt of o l l o w e rf o r c e sd o e s ,i n a d e s t a b i l i z i n ge f f e c t( c f .
Ref. c3.21). To t h i se n d , a c a n t i l e deed,have
vered,continuouspipeconveyingfluid
a t a c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y i s considered.
The i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l v i s c o u s damping f o r c e s a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d ,
and then
i t i s proved t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r
load of thesystem may b e reduced by
almost 509. f o r some combinations of thesevelocity-dependentforces.
The
method of a n a l y s i s e f f e c t i v e l y r e d u c e s a complicated nonself-adjoint boundary
a simplefrequencyanalysis
by u t i value problem ( w i t h o u t d i s c r e t i z a t i o n ) t o
l i z i n gf u l l yt h ef a c tt h a tt h ev e l o c i t y - d e p e n d e n tf o r c e s
are s u f f i c i e n t l y
small.
It i s of o b v i o u s i n t e r e s t t o t e s t t h e a c c u r a c y
of thewidelyusedGalerkin
method w i t h a two-term approximation. It i s t o be notedthatsuchananalysis
of thisapproximate method, f o r t h e c a s e
when theequations of motion of t h e
s y s t e m a l s o c o n t a i n mixed time and s p a c e d e r i v a t i v e s , h a s
been c a r r i e d o u t i n
time.
Ref. [32] f o rt h ef i r s t

small velocity-dependentforces,
C r i t i c a lf l u t t e rl o a d s
of thesystem,for
and a l s o f o r l a r g e v a l u e s
of C o r i o l i s f o r c e s , were obtained by usingtheGalerk i n method with a two-term approximation. The r e s u l t s a r e t h e n
compared with
It i s then shown t h a tt h e two-term approximationyields
theexactsolution.
sufficientlyaccuratevaluesforthecriticalflutterloadonlyifthevelocitysmall. Thus, f o rl a r g ev a l u e s
of C o r i o l i sf o r c e st h ec r i dependentforcesare
t i c a l load obtained by the Galerkin method with a two-term approximation may be
greatly in error.

4.5.2

CantileveredPipe

Conveying F l u i d

L and i n t e r n a l c r o s s We consider a cantilevered, uniform pipe of length

s e c t i o n a l area A, conveyingfluid a t a c o n s t a n t v e l o c i t y U. A nozzle whose
A i s placed a t t h e f r e e end of thesystem,
as
opening i s n timessmallerthan
i s shown i nF i g . 4.19.

55

W
e shall assume t h a t t h e material o f the pipeobeys
l a t i o n s h i po ft h eK e l v i nt y p e ,
.e.,

u = Ec +

a s t r e s s - s t r a i n re-

Ti

(4.115)

where E is t h e modulus o f e l a s t i c i t y and T\ is t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v i s c o s i t y .

planesectionsremainingplane,themoment-curvature
Under theassumptionof
r e l a t i o n s h i p ,f o r small deformations, is
(4.116)
where M is t h e r e s u l t a n t moment a t s e c t i o n x and a t time t , I t h e moment of
i n e r t i a , and y t h et r a n s v e r s ed e f l e c t i o no ft h ep i p e .
With u d e n o t i n gt h e
x d i r e c t i o n , and z t h e d i s t a n c e of e a c h f i b e r fromthe
d i s p l a c e m e n ti nt h e
n e u t r a l a x i s , we a l s o have
(-J=-Mz

(4.117)

The equation of motion

be s t a t e d as

maynow

L M
2
ax

(4.118)

where p i s t h er e s u l t a n t l a t e r a l f o r c ee x e r t e d on t h ep i p e .T h i sl a t e r a l
f o r c e may be decomposed i n t o t h r e e p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t i s due t o t h e
2
r
n + m ) ay , where m i s t h e mass of the
i n e r t i a f o r c e s and i s given by + (

at2

p i p ep e ru n i to fl e n g t h ,

and m

t h e mass o ft h ef l u i dc o n t a i n e dw i t h i nt h e

1
The second p a r t i s due t o C o r i o l i s a c c e l e r a t i o n and i s given by
2
2mlU
, and f i n a l l y t, h et h i r dp a r t ,
which i s due t oe q u i v a l e n t com-

pipe.

pressiveforceinduced
by

+ mlU2n

%
.
ax

by t h e f l u x

of momentum o u t of t h e p i p e ,

Therefore, the equation of motion

becomes

(4.119)

axL
and s u b s t . i t u t i o n from (4.115),(4.116),and
yields

5
E1

56

4
%
+ 91 ++
ax
ax a t

m u2n

9+
ax

2mlu

axat +

(4.117)

(m+ml)

and i s given

i n t o (4.119)

aJr
at2

finally

(4.120)

If we include also the effect of external damping in the form K

, where K

i s a constant, and introduce the following dimensionless quantities:

(4.12 1)
2 2
mlU nL
E1

= F

12

ss

k214

EEI(miml)
(m*a,)L4

then we obtain
(4.122)
To study the effectof small viscous damping forces and Coriolis forces,
we now let
6

v6,

2vY,

and

,/ $

= vp

(4.123)

where v is a small parameter. The equation of motion, (4.122), and the boundary conditions at5 = 0, 1, may then be written as

(4.124)
2

ac2

ax3

a y * = o ;

*t

s = 1

We wish to study the stabilityof system (4.124) when v is sufficiently small.

We let y =
problem

+ (c)eicur, and

reduce (4.124)

to the following boundary value

(4.125)

57

5.

where prime denote8 differentiation with respect to

We then set

(A+iva)

+ P2 (A+iva)2

e;

1 = A +-

i v a , and o b t a i n

- w2 + ivm [ 6 ( A + i ~ a )+~ PpF(A+iva)

+ 2y]

which is t h ec h a r a c t e r i s t i c equation ofsystem

a series ofpowersof
v , we are l e d t o

(4.125).

{x4 + F2A2 -

2BFA + ZY)}

w2}

(iv)2 (6a2h2

(iv) @ah3

+ 2F2Xa + w(6A4+

+ P2a2 + w(46aX3+
+

( i v I 3 +ha3

( i ~{a4
) ~4w3A}

( i ~( w) 4~
) = 0

Next, we equate terms of l i k e powers i n v , n e g l e c t i n g

and f i n a l l y a r r i v e a t

A2 =

Expanding (4.126) in

PBFa))

(4.126)

= 0

66wa2h2} +
(4.127)

2
0 (v ) and h i g h e r ,

2 2
-F2 */(?)
+ w2
2
(4.128)

a =

u)

28Fh + 2y
2h(2h2+ F2)

6h4

The s o l u t i o n t o s y s t e m

(4.125) may
now

A = h

+ iva

be w r i t t e n as

+ (6)

AleXjS,

where

jpl
AJ; j = 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , are c o n s t a n t s which can be obtained from theboundarycon-

<

= 0 , l .T h a t
ditions at
homogeneous equations:
4

is, they must s a . t i s f y t h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r l i n e a r ,

C A j = O
j=1
h

j=l

j=l

j=1

58

(4.129)

System (4.129) h a s n o n - t r i v i a l s o l u t i o n s
if and only if the determinant
of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s is i d e n t i c a l l y z e r o , i.e., the frequency equation is of
the form (written out explicitly in
[32])

A* 5 A

(Tj)

T h i s r e l a t i o n MY

(4.128) as follows, a f t e r
2
v, and n e g l e c t i n g O(v ),

expanding i t i n terms ofpowersof

{ F4 + 2w2 + 2w2 ch X1

+ 6112x33

(4.130)

0
be rewritten with the aid of

ch A1 cos

cos

+ F2w

- 4X13 A3 2

sh A1 s i n A3

sh A1 s i n

}-

+ 2hlA;

s h Al s i n A3

(4.131)
where
2

F 2 + J & )2 +2w , 2
= - -2

A ; = T + F2
&)+w

2 2

(4.132)

The f i r s t term i n b r a c e s , i n Eq. (4.131) i s thefrequencyequation when

v = 0 , and t h e second term, t o t h e f i r s t o r d e r
ofapproximation i n v, i n d i small v i s c o u s damping f o r c e s and C o r i o l i s f o r c e s . F o r
catestheeffectof
v = 0 , we o b t a i n t h e f r e q u e n c y e q u a t i o n
of a p u r e l y elastic c a n t i l e v e r e d beam
at the free
s u b j e c t e d t o a compressive force which stays tangent to the axis
end.The
critical valueoftheload,inthis
case, i s Fe2 = 20.05, which was
f i r s t computed by Beck [33].

For non-zero b u t s u f f i c i e n t l y small v a l u e s of v and f o r small F , a l l t h e

rootsofequation
(4.131) are l o c a t e d t o t h e l e f t
of the imaginary axis
in
iu plane. As w e i n c r e a s e F, a t least one of theserootsapproaches
t h e complex c
theimaginary axis, and f o r a c e r t a i n v a l u e of F, say Fd' Eq. (4.131) y i e l d s
one purelyimaginaryroot

iw

iwc.

If we now i n c r e a s e F beyond t h i s c r i t i c a l

59

v a l u e Fd, oneof

t h e r o o t s of (4.131) becomes complex with negative imaginary

part, a d the system oscillates with

an exponentially increasing amplitude.
Therefore,forgivenvalues
of 6, $ and y, we s h a l l s e e k c r i t i c a l values of
u) = wc (real) , and F = Fd which i d e n t i c a l l y s a t i s f y (4.131).
This i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 4.20 where, f o r 6 = 1,
nary

(-%)

partsof

= 1, and y = 0, real (Al) 3nd imagi2

A are p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e v a l u e s o f
(u
Similarresults

may b e o b t a i n e d f o r o t h e r v a l u e s

of 8,

8,

and y.

It may a l s o b e o f i n t e r e s t t o e s t a b l i s h t h e d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t
of
Coriolis forces, internal viscous
damping f o r c e s , and e x t e r n a l v i s c o u s damping
forcesindependently.
2
Fd
To t h i s end, we l e t 6 = y = 0, $ = 1, and w i t h yd = 2 o b t a i n , from Eq.

(4.131)

, yd

o b t a i n e dt o

ll

= 1.78.

Similarly,for

be yd = 1.107.

$ = y = 0 and 6 = 1, t h e c r i t i c a l load i s

However, f o r @ = 6 = 0 and y = 1 we g e t yd = 2.035,

which i s e q u a l t o t h e c r i t i c a l load of the system

whenno velocity-dependent
f o r c e s are present.That
is, a l t h o u g h s u f f i c i e n t l y small C o r i o l i sf o r c e s and
i n t e r n a l v i s c o u s damping f o r c e s have a d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t i n t h i s c o n t i n u o u s
same e f f e c t .
system, e x t e r n a l v i s c o u s damping f o r c e s do nothavethe

cri-

The combined effec: of velocity-dependent forces on the value of the

t i c a l parameter yd = FdL
i s shown in Figs. 4.21
2

and 4.22.

In these figures

TT

theparameter

yd i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t

B/6 forvariousvalues

of y.

The horizon-

c r i t i c a l valueof

t a l dashedlineinthesefiguresrepresentsthe

y whenno
d
velocity-dependent forces exist and t h e c a n t i l e v e r e d column is s u b j e c t e d t o
a compressive follower force a t t h e f r e e end (Beck'sproblem [33]).

It is important to note that the stability curves

shown i n F i g s . 4.21
and 4.22 have a f i n i t e d i s c o n t i n u i t y a t v = 0. T h a t is, a l t h o u g h f o r v = 0
2
w e haveF2 = F
= 20.05, f o r v = 0 , t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e of F is, i ng e n e r a l ,

e
less than 20.05.

It may a l s o b e of i n t e r e s t t o e x p l o r e t h e o r d e r
ofmagnitudeof
v for
which t h e d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t of velocity-dependent forces s t i l l exists.
This may beaccomplished by considering v l a r g e and seeking values of
w and
F f o r which Eq. (4.130) i s i d e n t i c a l l y s a t i s f i e d .
W
e n o t e t h a t , i n Eq. (4.130),

-+; j

= 1,2,3,4,

systemthrough

are defined as functions of

Eq. (4.126).

u)

and t h e o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s

Inordertocircumventthedifficulty

polynomials with complex c o e f f i c i e n t s , w e l e t 6 = y = 0 and p u t

(4.126) and (4.130).

60

of t h e

of s o l v i n g
=

i7

i n Eqs.

The c r i t i c a l v a l u e s of LU and F maynow

be evaluated 'by a computer. The
computer may be i n s t r u c t e d to o b t a i n t h e r o o t s of Eq. (4.126) f o r g i v e n p a r a meters, and t h e n c a l c u l a t e A, (Eq. (4.130)).These
r e s u l t s are shown i n F i g .
=

4.23, where y,

Fd2

i s p l o t t e da g a i n s tv a l u e so f

ll

The d a s h e d l i n e i n t h i s f i g u r e c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e

,/ 5 ,

by a s o l i dl i n e .

c r i t i c a l yd when the Galerkin

method w i t h a two-term approximation is employed f o r the a n a l y s i s as follows.

{qn(g},obtained by s o l -

W
e consider a set of orthonormal eigenfunctions,
ving the following eigenvalue problem

(4.133)

'P,

=-

'P,

d$

at

' 0 ;

t = O

(4.134)

(4.135)
a

W
e then l e t Y =
(4.124),

qn(7)qn(S),

n=1
multiplybothsides

substitute it into the first equation in

of t h i s equation by6y

f~

~6q,(~)
( ,9and

m=l

integrate the result

from z e r o t o

1with respect

t o .% t o o b t a i n

(4.136)

m
where

Vm

sinh

=Is

- cos &E - om(sinh hs - s i n b,S)

cosh 1
,
s

cosh

sin

&

& + cos XIp

(4.137)

(4.137)

2
=

1 ; form=n

P1

System(4.136)
i s a set of n o n s e l f - a d j o i n t , l i n e a r ,
secondorder,
geneous, o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s which admit solutions of the

% = ArneiwT.
which

u)

To o b t a i n t h e c r i t i c a l values of

homoform

F2, we seek conditions under

becomes complex withnegativeimaginarypart.

System(4.136),

how-

ever, c o n s i s t s of i n f i n i t e number o f e q u a t i o n s e a c h w i t h i n f i n i t e
number of
terms. T h i s ,t h e r e f o r e ,l e a d st o
a d e t e r m i n a n tw h i c hp o s s e s s e sa ni n f i n i t e
number of rows andcolumns.

It i s q u i t e common t o l e t m,n = 1,2 i n Eqs. (4.136)and

reducethissystem t oo n l y two l i n e a r , homogeneous d i f f e r e n t i a le q u a t i o n s [ 8 ] . Hence, t h e
characteristic equation becomes a polynomial of degree four, which can easily
besolved.
The v a l u e s of P2, whichrender a t least one real r o o t and a l l t h e
o t h e r r o o t s complex w i t h p o s i t i v e i m a g i n a r y p a r t s ,
are then taken to be approximationstothecriticalflutterloads.

For s u f f i c i e n t l y small v a l u e s of v, w e may n e g l e c t terms a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

v2 i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n ,
approximatevaluesofthe

and using Routh-Hurwitz c r i t e r i a , c a l c u l a t e

2
2
c r i t i c a l load F = ydn
I n Table I theseapproxi-

mate f l u t t e r l o a d s are compared w i t h t h e exact v a l u e s o b t a i n e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s

s e c t i o n . From t h i s t a b l e w e o b s e r v e t h a t , f o r s u f f i c i e n t l y
small v, t h e
Galerkin method w i t h a two-term a p p r o x i m a t i o n y i e l d s v e r y a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s .
W
e note also that, for

v = 0 , t h i s a p p r o x i m a t e method g i v e s F2 = 20.15 as com-

paredwiththeexactcriticalload,

F2 = 20.05.

The aboveconclusion, however, doesnotimplythat,for

v f i n i t e , t h e approximate method s h o u l dn e c e s s a r i l yg i v es u f f i c i e n t l ya c c u r a t er e s u l t s .I n
f a c t , as i s shorn i n Fig. 4.23 f o r 6 = y = 0 , t h e c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r loadobt a i n e d by theapproximate method (dashed l i n e i n F i g . 4.23) can be g r e a t l y i n
e r r o rf o rr e l a t i v e l yl a r g ev a l u e s
of t h e C o r i o l i s f o r c e s .
W
e n o t et h a t ,f o r

62

,/ $

slnsller t h a n 0.25,

the resulting error,

when the G a l c r k i n method w i t h

a two-term approximation is used, i s l e a 8 t h a n 5 p e r c e n t anddecrecrscs

v a l u e of v decreases.

as t h e

Among t h e o t h e r s t u d i e s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t s
of
v e l o c i t y - d e p e n d e n t f o r c e s (and i n p a r t i c u l a r l i n e a r v i s c o u s damping),mention
by Leipholz [ 3 4 ] and Lconov and Z o r i i [ 3 5 ] .
should be made here of the papers
In Ref.[36]
B o l o t i n and Zhinzher have used an expansion
i n f r a c t i o n a l powers
which liof t h e damping parameters a d have e s t a b l i s h e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r
n e a r v i s c o u s damping has no e f f e c t on t h e c r i t i c a l load f o r f l u t t e r .
By contrast, Z o r i i [ 3 7 ] w a s i n t e r e s t e d i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e maximum e f f e c t which
(small) l i n e a r v i s c o u s damping may haveon t h e critical load.
4.6

De&tabiliz.ing Effects Due t o Phenomena O t h e r t h a n L i n e a r V i s c o s i t y

4.6.1TheruwelasJic.and

&steretic Damving

Not o n l y l i n e a r v i s c o u s damping, b u t o t h e r t y p e s
of d i s s i p a t i o n mechanisms are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t s . I n
Ref. [ 3 8 ] a g e n e r a l f o r mulation of t h e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s of e l a s t i c c o n t i n u o u s s y s t e m s s u b j e c t e d t o
vas presented and
f o l l o w e r f o r c e s i n the presence ofthermomechanicalcoupling
applied to the
problemof a c a n t i l e v e r under a t a n g e n t i a l f o l l o w e r f o r c e
at
t h e f r e e eml. A pronounced d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t o f t h e r m o e l a s t i c d i s s i p a t i o n
was found t o e x i s t . B i l i n e a r h y s t e r e t i c
damping was s t u d i e d i n Ref. [39] where
i t was shown t h a t i t may have a d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t similar t o l i n e a r v i s c o u s
a l a r g e class of h y s t e r e t i c s y s damping, b u t t h a t t h i s e f f e c t d i s a p p e a r s f o r
tems.
4.6.2

Magnetic- Damping i n a D i s c r e t e System

of a
Damping i n a system can be r e a l i z e d a l s o t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
c u r r e n tc a r r y i n gc o n d u c t o rw i t h
a magneticfield.Leibowitz
and Ackerberg
[40] havefound t h a t t h e m o t i o n o f a n e l e c t r i c a l l y c o n d u c t i n g , p e r f e c t l y
flexible wire placed in
a t r a n s v e r s e m a g n e t i c f i e l d w i l l a l s o be damped, b u t
i n a manner somewhat weaker t h a n t h e f a m i l i a r v i s c o u s
damping.
It i s of i n t e r e s t t o examine t h e e f f e c t of suchmagnetic
s t a b i l i t y of e q u i l i b r i u m of some c i r c u l a t o r y e l a s t i c s y s t e m s ,
where a d d i t i o n a l d e t a i l s are given. A simple systemwith two
dom i s c o n s i d e r e d f i r s t , and a d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s found t o be
magnetic f i e Id.

dampingon t h e
cf. Ref. [41],
degrees of f r e e caused by t h e

The system c o n s i s t s of two r i g i d w e i g h t l e s s r o d s , e a c h

of l e n g t h A, carrying concentrated masses m and 2m and a c t e d upon by a f o l l o w e r f o r c e P (Fig.
4.24).
The r o d s OA and AB c o n s t i t u t e p o r t i o n s of e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s h a v i n g
r e s i s t a n c e s R1 and R2, r e s p e c t i v e l y , and are c o n s t r a i n e d t o undergo a t most
plane motion.
A uniform magnetic field
t o t h e p l a n e of p o s s i b l e motion.

boa c t s i n a d i r e c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r

63

- -

A displacement from the equilibrium configuration

(cpl
'p2
0) w i l l res u l t i n elastic r e s t o r i n g moments cv and c(q2- 9 ) a t thehinges, and motion
1
of the system
i n t h e m a g n e t i c f i e l d w i l l iaduce a p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between
any two p o i n t s of t h e r o d s g i v e n

by

(4.138)
where t h e i n t e g r a t i o n is taken over the conducting path joining the points
and
v =
t h e v e l o c i t y of theconductor.
The p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e w i l l reN
sult in the generation of
a current,
according to

x(sJis

a,

(4.139)

and t h e r e f o r e a f o r c e p e r u n i t l e n g t h of conductor given

where
is a u n i t -v e c t o ri nt h ed i r e c t i o n
b u t i o n (4.140) w i l l ofcourse benormal
which opposes the motion.

by

of t h ec u r r e n t .
The f o r c e d i s t r i t o t h e c o n d u c t o r and i n a d i r e c t i o n

F o rt h es y s t e mb e i n gc o n s i d e r e dt h ed i s t r i b u t i o n sf l

and f

are

fl =

f 2 = r2(2b1+

(4.141)

9'

where
(4.142)

time t. Taking as geand t h e d o t s i n d i c a t e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o

n e r a l i z e dc o o r d i n a t e st h e
(small) a n g l e s cpl and cp2, t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y T and
t h eg e n e r a l i z e df o r c e s

Q,,

Q,

are found t o be

(4.143)

T h e s e q u a n t i t i e s are s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o L a g r a n g e ' s e q u a t i o n s t o o b t a i n t h e
l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s ofmotion:

64

(4.144)

+ r2a2 k2/2 + cy2

The g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n of the system (4.144) i s t a k e n i n t h e

form

(4.145)
k=1
and l e a d s t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n

q0w4 + q1w3

+ q2w2 + q3w + q4

with the coefficients being given

(4.146)

by

2 4 2
qo = 2m a /c
4
2
q1 = ( r l + 3r2)m.t /2c
2
q2 * (7-2PR/c

2
rlr2A /4cm)Rm/c

(4.147)

q3 = (rl+ lor2- 3r2PRJc)a 2 /2c

q4 = 1
Routh-Hurwitz c r i t e r i a l e a d t o t h e c r i t i c a l

load

(4.148)

where

65

PA/c
(4.149)

(4,148) i s t h a t a l t h o u g h $d +

A point of interest regarding

(i,e., the system can be

made s t a b l e f o r a r b i t r a r i l y l a r g e P ) ,
f i n i t e f o r pl # 0 and p2 + m. I n fact

10/3

l i m Fmd

if

p1

03

as p

l + w
i t remains

# 0 is finite
(4.150)

I nt h e
becomes

case of small damping, i.e.,

Fmd

= 35/12

+ n/6 +

IJ.j

<< 1,

sd

i s w r i t t e n Fd

ana

1/4u

+ n/6 +

1/4d2

(4%

1/)+
~ 45)/6]12

(4.15 1)

where

We n o t e t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t
i s r e a l i z e d as H + 0.
is a monotone i n c r e a s i n gf u n c t i o n of x .
n o t et h a t F

W
e further

md

Comparison w i t h t h e case of i n t e r n a l v i s c o u s damping (Q. 4.14) reveals

becomes
unbounded
as e i t h e r B1 o r . B becomes l a r g e ,p r o v i d e dt h eo t h e r
d
2
parameter i s non-zero.Withmagneticdamping,
on t h e o t h e r hand, we have t h e
r e s u l t (4.150), and therefore magnetic damping c a n b e s a i d t o
be weaker t h a n
i n t e r n a l v i s c o u s damping. Furthermore,while
it i s p o s s i b l e t o e l i m i n a t e t h e
the
d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t w i t h a v i s c o u s damping c o e f f i c i e n t r a t i o of11.07,
c r i t i c a l load of the magnetically
damped system is always smaller t h a n FeA.
that

It may beof i n t e r e s t t o compare t h e e f f e c t s ofmagnetic damping w i t h

t h o s e of l i n e a r e x t e r n a l v i s c o u s damping. I f i n t h e d o u b l e
pendulum system
of Fig. 4.24 e x t e r n a l damping f o r c e s act which are p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v e l o c i t y
OA) and k2 (along AB), t h e n t h e damping f o r c e d i s t r i with constants kl (along
b u t i o n s are, f o r s m a l l a n g l e s , l i n e a r f u n c t i o n s
of d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e r o d s
In t h i s case, t h e e q u a t i o n s ofmotion are
Fig. 4.25).

66

F2 + k2@

/2

(PA-c)cp2 = 0

(see

(4.153)
cont

A development p a r a l l e l t o t h a t which l e d t o Eq. (4.148) y i e l d s t h e f o l lowing e x p r e s s i o n for t h e c r i t i c a l load parameter:

Fev =(L

-/x=)

(4.154)

/N

(4.155)

and

Examination of (4.154)

establishesthefollowingresults:

made s t a b l e f o r
J u s t as i n t h e two previous cases, the system can be
a r b i t r a r i l y l a r g e P by l e t t i n g Ill be a r b i t r a r i l y l a r g e , i.e., as ql +

(0 f

l2 is

finite)

aev + 0
3
, The behaviorof

largeresemblesthat

lim

Pev

nz"

of i"d r a t h e r t h a n

T1

16/5

if

(16

+ 2A)/5

fiv.

0)

(4.154)

as both

9,

and

l2

become

I n t h i s case

is finite
if

1,

(4.157)

AI2

i s a l s o weaker
Thus t h e e x t e r n a l v i s c o u s damping of the type being considered
noted, however, t h a t when both damping pat h a n t h e i n t e r n a l damping.- It
f o r a l l A > 4.
rameters become unbounded F
md
Fev

iz

Another f e a t u r e conunon t o a l l t h r e e t y p e s o f
damping i s t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l
loadapproachesthevalue
2 as p2(B2,?12) approacheszero,
and t h i s r e s u l t i s
independent of F ~ ( B ~ , T \ ~ ) I. f
approach the value
iv
depends upon 12:

, however,

pl(B

1/3 (independently of

,'ll )

1 1

approacheszero,both

pa, B ) w h i l e t h e v a l u e

Fd and
of

fev

67

and

(4.159)

I n t h e case of small damping, i.e.,

Fev

C35(~+ 3)

- { [7(x

+4

T.J c< 1, (4.154) becomes

- 2 ) ] / 1 0 ( 2 ~ + 1)
+ 1) + 2(x + 8)(n - 2)/5(2n

(+
~ 8)(w

+ 3)/2(2x

1)l2
(4.160)

where

T h i s r e s u l t d i f f e r s markedlyfrom t h e cases of i n t e r n a l v i s c o u s and magnetic

damping i n t h a t Fev does not depend upon w but i s e q u a l t o t h e c o n s t a n t v a l u e
case of e x t e r n a lv i s ev
cous damping d i f f e r s from t h e v a l u e of 2 a t most by terms which are of second
degree in 7
of 2.

Therefore,the

c r i t i c a l loadparameter

l? i n t h e

j'

4.6.3

Magnetic Damping i n a ContinuousSystem

As a secondexampleof
t h e e f f e c t ofmagnetic damping, a n elastic c o n t i nuous c a n t i l e v e r a c t e d upon by a f o l l o w e r f o r c e P w i l l be considered (cf. Ref.
[41]).According
t ot h eB e r n o u l l i - E u l e rt h e o r y ,t h ee q u a t i o n
of motionwhich
describes the system when E 1 i s c o n s t a n t i s
2
4
a v
a v
a2v
E I ~ + P ~ + p ~ = w ( x )
ax
ax
at
p thelineal
where E1 is t h e f l e x u r a l r i g i d i t y ,
force per unit length acting in the y-direction.

68

(4.162)

mass d e n s i t y , and w(x) i s t h e

The displacement v(x,t) must s a t i s f y t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s

(4.163)

Now, i f t h e c a n t i l e v e r i s a p o r t i o n of a n electrical c i r c u i t h a v i n g res i s t a n c e R and i f the system undergoes motion

i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f a uniform
magnetic f i e l d
whose d i r e c t i o n i s normal t o t h e x-y plane, then the in-

8,

duced c u r r e n t w i l l provide the following

damping f o r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n :

(4.164)
With t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of (4.164)
dimensionless parameters

i n t o (4.162)

and the i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e

(4.165)

t h e e q u a t i o n of motion and boundary conditions appear as

(4.166)

2
-a =V-

a 3
v = O a t 5 = 1

a$

as

I n o r d e r t o deduce s t a b i l i t y criteria f o r t h i s system, we consider modal

s o l u t i o n s of (4.166), i.e., w e set

69

S u b s t i t u t i o n of (4.167)
problem o r Y.

i n t o (4.166)

results in the following

boundary v a l u e

(4.168)

Y = -d'f
d5

at

- 0

(4.169)
where t h e f u n c t i o n a l

K has been defined according to

kr

Ydg =

- n2K

(4.170)

W
e proceed now i n a purely formal manner t o s o l v e (4.168) s u b j e c t t o
The g e n e r a ls o l u t i o n of(4.168)
is

(4.169):

y! =

A1 s i n

w15

+ A2

cos

w15 + A3 s i n h w25

+ A4

cosh w25

+K

(4.171)

where

:w

[(F2-4n2)

'I2 + F]/2

w2 2 = [(F2- dR2) 1/2

(4.172)

- F]/2

S u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e s o l u t i o n (4.171) i n t o t h e boundary conditions leads to

system of four nonhomogeneous a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n s i n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s
A j ( j = 1,. ,4) whose s o l u t i o n i s found t o be

..

A1 =

- Kwl2 w2 3 (wlsin

wlcosh w2+ w2 cos culsinh w2)/A

A2 = K
w
l w2 3 (wlw2sin wlsinh tu2- :w

-K
w
:

w;(w,sin

A4 =

where

70

cos w1 cosh w2- w2 2) / A

(4.173)

wlcosh w2+ w2cos w s i n h w )/A

1
2

- Kwl3 w2 (w 1w2s i n

y i n h w2+ :w

cos wlcosh w2+

wl 2)/A

+ w1w2(w1

- w2 2) s i n w1

sinh

(4.174)

The f a c t t h a t t h e above s o l u t i o n i s g i v e n i n terms o f t h e unknown funct i o n a l K(Y) i s not a severe d e f i c i e n c y s i n c e p r i m a r y i n t e r e s t i n

the p r e s e n t
c o n t e x t i s focused on t h e n a t u r e of t h e complex f r e q u e n c i e s R. As long as
t h e real p a r t of n i s n e g a t i v e , t h e r o d
w i l l be asymptotically stable,
i.e.,
w i l l o s c i l l a t ew i t he x p o n e n t i a l l yd e c r e a s i n ga m p l i t u d e .
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
equation, by which t h e n a t u r e o f Q may beexamined,
i s obtained by r e q u i r i n g
that (4.171) s a t i s f y (4.170) n o n t r i v i a l l y , t h e A beinggiven by (4.173).

n:

This requirement leads to the following transcendental equation for

An

= v [wlw:(l-cos

wl)sinh w2

- w1 3 w2 2
- :w

COS

s i n h w2

wl s i n h

- w2

- :w
m2

w z s i n w1 cosh w2

+ w1 4

s i n w1 =

w2 s i n wl(l-coahw2)

(4.175)

V A ~

For small v a l u e s of F and f o r p o s i t i v e damping ( v > 0), a l l t h e r o o t s of

(4.175) are l o c a t e d i n t h e l e f t h a l f
of t h e complex plane. As F is increased,
one of the roots approaches the imaginary
axis and subsequently takes on a
p o s i t i v e real p a r t . When t h i so c c u r st h e n ,
by v i r t u e of (4.167), o s c i l l a t i o n s
withexponentiallyincreasingamplitude
w i l l r e s u l t . The valueofF
beyond
As F + Fd, t h e r e
which n has a p o s i t i v e real p a r t w i l l be designated as Fd.

, and

must be one imaginary root of

(4.175)

is imaginary, both sides of

(4.175)must

s i n c e wl,

w2 are real whenever Cl

approachzerosimultaneously.

The c r i t i c a l load i s foundnumerically

t o be Fd

= 12.84,

and t h e r e s u l t

i s independent of themagnitudeofthemagnetic
damping (provided i t is nonzero).
Comparing t h i s v a l u e w i t h t h e
c r i t i c a l load i n t h e a b s e n c e of a magn e t i cf i e l d ,F
= 20.05, w e f i n dt h a tt h em a g n e t i c
damping has a d e s t a b i l i z i n g
eL
e f f e c t of 36 percent.
4.6.4

RetardedFollowerForce

The system with two degrees of freedom discussed

i n Sect. 3.1 was subj e c t e d i n Ref.[42]
t o a retardedfollowerforce.
I t is remarkablethat a des t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t i s a s s o c i a t e d a l s o w i t h r e t a r d a t i o n of a f o l l o w e r f o r c e w i t h
c o n s t a n t time l a g T, which was s p e c i f i e d as

71

small m o t i o n s a b o u t t h e p o s i t i o n

The l i n e a r i z e d e q u a t i o n s f o r
l i b r i u m (cpl = 'p2 = 0 ) are

of s t a t i c equi-

(4.177)

S o l u t i o n s are soughtagain
tion
2 2
3me w

+ 2c

in t h e form(4.4)and

d2w2

Pa

leadtothefrequency

- c + Ple-"'
-0

2 2
m?uJ - c

m~

2 2

equa-

+c -

(4.178)

PI, + Pie-'"'

The presence of exponential terms s u g g e s t s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of Pontryagin's

of Routh-Hurwitz. A f t e r a comprehensive
s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a r a t h e rt h a nt h o s e
a very
and r a t h e r e l a b o r a t e a n a l y s i s we a r r i v e t o t h e i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t t h a t
small (vanishing) time l a g r e n d e r s t h e s y s t e m u n s t a b l e f o r
a l l p o s i t i v e (comp r e s s i v e )v a l u e s of t h ea p p l i e df o r c e
P. Even under t h e most f a v o r a b l e time
l a g t h e c r i t i c a l load was found t o be F 5 PR/c = 0.177, as compared t o
F = 2.086 f o r t h e same system without any r e t a r d a t i o n r.
Insupplementingtheanalysis
ofRef.[42],
i t may beremarked h e r e t h a t
emf o r small time l a g t h e s t a b i l i t y i n v e s t i g a t i o n c a n b e r e a d i l y c a r r i e d o u t
I f cp (t-') i s expanded i n t o a
2
Taylor series about cp (t) (see Ref. [ 183) and i f o n l y t h e f i r s t
two terms are
2
r e t a i n e d ,t h ee q u a t i o n s
of motionsimplifyto:
ployingthesimpler

Routh-Hurwitz criteria.

and lead to the frequency equation

PoR

3
2
+ P l R + P2n

of t h e form

+ p3n + p4

= 0

(4.180)

with

P, = 2;

P1 =

- 2FT;
(4.181)

72

where

n2 = In.e 2 w2 /c;

F = PR/c;
(4.182)

T = w / R = r /c/A ,fm
One of t h e R o u t h - H u r u i t z c o n d i t i o n s f o r a s y m p t o t i c s t a b i l i t y

i s t h a t po and

1 be of t h e same s i g n which r e s u l t s i n t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e ofFcr * 0 , t h a t

i s f o r F < 0 the system i s a s y m p t o t i c a l l y s t a b l e and f o r F > 0 i t i s unstable,
v e r i f y i n gt h u st h er e s u l to f
Ref. [42]. The remaining Routh-Hurwitz condi-

tionsdonotsupply
more s t r i n g e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s ofF.
It i s noteworthythat
doesnot depend o n t h e v a l u e
of T. The conclusion i s r e a c h e d t h a t i n t h e

i s unstable under a compressive

presence of even the slightest lag the system
series expansionintroducedaboveclearly
followerforce.Further,theTaylor
exhibits that small
time l a g i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n
of terms of
odd power i n t h e f r e q u e n c y e q u a t i o n , h a v i n g t h i s i n
common w i t h l i n e a r v i s c o u s
damping.
The d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t i s i n g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c e d by any s u f f i c i e n t l y
small, velocity-dependentforces,such
as, f o r example, C o r i o l i sf o r c e s .
Some
are r e a l i z e d by f l u i d j e t s ; theyhavereceivedconsidetypesofsuchforces
r a b l e a t t e n t i o n and havebeen r e f e r r e d t o as " j e t damping," [43]. Others are
produced,e.g.,
by flowthroughpipes
[44].
4.7
Uncertainties

amply i l l u s t r a t e
The f o r e g o i n g e x a m p l e s o f v a r i o u s d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t s
t h e n e c e s s i t y of a f i r m e r g r a s p of c e r t a i n a s p e c t s i n t h e a n a l y s i s
of s t a b i l i t y
[45]. What
problems as a p p l i e dt os y s t e m ss u b j e c t e dt of o l l o w e rf o r c e s ,c f .
i s needed i n p a r t i c u l a r i s a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t i n t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of systemparameters,cf.Sect.
8 . 2 . I f v e r y small, evenvanishing
q u a n t i t i e s which induce a d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t have such a d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e
on t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d s c a l c u l a t e d a n a l y t i c a l l y ,
how s h o u l d t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s
be
measured withrequiredaccuracy?Further,
how canonebe
s u r et h a tt h e" c o r r e c t "
or"right"parameters havebeen
included? It i s evenconceivablethat(vanishing)
d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t s e x i s t whichhaveneverbeenthought
of as y e t , and which
haveperhaps an even s t r o n g e r i n f l u e n c e on t h e s t a b i l i t y b o u n d a r i e s o f
a given
resystemthan any ofthosementioned.
Belowsome a t t e m p t s a r e d e s c r i b e d t o
medy t h i s o b v i o u s l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y
s t a t e of a f f a i r s .
I f w e are d e a l i n g w i t h a man-made system, i t would probably be desirable,
i f p o s s i b l e , t o make i t well-behaved bymeans of a s u i t a b l e c h o i c e ofsystem
parameters and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , by making i t s t r o n g l y a s y m p t o t i c a l l y s t a b l e t o
T h i s is donesometimes
i n c o n t r o l s y s t e m s where the"doubtful,"
beginwith.
"critical" or"marginal" case ofLiapunov
(pureimaginaryrootsofthecharact e r i s t i c equation) i s i n t e r p r e t e d as d e s c r i b i n g a n i n h e r e n t l y u n s t a b l e s y s t e m .
It is well known t h a t i f a system i s a s y m p t o t i c a l l y s t a b l e , small "destabil i z i n g " q u a n t i t i e s w i l l havebut a small e f f e c t o n t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d s ; t h i s
of t h e " d e s t a b i l i z i n g " q u a n t i t y .
e f f e c t w i l l vanish with the vanishing

73

I n manyman-made
systems and i n g i v e n n a t u r a l s y s t e m s t h e u n c e r t a i n t y c a n n o t becircumvented
i n t h i s manner. It may then be s u g g e s t e dt h a tt h ea n a l y s i s
by a n a n a l y s i s of "patternsofbeof s t a b i l i t y bereplaced(orsupplemented)
havior"ofthedisturbedsystemforvariousrangesofthecontrollingparameter
we are i n t e r e s t e d h e r e o n l y i n o s c i l l a t o r y r e s p o n s e
to a dis(force).Since
turbance,threetypesofbehavior
are q u a l i t a t i v e l y s k e t c h e d i n F i g . 4.26.
Let
i t beour aim t o c l a s s i f y t h e r e s p o n s e i n j u s t
two c a t e g o r i e s . Depending upon
a t hand, i t may bemeaningthe specific performance requirements of the system
ful to place the response in
Figs. 4.26aand
4.26b i n t o one category and t h e
r e s p o n s ei nF i g .4 . 2 6 ~i n t ot h eo t h e r .I nt h ef i r s tc a t e g o r yt h ed i s t u r b a n c e
fairly large in
remains small during a c e r t a i n i n t e r v a l oftime,whilegrowing
thesecondcategoryduringthe
same i n t e r v a l .
As a measureofthe
rate ofgrowth of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s i t i s c o n v e n i e n t t o
introducethelargest
real p a r t CY of t h e r e l e v a n t r o o t
of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
is analogous t ot h ei n t r o d u c t i o no ft h e
smallest n e g a t i v ep a r t
equation.This
as t h e " a b s o l u t e s t a b i l i t y
margin" [18].

The s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
by introducingthetransformation(Fig.4.27)

> 0 can be c a r r i e d o u t

a given cy

n = p + a

(4.183)

i n t ot h ec h a r a c t e r i s t i ce q u a t i o n ,e . g . ,
p0n

4
+

2
3
P p + P2n

+ p3n

+ p4

= 0

which y i e l d s t h e m o d i f i e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n f o r
aOP

+ a l p 3 + a2p2 + a 3p

+ a4

= 0

(4.184)

where
a.

a3

- po;
= p

al * PI + b p 0 ;

+ 2cup2+

2
3apl+

4 a3Po;

a2 -

2
Pg + k P 1 + 6CY Po

a4 - P4+ cup3+

2
Q

P2+

3
@

PI+

(4.185)

Po

Applying theusualRouth-Hurwitz
criteriatothismodifiedequation,thecrit i c a lf o r c ec a n
be c a l c u l a t e d .F o rt h es y s t e mo fF i g .4 . 1t h ec r i t i c a lf o r c e
F i s t o be c a l c u l a t e d from
C

x ~ a a a
12 3
a0a3

2
a l a4

(4.186)

and is found t o be
(4.187)

74

vherc
A = 8cr(dl-&do)

B = dld3

+ 2dld2 -

C = dld2d3

dodt

4dod3

CY2d l 2

(4.188)

dl 2d4

and

(4.189)

The r e s u l t s of t h en u m e r i c a lc a l c u l a t i o n sa r ed i s p l a y e di nF i g .
4.28.Thin
solidlinesrepresentthecriticalforce
Fc as functionofthegrowthparameter a f o rg i v e n

damping c o e f f i c i e n t s B

The t h i nc u r v e si nF i g .
4.28 a r e
i'
the same as t h o s e i n F i g .
4.5,buttheyhavebeencalculated
i n a different
manner and t h e i r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s a l s o e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t .
The c r i t i c a l f o r c e a s d e f i n e d w i t h t h e
a i d of the growth parameter a i s
notentirelysatisfactorybecause
i t doesnot separate t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s
of
behaviorillustratedinFig.
4.26.
We seek now t o d e f i n e what we may c a l l a
"transition" force Ft belwhich CY (whether positive or negative)
would be
i t would be r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e .
r e l a t i v e l y small andabovewhich
as t h e f o r c e f o r
be r e a s o n a b l e t o d e f i n e t h e t r a n s i t i o n f o r c e F t

absolute value of t h e c u r v a t u r e
Correspondingcalculationshave
sitionforceFtforvariousvalues

It a p p e a r st o
which the

= 0 a t t a i n s a maximum.
of a given curve F(a)
been c a r r i e d o u t and thevalues of t h e t r a n of the damping c o e f f i c i e n t s h a v e been

It is notedthatforgiven
damping
joined by a t h i c k s o l i d l i n e i n F i g .
4.28.
c o e f f i c i e n t s Bi t h e r e e x i s t s a n a s s o c i a t e d t r a n s i t i o n f o r c e
F which i n t u r n
t

correspondsto

a c e r t a i np a r t i c u l a rv a l u e

rimentaldetermination
feasible.
Fe,while

of systemparametersassociatedwith

It should be a l s o observedthat

of growthparameter

approaches F

The expe-

t'

a p p e a r st o

as damping decreases F

a s damping i n c r e a s e s .

d
t
c r i t i c a l and t r a n s i t i o n f o r c e s

CY

be

approaches

The r e l a t i o n s h i p be'tween

is t h u s c l a r i f i e d .

It i s r a t h e r e v i d e n t t h a t t h e
two types of systembehavior which a r e
separated by Ftcan be l e s s o r more d i f f e r e n t and t h u s ' i t may be a p p r o p r i a t e

to introduce the notion

of degree of s e p a r a t i o n CJ a s s o c i a t e d w i t h any p a r t i c u l a r valueof Ft.
T h i sa d d i t i o n a lc h a r a c t e r i s t i cs e p a r a t i n g" p a t t e r n s
of

75

behavior" could be made t o depend on the magnitudes of curvature

thefunction F ( d a t

CY.t

and s l o p e of

The parameter (Y canbe employed y e t f o r a n o t h e r , p u r e l y m a t h e m a t i c a l

small cy, B1 and B2 Eq. (4.186) may be w r i t t e n i n t h e
form
purpose.For

HereFeland

Fe2 a r e t h e c r i t i c a l l o a d s o b t a i n e d i n t h e a b s e n c e

ofdamping,

while F i s t h e c r i t i c a l loadforvanishing
damping. It is o b s e r v e dt h a te i t h e r
d
c r i t i c a l load may be obtained by a l i m i t i n g p r o c e s s i n
Eq. (4.190), which
F, B1 or B2 i n terms of t h er e m a i n i n gt h r e eq u a n t i t i e s .I f
g i v e se i t h e r (Y,
the growth parameter

0 =' B1/B2

butnot

(Y

0 , i t i s seen that

on B1 and B2 i t s e l f .

c i e n t s are made t o v a n i s h f i r s t , t h e n

Fd , which depends only

By c o n t r a s t , i f t h e

-.

Fel o r I?

on

damping c o e f f i -

Fe2, r e g a r d l e s s of t h e

valueofthe(small)value
of a. Thus t h ei n t r o d u c t i o n of the growth parameter (Y p e r m i t st oa p p r o a c ht h ec r i t i c a ll o a df o r
no damping Fe l even i n t h e
presence of vanishing damping,removing
effects.

76

mathematically any d e s t a b i l i z i n g

CHAPTER V

CO~INUOUSSYSTEMS
5 .I1n t r o d u c t i o n

was not elaIn the preceding chapter

one a s p e c t of problems of continua
borated upon, namely, t h a t s t a b i l i t y must n e c e s s a r i l y be d e f i n e d w i t h r e s p e c t
t o a metric (sometimes implied)whichmeasures
distance in an infinitedimensionalspace.
One h a s t o d e f i n e what is meant by "nearness" t o t h e
e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n whose s t a b i l i t y i s being examined. This metric
may be p o s t u l a t e d i n v a r i o u s s u i t a b l e forms, depending upon t h e p h y s i c a l asp e c t s and therequirementsofthespecificproblem
a t hand. The equationsof
t h e boundary v a l u e problem of a continuum, t o g e t h e r w i t h a n e x p l i c i t l y d e f i n e d
metric p form a f u n c t i o n a l metric space whose fundamental properties depend
s t r o n g l y on p and t h u s l e a d t o d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s
of a s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s .
With r e f e r e n c e t o a conservativesystem,Koiter
[46,47] has pointed out
t h a t a c o n v e n t i o n a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of Liapunov's definition
of s t a b i l i t y ,
which r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s
and t h e v e l o c i t i e s r e m a i n a r b i t r a r i l y
small a t each point and f o r a l l p o s i t i v e t i m e , p r o v i d e d t h e i n i t i a l d i s t u r b A modiances are s u f f i c i e n t l y small, canhardly be c o n s i d e r e ds a t i s f a c t o r y .
f i e d c o n c e p t of s t a b i l i t y was suggested which r e d u c e s t o L i a p u n o v ' s d e f i n i t i o n
f o r t h e case of a d i s c r e t e system.
I n t h i s Chapter,followingthedevelopment
ofRef.
[48], a s u f f i c i e n t
condition for the stability
of a l i n e a r l y v i s c o e l a s t i c continuumsubjectedto
s u r f a c e t r a c t i o n s which f o l l o w p a r t i a l l y t h e d e f o r m a t i o n
of t h e s o l i d i s e s t a b metric.
lished with respect to an average
5.2

D e f i n i t i o n s of S t a b i l i t y

We consider a f i n i t e i s o t r o p i c , homogeneous, l i n e a r l y v i s c o e l a s t i c s o l i d ,
bounded by a r e g u l a r s u r f a c e S, contained i n a volume V. A t t h e time t = 0,
t h es o l i d i s i n a s t a t e of i n i t i a l stress uij:
i,j
1,2,3,caused
by a sys-

t e m of p a r t i a l f o l l o w e r s u r f a c e t r a c t i o n s

pi,

a p p l i e d a t t h e boundary S.

We

shall refer to the state of initial

stress of t h e s o l i d as unperturbed(equistate.
librium) s t a t e and study i t s p o s s i b l e m o t i o n s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h i s
Furthermore, w e s h a l l assume t h a t t h e q u a n t i t i e s d e s c r i b i n g t h e p e r t u r b e d
state
a r e small ( t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s w i l l , subsequently,beindicated
by a bar) so t h a t
a l l terms of orderhigherthanthesecond
may beneglected.
The equations of
a fixed orthogonal Cartesian coordimotion of the perturbed solid, referred to
natesystem, are [ 8 ]

..

i , j , k = 1,2,3

77

where m is the mass d e n s i t y , x are t h e c o o r d i n a t e s , ii thedisplacement

j
i
ponents measuredfrom
theunperturbed
state,
t h e components o ft h eu n i t
normal t o S,

ci

com-

"3

t h ep e r t u r b a t i o n so ft h ea p p l i e ds u r f a c et r a c t i o n s .I nt h e s e

equations and i n t h e s e q u e l t h e r e p e a t e d i n d i c e s
are s-ed
over the range of
theirdefinition.
A comafollowed by i n d i c e s k, j i n d i c a t e s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n
xj, %, and d o t s d e n o t e d e r i v a t i v e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o
time. W
e
withrespectto

shall assume h e r e t h a t

where a(x)

cu(x1,x2,x3) i s a parameter which serves to describe the

manner

i n which t h es u r f a c et r a c t i o n sf o l l o wt h ed e f o r m a t i o n .I f
Q
0 thesystem
i s c o n s e r v a t i v e and f o r cy E 1 w e have t h e case of follower force introduced
The c o n s t i t u t i v e e q u a t i o n s s h a l l be taken i n t h e form
i n [8].

cij kA
where 6

ij

= A'6ij6ke

+ 2p'bikbjQ

i s t h e Kronecker d e l t a , 1 and p are Lame' c o n s t a n t s , and A'

are v i s c o u s c o n s t a n t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o

and p '

Lame' c o n s t a n t s .

A general solution to the nonself-adjoint

mixed i n i t i a l and boundary
v a l u e problem (5.1) cannot, i ng e n e r a l ,b ee a s i l yo b t a i n e d .T h e r e f o r e ,i n
order to study the. stability
of t h i s system, w e have t o r e s o r t t o some o t h e r
means and, consequently, we s h a l l n o t e x p e c t t o g a i n
as much information conc e r n i n g s t a b i l i t y as w e would i f w e were t o c o n s t r u c t and e v a l u a t e a g e n e r a l
As w e s h a l l see, t h i s i s byno means a shortcoming.
s o l u t i o n of thesystem.
A strong stability criterion, that
may beimposedon
thesystem and which
(5.1) completely, would beof
couldbeapplied
i f w e were t o s o l v e s y s t e m
doubtfulinterest.
I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , we s h a l l c o n s i d e r a c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n a l (which, i n
e f f e c t ,e x p r e s s e st h ee n e r g y
of thesystem) and e x p l o r e t h e s t a b i l i t y
of
we s h a l l show t h a t
(5.1) i n some appropriateaveragesense.Furthermore,
t h e u s u a l G a l e r k i n method, w h i c h r e d u c e s t h e s y s t e m o f p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l
same
equations (5.1) t o a set of o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s , y i e l d s t h e
r e s u l t s as those obtained by a study of t h e f u n c t i o n a l mentioned,provided
a l l t h e series expansions employed converge i n an average sense.
To t h i s end, w e consider a complete set of normalizedeigenvectors, obt a i n e d by s o l v i n g t h e _homogeneous, s e l f - a d j o i n t s y s t e m deducedfrom
(5.1) by
same geometrical boundary
setting u
= cijka = pi = 0 , which has the
0

78

ij

c o n d i t i o n s as t h e o r i g i n a l problem.

by {cpin(x)]; i = 1,2,3,

bedenoted

Let t h i s set oforthonormaleigenvectors

n = 1,2,.

..,-.

We s h a l l r e d u c e o u r o r i g i -

n a l s y s t e m of p a r t i a l t o a s y s t e m o f o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s
by expanding ij and i t s d e r i v a t i v e s i n terms of t h e s e e i g e n v e c t o r s , w i t h o u t
any
i
a t t e m p tt or e s o l v et h eq u e s t i o no f
convergence. However,some
comparison
between t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by a p p l y i n g t h i s method t o some simple problems
a d the exact s o l u t i o n s [ 8 ] c e r t a i n l y s u g g e s t s t h a t c o n v e r g e n c e
may be asslrmed.*
I n o u r problem, w e s h a l l t h e r e f o r e s t a t e t h a t i f convergence exists
(inanaveragesense
a t least) t h e n t h e two methods y i e l d i d e n t i c a l r e s u l t s .
Let us now c o n s i d e r t h e f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g s t a b i l i t y
of a
s o l i d , and review f i r s t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s of s t a b i l i t y f o r a d i s c r e t e system,
mentioned i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n .

W
e examine a system with r degrees of freedom described
by generalized
n = 1,2,..,,r.For
a holonomic
c o o r d i n a t e s qn and g e n e r a l i z e d v e l o c i t i e s ;4,
andautonomous

in

as

system, w e write theequationsofmotion

= fn(zl,z 2...,z

2r);

n = 1,2,.. .,2r

where

zr+n = 4,;
3

1,2,...,r

are bounded, continuous, real functionsvanishingor

z = 0.

W
e
n
assume f n s a t i s f y a l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e
of a s i n g l e v a l u e ds o l u t i o nf o r
t > 0 i nt h er e g i o n
of t h e d e f i n i t i o n of z
Furthermore,
n*
w e r e p r e s e n t t h e state of t h i s dynamic system by a p o i n t i n a 2r-dimensional
Euclideanspace, EZr, w i t hc o o r d i n a t e s z
n = 1,2,.
, 2 r . The e q u i l i b r i u m
n'
s t a t e of thesystem a t t h e o r i g i n i s s a i d t o be s t a b l e i f o r any c > 0 we
2r
c a n f i n d a 6 > 0 depending on c o n l y s u c h t h a t
when
z:
< 6 at t = 0,
2r
n=l
w e have
Z:
< c f o r a l l t > 0 . I n t h eo p p o s i t e case z n = 0 i s c a l l e d
n=l
.~
it is
u n s t a b l e [14].
Furthermore, z = 0 i s c a l l e da s y m p t o t i c a l l ys t a b l ei f
n
and f,(z)

..

~~~~

"
"

~.

~~.
"

The paradox i n the problem of f l u t t e r of a membrane, as was shown i n

[ 8 ] , is n o t r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s y s t e m
i s nonself-adjoint.

79

The above d e f i n i t i o n s o f s t a b i l i t y
are due t o Liapunov [11,14].
He a l s o
supplied the proofs of necessity
and s u f f i c i e n c y , employing t h e n o t i o n o f d i s tance in the finite-dimensional Euclidean space
E
2r
For systems with an infinite
number of degrees of freedom (continuous
systems) the notion
of d i s t a n c e i n a n i n f i n i t e d i m e n s i o n a l s p a c e n e e d s t o b e
introduced, i f onewishes t o extendLiapunov'sconcepts
t o suchsystems.
In
and
t h i s case, we have t o b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h f u n c t i o n a l s r a t h e r t h a n f u n c t i o n s
must e x p l i c i t l y d e f i n e a measure (metric p) of d i s t a n c e of two s t a t e s of t h e
system and t h e n s t u d y t h e s t a b i l i t y
of t h e s y s t e m w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h i s
metric p .
The metric p may be selected i n any s u i t a b l e manner (provided i t s a t i s f i e s t h r e e
fundamentalconditions [ 4 9 ] so as t o f u l f i l l some physical requirements of t h e
example, t o limit thedisplacements
problem a t hand. It may b ed e s i r a b l e ,f o r
case we d e f i n e
and t h e v e l o c i t i e s a t e a c h p o i n t o f t h e s o l i d , i n w h i c h
"

p1 = uiui

..

+ Uiiii

everywhere i n V and on S

I n some o t h e r cases, w e may w i s h t o restrict t h e s t r a i n s as w e l l a s t h e d i s placements and t h e v e l o c i t i e . ; a t e a c h p o i n t of t h e s o l i d , s u c h t h a t

"

pp = uiui

..

+ uiui + ui,jui,j

everywhere i n V and on S

F o r most p r a c t i c a l problems,however,
example,

it is usually preferable to define

p in an average sense; for

pg =

Jv

[:pi

+ ii,jui,

+ upi] dv

W
e now state t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e i n i t i a l
state of a
solid with respect to an explicitly defined
metric p, by a p p r o p r i a t e l y extending the corresponding definition for
a f i n i t e system.

i s s a i d t o be s t a b l e i f f o r a
The i n i t i a l state of the continuous solid
g i v e n E > 0 w e c a n f i n d a b > 0 depending on B o n l y s u c h t h a t when p < 6 a t
t = 0 we have p < E f o r a l l t > 0 . I n t h e o p p o s i t e c a s e , t h e i n i t i a l
state
i s calledunstable.Furthermore,theunperturbed
state is calledasymptotistabic a l l y s t a b l e i f i t i s stable and l i m p = 0 . The s u f f i c i e n c y theoremof
t+l i t y maynow
be s t a t e d as follows:
Theorem. I n o r d e r that theunperturbed state ofsystem (5.1)be
stable
a m e t r i c p, i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s ,
by v i r t u e of
withrespectto
therequirementsoftheboundaryvalueproblem(5.1),
a finite,nonincreasing
f u n c t i o n a l w h i c h is i d e n t i c a l l y e q u a l t o z e r o f o r
p = 0 and a d m i t s a n i n f i n i metric p .
t e l y small upper bound w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
T h i s theorem i s a n a p p r o p r i a t e v e r s i o n of t h e theorem of s t a b i l i t y g i v e n
byMovchan '[SO].
I n t h e s e q u e l we s h a l l u s e t h i s theorem t o e s t a b l i s h a s u f ficiencycriterionforthestability
ofsystem(5.1).
But l e t us f i r s t d i s c u s s some a s p e c t s o f t h e d e f i n i t i o n
of s t a b i l i t y .

80

It i s s e e n t h a t t h e s t a b i l i t y
c r i t e r i a are highly dependent upon the spec i f i c a t i o no ft h em e t r i c
p. W
e may n o t , t h e r e f o r e , e x p e c t t o a p p l y
a criterion
p t o p2 and g e t l i k e r e s u l t s .
The problem which was t r e a t e d
o b t a i n e d ,s a y ,f o r
3
by Shield and Green r51] may e x e m p l i f y t h i s v e r y p o i n t .
An i s o t r o p i c , hcmogeneous,linearlyelasticsphere
w a s perturbed by r a d i a l l y symmetricappliedina t thecenter
f i n i t e s i m a l d i s t u r b a n c e s a t t * 0 and i t was shown t h a t t h e s t r a i n
of thespherecan
become f i n i t e f o r sane t > 0. L e t us show t h a t a l t h o u g h t h i s
p2, i t i s s t a b l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o
system is u n s t a b l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e m e t r i c
p3.

To t h i s end considerthefollowingfunctional

whose t i m e d e r i v a t i v e i s z e r o by v i r t u e of theequationofmotion,
andwhich
metric p3. From t h e
a d m i t sa ni n f i n i t e s i m a lu p p e r
bound w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
inequalities [52]
c1

s,

-i-i
u u dv g

s,

"

ui, jui, jdv

jv Ui,jui,jdv
* Jv CijkAzi,j%,4dv
"

'2

which a r e v a l i d f o r

a l l admissiblemotions

f i x e dp o s i t i v ec o n s t a n t si n d e p e n d e n t
equality

of t h e s o l i d , w i t h

ai ywe

of

C1 and C2 being

immediatelyconstructthein-

H1 2 Kp3 f o r a l l t 2 0

where K i s a l s o a f i x e dp o s i t i v e

number notdependent

on

i~i'

W
e l e t H1 < Ke

and o b t a i n p <
a t t = 0. B u t H is a nonincreasingfunction
of time.
3
1
Therefore Kc i s an upper bound of H1 f o r a l l t 2 0, which i m p l i e s
p3

I n [51],

< e

for a l l t

theinitialdisturbances

distances
where r measures
f ( r ) i s given by

from t h ce e n t e r

f (r) = 0
f(r) =

were t a k e n t o

1
4
(r-a) (r-a-2ea)
5 5

be

of the
sphere,

c =

, and

O r r 5 a

a < r g a + + e a

e a

f (r) = 0

+ 2ea

i;

81

u=-

5 5

3
r2(2ca-r) (7r-6ca)

e a
whichimmediately
of thesphere

yields p

= O(g)

3
at thisinstant

a t t = a/c, w h i l e t h e s t r a i n

a t t h ec e n t e r

is finite:

= 6

r=ea

r5ea

I n t h i s example, one i s a b l e t o o b t a i n a n e x a c t s o l u t i o n t o t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of t h e boundary value problem. Therefore, one i s i nt h ep o s i t i o n

of r e q u i r i n g as s t r o n g a s t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i o n as one p l e a s e s . We see t h a t t h e
system i s n o ts t a b l ew i t hr e s p e c tt o
p
although i t i s s t a b l ew i t hr e s p e c t
2'
t o p 3 . The i m p o r t a n tp o i n tt on o t ei nt h i sc o n n e c t i o n
is t h a tt h es t a b i l i t y
couldhavebeendeducedwithoutpossessingan
3
of t h e problem.

withrespecttothemetric
explicit solution

In most practical problems, the system

may w e l l be s t a b l e f o r a l l p r a c t i calpurposes,while
i t may n o t s a t i s f y t h e p o i n t w i s e s t a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n s w i t h
p and p
I nt h o s e cases t h e r e may e x i s t a f i n i t e
r e s p e c tt ot h em e t r i c s
1
2'
number of p o i n t s i n V wherean i n f i n i t e s i m a l p e r t u r b a t i o n a t t = 0 may cause
f i n i t e ,s a y ,s t r a i n s
a t t h e s ep o i n t sf o r
some t > 0. I f t h e c o l l e c t i o n
of
t h e s e p o i n t s forms a set with measure z e r o , t h e n t h e s t a b i l i t y
may e x i s t w i t h
p
respecttothemetric
3'

seems t o be more a p p e a l i n g a l s o from a purelymathematical

3
p o i n t ofview.
I nt h i sr e g a r d ,l e t
u s n o t et h a tt h es e r i e se x p a n s i o n
of a
piecewise continuous function in
a f i n i t e domain i s an approximation in a mean
squaresense and n o t a pointwiserepresentation.
The followingdiscussion w i l l ,
t h e r e f o r e , be d e v o t e d t o t h e s t a b i l i t y
of system(5.1)withrespect
tothe
metric p
3'
The m e t r i c p

5.3AnalysisofStability
W
e consider a f u n c t i o n a l H given by

and n o t e t h a t ,

82

from therequirements

of t h e boundaryvalueproblem(5.1),

H is

I
a continuous f u n c t i o n a l which v a n i s h e s i d e n t i c a l l y a t t h e i n i t i a l Unperturbed
state of t h e s o l i d , p g = 0 . The t o t a l t i m e d e r i v a t i v e of H is

But we have

and

" ,fstujkui,kn
where i n t h e l a s t r e d u c t i o n we haveusedthe
s t a t e we have
U

iJ,J

in

= O

and

ajknk

k ] ZidS

factthatfortheunperturbed

on

Equation (5.5) noy becomes

p3

C 15Vs

at t = 0

Then, as H > 0, we have

H < Kc

at t

The i n i t i a l d i s t u r b a n c e s may a l s o a d m i t s i n g u l a r i t i e s a t f i n i t e number

of i s o l a t e d p o i n t s i n V s u c h t h a t p = O(s), and H = O(c) a t t = 0.
3

83

where K i s a p o s i t i v e c o n s t a n t .
But 6 i s anupper bound of H f o r a l l t > 0 ,
as H is a nonincreasingfunctionof
time. Therefore, i f H i s a p o s i t i v e d e finitefunctional,then
a l l therequirements of t h e s u f f i c i e n c y theorem are
f u l f i l l e d and we havethefollowing
theorem:

a set ofparTheorem. For a l i n e a r l y v i s c o e l a s t i c s o l i d s u b j e c t e d t o

t i a lf o l l o w e rf o r c e st o
be s t a b l ew i t hr e s p e c tt ot h e
metric p
i t i s suf.
3'
ficientthatthefunctional
H given by Eq. (5.5) be a p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e quantityforadmissibleperturbedmotions
of t h e s o l i d a b o u t t h e
s t a t e of i n i t i a l
stress.
L e t us note that the requirement of
H being a p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e f u n c t i i s given by p
This
onal may imply a s t r o n g e rs t a b i l i t yc o n d i t i o nt h a n
3'
touchesthen upon t h e q u e s t i o n of the necessary conditions
which w i l l n o t be
dealt with here.
From t h e above d i s c u s s i o n we
may
conclude that the
commonly used energy
p
Theremethods y i e l ds t a b i l i t yc r i t e r i aw i t hr e s p e c tt oa na v e r a g em e t r i c
3'
any more information than is
f o r e we may n o t , by any means, e x p e c t t o r e t r i e v e
r e t a i n e d a f t e r :hisaveragingprocess.Thisconclusion
is a l s o v a l i d f o r
most
as t h e B i t z , t h e G a l e r k i n ,
and o t h e r methods,where
approximatemethodssuch
of p a r t i a l t o a set of
we use sane averaging processes to reduce the system
o r d i n a r yd i f f e r e n t i a le q u a t i o n s .
We s h a l le x p l o r et h i sp o i n tf u r t h e ri nt h e
sequel,but
l e t us make f i r s t a n o t h e r remarkregardingsystem(5.1)
and func4

t i o n a l H.

We l e t s o l u t i o n of (5.1)beof

a form

Gi

= $i(x)ePt and o b t a i n from

(5 5)

I f we s u b s t i t u t e iii = $ i e P t i n t o

Eqs.

(5.1), we obtain an eigenvalue

problem

(5.8) we
may
c o n c l u d et h a t ,f o r

tIo be a nonwitheigenvalues p. FromEq.

i n c r e a s i n g f u n c t i o n of time, p musthave a nonpositive real p a r t .
We now reduce Eqs. (5.1) t o a set of o r d i n a r yd i f f e r e n t i a le q u a t i o n s .
assume t h a t ii and i t s d e r i v a t i v e sc a n be expanded i n terms of thecomplete
i

s e t of eigenvectors

84

-0

{v i n (x)}

i = 1,2,3, n = 1,2

,...,-, suchthat

W
e

n=l m = l

N
I

'

n=l m=l

and

f o r some N > M y where M i s a l a r g e p o s i t i v e number depending on ei;

i=lY2,...,5

i n t h e above i n e q u a l i t i e s and ci may be made as small as w e p l e a s e by selec-

an H, Eq. (5.7)

t i n g M s u f f i c i e n t l yl a r g e .F o rs u c h

n = lm = l

r e d u c e st o

n=l

where

and
'rnn

re

Jv

I n o b t a i n i n g (5.10)
thefactthat
{vi,]

For

C;jk.t%n,l~im,jdV

, in addition to the

k ; m = 1,2,...,?4
N

Gausstheorem

w e have a l s o u t i l i z e d

are s o l u t i o n s t o

notidenticallyzero,

Eqs. (5.10)

N
m = 1,2,

yield

...,N

(5.11)

which i s a s y s t e m o f n o n s e l f - a d j o i n t , o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s .

85

Similarly, E reduces to

where

and
(5.12)

< B; R > 0 , we c a n f i n d a n M
s u c h t h a t H is a l s o a p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e q u a n t i t y w i t h i n a r i n g R1 < pg c a,

For a p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e R i n a r e g i o n p3

where

T3

is d e f i n e d by
N
n=1

i n a 2 N-dimensionalEuclideanspace.Moreover,

-R

is dependentonly upon
1
si i n i n e q u a l i t i e s ( 5 . 9 ) and may be made as small as we p l e a s e by choosing M
l a r g e enough. From t h e s t a b i l i t y theorem we t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e t h a t , f o r
system (5.1) t o be s t a b l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
metric p3, i t i s s u f f i c i e l t
that

be a p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e q u a n t i t y .

But

v a n i s h e sf o r

p3

= 0 and d z / d t

is i d e n t i c a l l y e q u a l t o z e r o a l o n g
any p a t h s a t i s f y i n g e q u a t i o n s (5.11).
Therefore, by Liapunov's s t a b i l i t y theorem[14],system
(5.11) is s t a b l e
when H i s a p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e q u a n t i t y , and l i k e w i s e when H i s a p o s i t i v e
definite quantity.
The study of s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s y s t e m
of l i n e a r homogeneous o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s (5.10) is, however, a classical mathematical problem.
Forthestabilityof
(5.11), i t is necessary and s u f f i c i e n t that t h e r o o t s
of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c e q u a t i o n of 15.11) havenonpositive real p a r t s . However,thestudy
of t h e f u n c t i o n a l X, which i n f a c t i s a statement of the
a better insight into the physical
energy of the system, can provide us with
behaviorofthesystem.Divergentmotion
may o c c u r i f , f o r
a v i r t u a l (static)
displacementofthesystem,the
work of t h e a p p l i e d f o r c e s e q u a l s t h e
change
in the strain energy
of t h e system, namely,

86

or equivalently
(5.13)
where 6 i s t h e v a r i a t i o n a l

aymbol.

L e t uanow
assume t h a t CY i s f u n c t i o n of a real parameter y; -m < y < +
L
D
,
in a d d i t i o n t o xl, x2, and x3; u
cr(x1,x2,x3; y ) . Moreover, we consider a
4

p r o p o r t i o n a ll o a d i n g

@p (x), where B is a f i n i t e , d i m e n s i o n l e s s ,
j

real number;

< m. I n t h i s way, t h ep l a n e of 6 y is d i v i d e di n t or e g i o n s
of s t a b i l i t y and i n s t a b i l i t y by equation (5.13).
The e f f e c to ft h el i n e a rv i a c o m i t y
is t o make t h e s t a b i l i t y r e g i o n s
a c l o s e d s e t (ex(Eq. 5 . 3 ) , i n t h i s c a s e ,
a s e t w i t h measurezero; a f i n i t e number of i s o l a t e d
cept,possibly,for
p o i n t s i n this plane).

0 4

The l i m i t i n g c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e f l u t t e r
obtained when

of system(5.1),

by c o n t r a s t , is

its
where tu i s thefrequency of steady s t a t e o s c i l l a t i o n of t h e s o l i d a b o u t
unperturbed state. The motion of t h es o l i dd e c a y si f
H > 0 and a m p l i f i e s
3
i f H3 < 0 .

Forcontinuoussystemswithslight
damping,Nemat-Nasser
[53] proved
thattheflutterloadparameter
of t h e undamped system is an upper bound f o r
t h a t ofthesystemwithslight
damping. He a l s oe s t a b l i s h e dt h en e c e s s a r y
and s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n f o r s t a b i l i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o f l u t t e r
and s u f f i c i ency c o n d i t i o n s f o r s t a b i l i t y w i t h r e s p e c t t o d i v e r g e n c e
and f l u t t e r . Based
in [53] anapproximate method
on energyconsiderationshefurthersuggested
of s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s which r e d u c e s t o t h e u s u a l e n e r g y c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e
case of conservativeloading.
A complex treatment of a c l a s s ofone-dimenw a s suggestedin [54].
sionalcontinuoussystems
For a f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n of s t a b i l i t y of continuous (not necessarily
nonconservative)systems,referenceshould
be made t o t h e r e c e n t work by
Hsu [55] and by h o p s and Wilkes 561.

87

CHAPTER V I

METHODS OF ANALYSIS
6.1Discrete

Sys terns

6.1.1
Introduction
The mathematical analysis of s t a b i l i t y of d i s c r e t e s y s t e m s i s most r e a d i l y
carriedoutusing
Routh-Hurwitz c r i t e r i a t o d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e
of eigenvalues,
a s u b j e c t amply e x p l o r e di nt h el i t e r a t u r e ,
see, e.g., [18].
As an a l t e r n a t i v e ,
one could think of a p p l y i n g L i a p u n o v ' s d i r e c t method, [14], w i t h s u i t a b l e modif i c a t i o n s .I nc o n s e r v a t i v es y s t e m st h i s
method i s tantamounttothe
well-known
energymethod,but
i ns y s t e m sw i t hf o l l o w e rf o r c e ss u i t a b l eg e n e r a l i z a t i o n sa r e
required.
Such a g e n e r a l i z a t i o nh a s
been presented by Walker [57].
The a p proachhastheadvantage,overaneigenvalueanalysis,thatthe
manner, i n which
v a r i o u sp a r a m e t e rc h a n g e si n f l u e n c es t a b i l i t y ,
becomes much more v i s i b l e . Below
theidea and examplespresentedin
Ref.[57]
arereproduced.
L e t us examine f i r s t a c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s c r e t e

dynamic system i n v e c t o r

form

G + C i + K q = O
U

where q is ann-vector of displacement, M y C , K a r e n x n m a t r i c e s , and M i s

p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e and symmetric. Most e a r l y work i s based on energyconsider a t i o n s , and considerstheso-called"conservative"
problem (K symmetric and
p o s i t i v ed e f i n i t e )w i t h" d i s s i p a t i o n "f o r c e s
(C symmetric and p o s i t i v e semid e f i n i t e )a n d / o r" g y r o s c o p i c "f o r c e s
(C skew symmetric) [58].
F o rt h i s problem,
t h et o t a le n e r g y

i s a p o s i t i v e - d e f i n i t ef u n c t i o n ,h a v i n gt h e

time d e r i v a t i v e

Depending on whether C i s d e f i n i t e , s e m i d e f i n i t e , o r z e r o , v a r i o u s e x a c t
statements can be made c o n c e r n i n g s t a b i l i t y o r a s y m p t o t i c s t a b i l i t y
of the
= 0 [58].
equilibrium 2 =

"

6.1.2
*
%

A..''Ge-ne?~lized
Energy" Function

The g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i n Ref.[57]
and p l a c i n gt h es y s t e mi nt h e

s t a r t s by d e f i n i n g n - v e c t o r s
form

sl = q ,
N

89

whileassuming M =
tainedthroughout.

2,d e t

IMl # 0, d e t 1K1 # 0.

Consider now t h e g e n e r a l q u a d r a t i c

[ZF

PGM-'

are main-

form

where F , G , H, a r e n x n matrices, F = FT, G * G

a c c o r d i n gt ot h ee q u a t i o n s
of s t a t e , we have

Theseassumptions

Taking t h e time d e r i v a t i v e

T -1
M
HI 1 1

-c

a full
The above f u n c t i o n and i t s d e r i v a t i v e a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y g e n e r a l f o r
a t t a c k on t h e s t a b i l i t y problem by the methodsofLiapunov,
but are a l s o t o o
complicatedto be of much p r a c t i c a lv a l u e .
It seems d e s i r a b l e t o s a c r i f i c e
would r e s u l t . Keeping
some g e n e r a l i t y i f a s i g n i f i c a n tr e d u c t i o ni nc o m p l e x i t y
i n mind t h a t when the energy method works, i t works v e r y e a s i l y , s u p p o s e
we
now
V tohave two of t h e p r o p e r t i e s which theenergyfunction,
restrictthefunction
namely:
(1)If
C = 0 , then 9 5 0 , (2) I f
when i t i s meaningful,normallyhas;
C # 0 , then 9 dependsonly upon %. These c o n d i t i o n s imply
F - G M - ~K = [ G M - ~

KT

H = 0
T h u s ,t h er e s t r i c t e df u n c t i o n

is

G%
-1
where G and GM K a r e symmetric, and i t s d e r i v a t i v e i s
f = - 2 &

-1

GM

C %

(6.9)

-1
We n o t e t h a t GM-lC need n o t be symmetric, and t h a t f 9 0 i f GM C i s s k e w symmetric. W
e also note that for
symmetric K we may choose G = M and produce
we need n o td o so. Sincethe symmetry r e q u i r e theenergyfunction,although
-1
2
ments on G and GM K r e s u l t i n (n -n) l l n e a re q u a t i o n si nt h en 2e l e m e n t s
of
G , t h e r e a r e n o r m a l l y n independent matrices G (producing n independentfunct i o n s V) which s a t i s f y t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s .
We a r e now i n a p o s i t i o n t o draw sane conclusions:

90

Theorem 1. If there exists a matrix G such that G"% is positive definite, while G and GU-lK are symmetric and positive definite, the equilibrim
is asymptotically stable.
Theorem 2. If there exists a matrix G such that G"'C
is positive semidefinite, while G and GM'lK
are symmetricand positive definite, the equilibrium i s stable.
Theorem 3.

If there exists a matrix G such that Gn-lCis positive de-

finite, while G and GH'lK

are tymetric but not both positive semidefinite,*
the equilibrium is unstable.
Theorem 4.

If there exists a matrix G such that GM-lC is skew-symnetric,*

while G and G"lK are symmetric and definite of the same sign, the equilibrium
is stable but not asymptotically stable.
Theorem 5. If there exists a matrix G such that GM-lC is skew-symmetric,
-1
T
-1
is an
while G and GM K are symmetric, the function V =
GM K
+ &T
integral.
Although the conditions of Theorems 1-4 are only sufficient, not necessary, it seems that in the great majority of problems
one of the first three
theorems should prove applicable.A definiteness requirement on an n x n
matrix results in n inequalities and, as previously noted, symmetry requirements on G and GM-lK result in only (n2-n) equations in the n2 elements of G.
Theorems 4 and 5 are less generally applicable, particularlywhen C # 0, since
1
their satisfaction may involve up to 5 (3n2-n) equations and, for Theorem 4,
up to 2n inequalities. Bovever, it may be noted that every result previously
obtained by the energy method [ 5 8 ] ( K is then necessarily symmetric) is included
here by letting G = M.
There are normally n independent matrices G which satisfy the symnetryre-1
quirements on G and GM K. If the problem is specified in terms of parameters
and is being attacked analytically, thereis often an apparent choice for the
n arbitrary

elementsof G which simplify

thedefiniteness conditions on GM-lC

or, if GH-lC is skew-symmetric, thedefiniteness conditions on G and G"lK.

When M is diagonal, a usable result is sometimes found by setting diag [G] =
diag [HI, thus specifying n elements of G a priori. This choice is one which
produces G = H in the absence of follower forces, and this may bedesirable
since the energy function usually works well in such problems.

*A
**

.-

-~

definite matrix is also semidefinite, asis the zero matrix.

The zero matrix is also skew-symmetric.

91

are p r e s e n t e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e

Two examples involving follower forces

use of these procedures.

Example 1.

Considerthesystem

+ C4 + K a = 0

M{

(6.10)

cy-

where

M =

[;' :,I

c=[

;]
T

If w e choose d i a g [GI = d i a g [MI, G = G

K =

[:

I.:;

(6.11)

[.' :J

(6.12)

and
(6.13)

For G " l K to be symmetric, w e f i n d

kg

+ k2 g/m2

= kl g/ml

+ k3

(6.14)

which implies
2k3mlm2
g=km-km
2 11 2
Since GM

-1

(6.15)

0, w ew i l l

d e f i n i t e n e s s of G and GM

92

u t i l i z e Theorem 4.

-1

K a r e , assuming m

(4 m1m2

(b)

+ mlk2 > 0

m2kl

>0

> 0,

Conditionsorpositive
m2

> 0,
(6.16)
(6.17)

By Theorem 4 t h e s e are s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s f o r s t a b i l i t y , b u t t h e y a l s o
happ e n t o be the necessary and s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n s f o r d i s t i n c t p u r e l y i m a g i n a r y
eigenvalues.

A r e s u l t which i s i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t f r o m t h i s a n a l y s i s i s t h a t P r o p o r t i o n a l damping always r e s u l t s i n a s y m p t o t i c s t a b i l i t y when the preceding cond i t i o n s are s a t i s f i e d . T h a t i s , i f

C = & i + ~ K ( c @ 2 0a
, +P>O)

(6.19)

+ B G"lK

(6.20)

then

m-lc

= CUG

and GM-lC is p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e s i n c e G and G " l K are p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e .

Theorem 1 t h u s i m p l i e s a s y m p t o t i c s t a b i l i t y .

This i s n o t t o imply t h a t C needbe p r o p o r t i o n a l , o r e v e n d i s s i p a t i v e ,

f o r a n answer t o be obtained.Considerthegeneral
matrix
(6.21)

f o r which, using the previous

c3g/m2

G, we have

c4+ c2g/m2

GM-~C=

c3+ clg/ml

c2+ c4g/ml

Assuming c o n d i t i o n s (a), ( b ) , ( c ) , a r e s a t i s f i e d ,
t i c stability provided

(6.22)

Theorem 1 i m p l i e s asympto-

I f (d) and (e) are s a t i s f i e d , b u t one o r more of (a), (b), (c), i s

s t r i c t l y v i o l a t e d , Theorem 3 i m p l i e s i n s t a b i l i t y . S t a b i l i t y
i s assured by
Theorem 2 when (a), (b), (c) are s a t i s f i e d w h i l e (d) and (e) are weakly satisf ied.
F o r c e r t a i n v a l u e s of the parameters, i t i s clear t h a t a d e f i n i t i v e res u l t i s notgiven by theprecedinganalysis.
However, a l l of thepreceding
was b a s e d . o n o n e s p e c i f i c c h o i c e f o r d i a g
[GI. Otherchoicescanbe
made and
r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d which are a p p l i c a b l e u n d e r d i f f e r e n t p a r a m e t e r r e s t r i c t i o n s .
It may be noted i n g e n e r a l that f o r problems having C = 0 , Theorem 4 i s
t h e o n l y oneof t h e f i r s t f o u r theoremshaving a p o s s i b i l i t y ofsuccess,
and

93

i t can be satisfied only for systems

the addition

which would be a s y m p t o t i c a l l y s t a b l e w i t h

of p r o p o r t i o n a l damping.

Example 2 . L e tu sc o n s i d e rt h e
problemdiscussedinSect.
3 . 1 which should
of t h e proposed method. The
s e r v e as a f a i rd e m o n s t r a t i o n oftheoperation
equations of motion
are

(6.25)

~ + C ~ + K q = O
H

where

where d 2 > 0 , k > 0 , and y = P l / k . The parameters of i n t e r e s t a r e y and a,

which r e l a t e t o t h e m a g n i t u d e
and d i r e c t i o n of thenonconservativeload.
Choosing a g e n e r a l symmetric G ,
(6.27)

(6.28)

-1
Since GM C

=I

0 , we hope t o a p p l y

Theorem 4 .

Lookingahead

topossiblealgebraicdifficulties
i-n t h e d e f i n i t e n e s s con-1
(a1, a 2 ) , i . e . , one
d i t i o n s on G and GM K, l e t u s t r yt h es i m p l e s tc h o i c ef o r
which produces g = 0 :
cr,=5-y
L

(6.29)

= 2 - Y
2

Thus,

G =

? 1
0

(6.30)

O
2-y

and

(6.31)

94

We see t h a t G is p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e f o r y < 2 .
f i n d t h a t G d ' K is p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e p r o v i d e d
1 + ( 1 - a ) (y

AlsUing this restriction,

we

(6.32)

3 ~ >
) 0

The b i f u r c a t i o n p l o t i n t h e
(y,cr) plane is shown i nF i g . 6 . 1 . We have j u s t
by Theorem 4 .
obtained the shaded region
below y = 2 as a r e g i o n o f s t a b i l i t y
However, e i g e n v a l u e a n a l y s i s [ 2 2 ] shows t h e e n t i r e shaded r e g i o n t o b e t h e
exact r e g i o no fs t a b i l i t y .S i n c eo u r
theorems are o n l ys u f f i c i e n t ,n o tn e c e s s a r y , i t may b e w o r t h - w h i l e t o t r y a n o t h e r c h o i c e f o r
G. We see t h a t t h e p r e y is r e q u i r e d t o be posiv i o u s c h o i c e f o r G f a i l s a t y = 2 because a2 = 2

t i v e , a n e c e s s a r yc o n d i t i o nf o rp o s i t i v ed e f i n i t e n e s s
simply reverse our definition of
a2 8nd choose

of ourprevious

G.

Let

US

a 1 = 5 - y

(6.33)
cy2 = y

f o r which

( ~ - 5g ) / Czl ( y - 2 )
some t e d i o u s c a l c u l a t i o n s

(6.34)

2(1-~)~]

show t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e n e s s

-1

of G and Gl4

K are now

2 < y < 5
41

32y

+w

( l w )

2
8y (1-a)

>0
(6.35)

7 - 4 y + 2 a y > O
2

1 + (1-a) (y -3y)

7 0

These c o n d i t i o n s d e f i n e t h e
shaded area above y = 2 i n Fig. 6.1.
Thus,with
of the
the exception of t h e l i n e y = 2 , we havedetermined t h e e n t i r e r e g i o n
parameter plane which produces a s t a b l e e q u i l i b r i u m .
We may perform a s p e c i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n f o r

y = 2.

We havethen

(6.36)
-1
where t h e symmetry of GH K implies

(6.37)

95

Choosing cy1 = 1, we f i n d t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e n e s s o f
-1
and GM K are now t h a t t h e r e e x i s t a n
cy2 > 0 s u c h t h a t

(3-4a)2

!kt2

>

( b - 2 ) [ ( 3 - 4 ~ r ) ~ 9a2]

(3-bI2

Thesecan

>o

(6.38)

>0

!kt2 (3-4cu)

be s a t i s f i e d by choosing 9Cu2

< (3-4~~
provided
)~~

cy

1
> 2,

x.3

This

c o m p l e t e st h ed e t e r m i n a t i o no ft h ee n t i r er e g i o no fs t a b i l i t yi nt h ep a r a m e t e r
plane. Again we n o t e t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n
ofanyformof
p r o p o r t i o n a l damping
C = 7pi

BK(W

7+B>

0,

0)

(6.39)

leadstoasymptoticstabilityoftheequilibrium
by Theorem 1, provided (y,cy)
i s i n t h e shadedregionofFig.
6.1.
The d i f f i c u l t y o fr e a c h i n gt h i sg e n e r a l
conclusion by eigenvalue analysis need not be dwelt
upon.
6.1.3

A General Approach

When problems are encountered for which t h e r e seems no apparent choice

f o r t h e n a r b i t r a r y e l e m e n t s of G whichproduces a u s a b l e r e s u l t , o r i n
which
use of a computer, i t may be d e s i r the order i s so g r e a t as t o r e q u i r e t h e
A systematicapproach
a b l et oa p p l yt h e
method i n i t s f u l l e s t g e n e r a l i t y .
might be as follows:
Definediag

= e
-i

[Gi]

Determine G

'

where

by t h e symmetry

Set G =

aiGi

i=
1

Note t h a t GM-IK =

cyiGiM

-1

i=1
GM-lC =

aiGiM

-1

i=l

-1
Determinewhether a v e c t o r g e x i s t s such t h a t GM C i s p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t eo rs e m i d e f i n i t e ,i f
so, use Theorems 1, 2 , o r 3 .

96

a v e c t o r cy exists such t h a t GM
i f so, use Theorem 4 and/or-5.

6) Determinewhether

6.1.4

-1

C i s skew-symmetric;

Exceptional Cases

Although i t i s t r u e t h a t t h e r e a r e
problems f o r which t h e r e exists no
matrix G s a t i s f y i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f
anyof
t h e f i r s t f o u r theorems,implying
s t a b i l i t y c a n n o t be determined i n t h i s manner, i t seems t h a t t h e r e i s o f t e n
somethingquiteunusualaboutsuchproblems.
One such i s thefollowing:

where m

>

0 , m2

>

0 , and k m

1 2

# k2ml.

Using t h e most general form f o r symmetric G , we have

(6.41)
and
-1
=

a k m
1 12

gk2ml

gklm2

a2k2mj

(6.42)

Symme t r y i m p 1i e s
g = o

(6.43)

and t h e r e f o r e
(6.44)

and i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s a t i s f y
Theorem 4 c a n b e s a t i s f i e d

Theorems 1 or 3 f o r any choice of (al, a 2 ) .

by choosing a1 = ml,

a2 = m2,

-1
provided GM K

i s t h e np o s i t i v ed e f i n i t e .S i n c e

(6.45)

97

we s e e t h a t

Theorem 4 i m p l i e s s t a b i l i t y p r o v i d e d

kl

>

0, k2 > 0.

However,

eigenvalueanalysisassuresstabilityprovidedonlythat
klm2

+ k2m2 > 0
(6.46)

klk2

>

which allow t h ep o s s i b i l i t y ofoneof

t h e k a c t u a l l yb e i n gn e g a t i v e .
However,
i
-1
GM
= I, we see t h a t Theorem 3 a s s u r e s t h a t i n s t a b i l i t y
will
n o t i n gt h a to u r
o c c u r i f C i s increased by any p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e m a t r i x
and e i t h e r of t h e k
i

is negative.That

i s , when t h e k

a r ei nt h er a n g ef o rs t a b i l i t yp r e d i c t e d

by e i g e n v a l u e a n a l y s i s , b u t n o t i n t h e r a n g e f o r
whichanyof
our stability
theoremsapply,theaddition
of anycomplete d i s s i p a t i o n l e a d s t o i n s t a b i l i t y .
&
I
theotherhand,
when t h ek ia r ei no u ra l l o w a b l er a n g e ,
k > 0, k2 > 0 , t h e
1
a d d i t i o n of anycomplete d i s s i p a t i o n l e a d s t o a s y m p t o t i c s t a b i l i t y
by Theorem
1, a much more n a t u r a l r e s u l t .
6.1.5

Remarks

of no d i s Although each of t h e examples was begun undertheassumption

s i p a t i o n and we i n i t i a l l y a p p l i e d Theorem 4, t h i s was onlyforthepurposeof
of
i l l u s t r a t i n g t h a t we can make q u a l i t a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e e f f e c t s
varioustypes of damping v i a Theorems 1 and 3. I n p r a c t i c e , Theorem 4 i s t h e
i t i s theleastlikelytoapply.
most d i f f i c u l t t o u s e a n d , i n t h e r e a l w o r l d ,
When t h e l i n e a r a p p r o x i m a t i o n i n d i c a t e s s t a b i l i t y
which i s not asymptotic,
i s determined by parameter
the stability or instability
of the physical system
e r r o r sa n d / o r any s l i g h t n o n l i n e a r i t i e s [58,15].
Therefore, Theorem 4 i s usef u l i n problems which a r e p r i m a r i l y of academic i n t e r e s t .

Theseremarksdonotgenerallyapply
t o Theorem 2 , although i t tooconof Theorem 2 a r e s a t i s f i e d and those
cludesonly s t a b i l i t y . I ft h ec o n d i t i o n s
of Theorem 1 are n o t , one can often s t i l l c o n c l u d e a s y m p t o t i c s t a b i l i t y by use
of a ni n v a r i a n c ep r i n c i p l e
due t oL a S a l l e [59].
T h i su s u a l l yr e q u i r e s
a det a i l e d a n a l y s i s o ft h ed i f f e r e n t i a le q u a t i o n s ,
however.

**

Theorem 5 allows therapidgeneration

of up to n i n t e g r a l s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
when C = 0, and so permits a p o s s i b l e r e d u c t i o n i n t h e o r d e r
of thesystem

* This

is a w e l l known r e s u l t c o n c e r n i n g t h e
s t a b i l i z a t i o n [58].
*Jr

determine whether any invariant set other than

T
-1
(q , q ) = (0, 0 ) , i s c o n t a i n e di nt h e
set defined by % GM C % = 0. I f

-1 2
n o t ,t h ec o n d i t i o n s
of Theorem 2 imply a s y m p t o t i c s t a b i l i t y of t h e e q u i l i b r i u m
c591.

98

In particular,

onemust

phenomenon of gyroscopic

from2n t o a s low as n. However, t h e a l g e b r a i c d i f f i c u l t i e s

ofsuchreduction
may beconsiderable.
The primaryuseof
Theorem 5 i s t o d e t e r m i n e " c o n s t a n t s
of t h e motion," i n problems i n which t h e s e are of some i n t e r e s t .
6.2

Continuous
Systems
6.2.1

Introduction

The class of nonself-adjoint eigenvalue problems

i s notasextensively
i n v e s t i g a t e d as t h a t of s e l f - a d j o i n t o n e s and s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n mustbe paid
t o t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l methodsused
i n determiningtheeigenvalues.
A justif i c a t i o n of a p p l y i n g t h e G a l e r k i n method to bars subjected to nonconservative
loads was o f f e r e d by Leipholz [60] and theconvergence of t h i s method, a6 appliedtothe
same problems, was s t u d i e d by him i n Ref.[61].
Leipholzalso
used' the method of f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e s i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e e i g e n v a l u e
of an
a u n i f o r m l yd i s t r i b u t e dt a n g e n t i a ll o a d
[62].
He
e l a s t i cb a rs u b j e c t e dt o
extendedtheapplicability
of t h e G a l e r k i n method t o a broader class of lin e a rn o n s e l f - a d j o i n te i g e n v a l u e
problems[63]thanthosestudied
i n Ref. [62].
arise from o r i g i n a l l y s e l f This class c o n t a i n s a l l eigenvalue problems which
a d j o i n t problems by a d d i t i o n of a l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l e x p r e s s i o n whichdes t r o y st h ef o r m e rs e l f - a d j o i n t n e s s .
The convergence of theGalerkin method
f o r n o n c o n s e r v a t i v e s t a b i l i t y problemsof p l a t e s and s h e l l s was studied by
Leipholz i n Ref. [64].
A d i s c u s s i o n of t h eG a l e r k i n method a s a p p l i e d t o
systems with damping i s discussed by Leipholz i n Ref.[65].
Levinson[66]has
shown t h a t f o r c e r t a i n problems the Galerkin method
c o n v e r g e s f o r a b r o a d e r c l a s s of t r i a l f u n c t i o n s t h a n assumed by Leipholz.
Further, Levinson extended Hamilton's principle
and t h e R i t z method such as
t o make them a p p l i c a b l e t o n o n c o n s e r v a t i v e problems.
The R i t z method i n n o n v a r i a t i o n a l f o r m u l a t i o n w a s applied to nonconservativeproblems by Marchenko [67].Both
t h eR i t z and t h eG a l e r k i n methods
havebeenextended
f u r t h e r by Leipholz [68].
I np a r t i c u l a r ,t h ec o n d i t i o n s
t o be f u l f i l l e d by t h e c o o r d i n a t e f u n c t i o n s a r e
weakened; t h e s e f u n c t i o n s
need n o t s a t i s f y t h e d y n a m i c a l
boundary c o n d i t i o n s and under certain circumstancesnoteventhegeometricalones.Thisstudyincludesalso
some consid e r a t i o n s of convergence.
I n t r e a t i n g d i s s i p a t i v e dynamic systemsofmathematicalphysics,which
are governed by n o n s e l f - a d j o i n t l i n e a r o p e r a t o r s ,
i t i s o f t e n found conveni( o r f i e l d ) and t o c o n s i d e r f o r m a l l y
a cone n tt oi n t r o d u c et h ea d j o i n ts y s t e m
s e r v a t i v ep r o c e s s [69],[70].
The o r i g i n a lf i e l dc o n t a i n s
anenergysink,
and
intheadjointfieldanenergysource
of t h e same s t r e n g t h i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n
o r d e r t o make t h e combined f i e l d c o n s e r v a t i v e .
I t i s of i n t e r e s t t o n o t e t h a t t h e n o t i o n
of t h e a d j o i n t f i e l d c a n
be i n troducedalsointreatingnondissipative,nonconservativesystems,
i.e., dynamic s y s t e m ss u b j e c t e dt oc i r c u l a t o r yf o r c e s .I np a r t i c u l a r ,i ns t r u c t u r a l
systemssubjectedtofollowerforces,theconsideration
of a d j o i n t f o r c e f i e l d s
class of nonconservative
l e a d st oi n t e r e s t i n gc o n s e q u e n c e s .I n d e e d ,f o rt h i s

99

systems,boththeoriginalfield
and i t s a d j o i n t f o r c e f i e l d are a s s o c i a t e d
withenergysources
[71], and y e t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of t h e s e two f i e l d s r e s u l t s
i n a c o n s e r v a t i v e one.

As an example, c o n s i d e r t h e Beck problem [33], i.e., a c a n t i l e v e r e d elast i c bar subjected a t i t s f r e e end t o a compressive follower force
(see Fig.
6.2).
The equation of motion and t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s are

ax

ax2

ax

h = a y = o
3

at

x = O

at

x = l

(6.47)

where d i m e n s i o n l e s sq u a n t i t i e s are employed. We now c o n s t r u c t t h e a d j o i n t

boundary-valueproblem by considering a f u n c t i o n z = z ( x , t ) , d e f i n e d f o r
0 5 x < 1 and t 2 0 , s u c h t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n
ofmotion and boundary
c o n d i t i o n s a t x = 0 are s a t i s f i e d i d e n t i c a l l y :

4
a = + F -a2z
&
+

ax

W
e thenseek

ax 0

ax2

at2

(6.48)

boundary c o n d i t i o n s f o r

z , a t x = 1, s u c h t h a t

4
2
2
1
4
2
z ( Y + F % + % ) d x = f y ( % + F ~ + - )a dz x
ax
at
ax 0
ax

a Z

at2

(6.49)

I f w e now i n t e g r a t e t h e r i g h t s i d e
of the preceding equation
by p a r t s and use
boundary c o n d i t i o n s i n Eq. (6.47), we immediatelyobtainthefollowing
bound a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r z a t x = 1:

a i +
ax

F z = O

aZ

ax

at

x = l

(6.50)

Equations (6.48) and (6.50) now d e f i n e t h e s y s t e m a d j o i n t t o t h e

Beck problem.
The i n s p e c t i o n ofEqs.
(6.48) and (6.50) r e a d i l yr e v e a l st h a tt h e yd e s c r i b e
t h e Reutproblem [8] sketched i n F i g . 6.3.

100

It was shown i n Refs. [8] and [33] t h a t b o t h s y s t e m s d e p i c t e d i n

Figs.
6.2 and 6.3 l o s e s t a b i l i t y f o r t h e same v a l u e of the load, i.e., Fcr = 20.05.
For F

> Fcr,

energy i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e b a r

by t h e work of t h e a p p l i e d

f o r c e , which i n t u r n i n c r e a s e s t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e e n e r g y o f t h e s y s t e m ,
making
theresponse unbounded ( f l u t t e r ) .
Thus, b o t h f o r c e f i e l d s
are a s s o c i a t e dw i t h
sourceofenergy.
However, i t c a nb er e a d i l ys e e n ,b o t h
on mathematical and
p h y s i c a l g r o u r d s (see Fig. 6.4), t h a t t h e combined system is conservative,
and the bar shown i n F i g . 6.4 is incapable of l o s i n g s t a b i l i t y by f l u t t e t .
Indeed, the loss of stability in the
combined case w i l l occur by divergence
of a n o t h e re q u i l i b r i u mc o n f i g u r a t i o n ) .I nc o n c l u s i o n ,
(buckling,attainment
i t should be mentioned t h a t a d j o i n t s y s t e m s c a n
be c o n s t r u c t e d a l s o f o r t h e
nonconservative problems discussed i n Ref s. [SI, [72] and [73].
Adjointsystems havebeen
a l s o examined i n Ref. [74]. The p o s s i b i l i t y
of c o n s t r u c t i n g a d j o i n t e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e p u r p o s e
of developing approximate
methods i n a e r o e l a s t i c i t y similar t o e n e r g y methods w a s i n d i c a t e d a l r e a d y i n
Ref. [75]. The u s e f u l n e s so fa d j o i n ts y s t e m si ns o l v i n gs t a b i l i t y
problems
of e l a s t i c c o n t i n u a w i t h f o l l o w e r f o r c e s
was e x h i b i t e d i n Ref. [76], as des c r i b e d below.
S t a b i l i t y o f an Elastic Continuum

6.2.2

Let u s c o n s i d e r a n i s o t r o p i c ,
homogeneous, e l a s t i c solid occupying a volume V bounded by a f i n i t e s u r f a c e S. It w i l l be assumed t h a t onone p a r t of
t h e boundaryof
t h e s o l i d So the displacements are p r e s c r i b e d so as t o p r e -

clude a r i g i d body motion. The body is a t rest and i n a s t a t e of i n i t i a l

stress uij, i, j = 1,2,3, due to the applied nonconservative (follower) forces
o nt h es u r f a c e

- So o ft h es o l i d .

To s t u d y t h e s t a b i l i t y

s i t i o n t h e s y s t e m is s l i g h t l y p e r t u r b e d and the type

studied.ReferredtoanorthogonalCartesiancoordinatesystem

[8] h a s o b t a i n e d t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e e n s u i n g

of t h i s rest po-

of ensuingmotion i s
x
Bolotin
motion:

jy

(6.51)

a%

'ijkk

Xi = 0

=i
"j

on S

'Ojk

nj

"i

on S

(6.52)
(6.53)
(6.54)

101

In Eqs. ( 6 . 5 1 ) - ( 6 . 5 4 ) ,

p is t h e mass d e n s i t y , U

i s thedisplacement

state and n . is t h e outward p o s i t i v e

J
u n i t normal v e c t o r t o S. No body f o r c e s are assumed t o bepresent and B i s
a parameter associated with the magnitude of externally applied surface
tract i o n s . I n Eq, ( 6 . 5 4 ) , X and p are Lamt?'s c o n s t a n t s of e l a s t i c i t y . The rep e a t e d i n d i c e s are s u m e d o v e r t h e r a n g e o f t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s
andp
are t h e

v e c t o r measuredfrom

the undisturbed

componentsof p e r t u r b a t i o n s of t h e a p p l i e d s u r f a c e t r a c t i o n s
arad t h e i r forms
w i l l depend onthebehaviorofthenonconservativeforces.
They w i l l gener a l l y behomogeneous f u n c t i o n s of displacements and t h e i r d e r i v a t i v e s w i t h
however, i t s u f f i c e s
r e s p e c tt ob o t hs p a c e
and time. I nt h ep r e s e n ts t u d y ,
t o restrict p t ot h ef o l l o w i n ge x p r e s s i o n :
i

ati

P i = a i j U j + bj

on S

(6.55)

where a i j andb

are c o e f f i c i e n t s which a r e independent of t h e v e c t o r

.I

its derivatives-but in general

are f u n c t i o n s o f

We may assume a s o l u t i o n o f t h e

spatial c o o r d i n a t e s x

aboveboundary

uj

and

1'

value problem i n t h e form

i = (-1) 1/2

which r e s u l t s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g

a
ax

('ijkA

a%
5

5n n

A = -

aUi

(Ojk

hi
j

B'jk

onS

= O

a
+

a%

'ijkl

eigenvalue problem:

- Aui = 0

= B (aijuj+

aUi
ax )

(6.56)

in V

on S

(6.57)

(6.58)
(6.59)

Equations ( 6 . 5 6 ) - ( 6 . 5 8 ) c o n s t i t u t e a n o n s e l f - a d j o i n t homogeneous system

and s t a b i l i t y of t h e s o l i d w i l l begoverned by t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e e i g e n -

...QD,

1,2,
for nontrivial solutions.
In view of t h e f a c t t h a t
v a l u e s A*, m
the applied surface tractions
are n o t d e r i v a b l e from a p o t e n t i a l , i t i s n o t
m
possibletoexpresstheeigenvalues
A i n t h e formof a r a t i o of two p o s i t i v e d e f i n i t e i n t e g r a l s , and t h u s t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f v a r i a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s
seems
dubious i n t h i s case.

102

6.2.3

The A d j o i n t System

By c o n s t r u c t i n g an adjoint system by means of certain mathematical relations analogous to the definitions in the theory
of o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l
equations, A MY be expressed i n terms of t h e o r i g i n a l and t h e a d j o i n t varia b l e s , and as a consequence A w i l l assume a s t a t i o n a r y v a l u e . I n t h e t h e o r y
of o r d i n a r y d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s ,
a system adjoint to one governed
by a d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n andboundary c o n d i t i o n s may be constructed formally by rep e a t e d i n t e g r a t i o n by p a r t s [77].
Being guided by this o b s e r v a t i o n we examine
the problem
(6.60)

u* =
i

o on so

(6.62)

asbeingpossiblyadjointtothatgiven
a f u n c t i o n of b

1'

uj

by Eqs. (6.56)-(6.58).

c i J is
i s t o bede-

and i t s d e r i v a t i v e s .I fa na d j o i n ts y s t e m

finedthroughequations(6.60)-(6.62),one

must o b t a i n c

t a i n homogeneous i n t e g r a l e q u a t i o n o n t h e s u r f a c e

ij

So.

by s o l v i n g a cerThe above-mentioned

integralequationreducestosatisfyingthefollowing:
(6.63)
Expression (6.63) i n v o l v e s t h r e e i n d e p e n d e n t e q u a t i o n s i n n i n e
quantities c
and t h u sa na d j o i n t
system i s notuniquelydefined
ij

a consequenceof

Eq. (6.63)

unknown
[77].
As

thefollowingholds:

(6.64)
This expression appears to
be similar t o Maxwell's r e c i p r o c i t y r e l a t i o n s
= ui.
The bracketed terms a r e rci n c o n s e r v a t i v e s y s t e m s , i n which case ui -

cognized t o be r e s u l t a n t f o r c e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l
systems,respectively.

and t h e a d j o i n t

103

m
Now l e t A , m = 1,2,...-,
and fp, m = 1,2,...-,

betheeigenvalues

of e q u a t i o n s (6.56)-(6.58),

t h o s e of equations (6.60)-(6.62),

while the correspond-

ing
and

- A**" Jv

uimu:ndV

(6.65)

Therefore,

(Am- A*")

ui

dv =. 0

(6.66)

V
A t this point

t h a tt h e

w e wishtoapplytheargumentofRoberts[77]

sets of eigenvalues {A"}

t h a t {Arn] and {A**"]

and {A*"]

are n o t i d e n t i c a l

are i d e n t i c a l .

t o prove
Let ussuppose

sets, then

(6.67a)
and f o r t h e s p e c i a l c a s e

Jv

u*imuim dV = 0

Iftheset

Eq. (6.67a),

when m = n,
(6.67b)

of eigenvectors {u."]
1

i s complete, Eq. (6.67b),

would imply t h a t u y i s i d e n t i c a l l y z e r o ,

t o g e t h e rw i t h

which I s n o t n o n t r i v i a l .

Hence t h e two sets ofeigenvalues

are i d e n t i c a l .A l s o ,s i m i l a r l yt ot h ep r o p e r t y of o r t h o g o n a l i t y of p r i n c i p a l modes i n t h e t h e o r y of small v i b r a t i o n s ,

Eq. (6.67a)

r e v e a l st h a tt h e

two

sets of e i g e n f u n c t i o n s {u "] and {u*"]

i
1
bi-orthonormal, i.e., e a c h f u n c t i o n of e i t h e r set is o r t h o g o n a l t o e v e r y
ber of t h e o t h e r set except those whichbelong t o t h e same eigenvalue.

104

are
mem-

From (6.65)

i t alsofollowsthat

(6.68)

L e t us consider now t h e e f f e c t o n
6ui

*m

and 6ui

Am due t o i n f i n i t e s i m a l v a r i a t i o n s

which are a r b i t r a r ye x c e p tt h a tt h e ys a t i s f yt h e

boundarycon-

d i t i o n s (6.57),(6.58)and(6.61),(6.62).Therefore,

6Am =

1
(611-

Am612)

=2

( u ~ 6 +
u u;"bui">}
~

dV

Equation (6.69) r e d u c e s , a f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n
and s a t i s f a c t i o n ofboundary
conditions,to

Equation (6.70)
and i m p l i e s t h a t i f
accuracyof
t h a ts a t i s f y

(6.69)
of thedivergencetheorem

i s c l e a r l y a useful version of

are obeyed, SA" i s z e r o w i t h a n

m
*m
a l l small a r b i t r a r y v a r i a t i o n s 6u
and 6ui

Eqs. (6.56)

f i r s to r d e rf o r

a variational principle

and (6.60)

the boundary c o n d i t i o n s (6.57),(6.58)

and (6.61),(6.62),

105

respectively.
Thus a d e f i n i t e s t a t e m e n t c a n b e
made r e g a r d i n g t h e e r r o r i n are s t a t i o n a r y v a l u e s .
volved i n s t i p u l a t i n g t h a t t h e e i g e n v a l u e s
6.2.4

An Approximate Method o f S t a b i l i t y A n a l y s i s

Am, as expressed by Eq. (6.70),

The extremum property of the eigenvalues
suggests an approximate procedure for their determination, in the spirit of
approximate methods f o r s e l f - a d j o i n t s y s t e m s b a s e d o n v a r i a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s .
m
+m
We may select two sets of t r i a l f u n c t i o n s Ui (al, a2,...) and Ui (al, cr2,...)

* *

which s a t i s f y t h e a p p r o p r i a t e
parameters a

and

*
a

j'

boundary c o n d i t i o n s and contain undetermined

An approximateexpression

of theeigenvalues

Am i s

obtained, by using Eq. (6.68), as a f u n c t i o n of theseparameters.

A stationm
from equations
a r y v a l u e of A i s thenobtained by determining the parameters
of t h e t y p e

which i s reminiscent of the Rayleigh-Bitz procedure for conservative systems.

I l l u s t r a t i v e Example

6.2.5

I n t h i s s e c t i o n w e wish to apply the approximate

method discussed above
to investigate the stability
of e q u i l i b r i u m of a c a n t i l e v e r e d b a r s u b j e c t e d
t o a followerload.
The governingequations of motion may be expressed as

PI
4 + F L y2 - w u =
2O;
d 4
u
dx

O s x s l

(6.71)

dx

(6.72)
2
3
-d= ud
- u
= O
3
dx
dx2

a t x - 1

are employed and w

I n Eqs. (6.71) and (6.72),dimensionlessquantities
denotesthefrequency
of o s c i l l a t i o n . The equationsofanadjointsystemof
t h i s problem,which was f i r s t d i s c u s s e d i n Ref.[78],
a r e as follows:

dx

106

4*
d2u*
d u
+
F 2 - w2u*
4
dx

= 0

(6.73)

*tx=O

(6.74)

2
u* + Fu*
2

dx

d3u*

du* = o
3 +*dx

at x = 1

dx

The eigenvalue w2 in the two problems will be the name as established

in
general in the previous section, and we wi8h t o determine it approximately.
We assume, then, that u and u* may be written inthe form:

(6.75)

u* =

(6.76)

n=l
where u u* are certain assumed functions of x which satisfy the boundary
ny n
*
conditions (6.72) and (6.74), respectively, and cyny cyn are constants to be
determined as discussed. We multiply (6.71) by u* and integrate over the
length. If we substitute the expansions(6.75) and (6.76),
the following
relation is obtained:

('6.77)

where

*mn =

(z

un

0:U

Fdxun)
2 dx

Bmn =

u>ndx

To obtain the best possible result,

we must now seekan extremum of the

expression for w2 considered as a function of the parameterscyn and cyn.

107

simple and familiar vay would be t o treat w2 as a Lagrangian undetermined

m u l t i p l i e r and s e e k d i r e c t l y t h e s t a t i o n a r y v a l u e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g :

m,n=1

m, n=1

(6.78)

by r e q u i r i n g t h a t

Since u and u* are f u n c t i o n s t h a t s a t i s f y t h e a d j o i n t r e l a t i o n s i n t h e

i t i s a simple matter t o show t h a t a1/Mmand aI/&ym
sense discussed before,
would r e s u l t i n two matrix r e l a t i o n s which are a d j o i n t t o e a c h o t h e r
thusthey would y i e l di d e n t i c a le i g e n v a l u e s .T h e r e f o r e ,i nt h es e q u e lo n l y
t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n w i l l be considered:

and

sa1 = o

(6.79)

Equation (6.79)

i s a homogeneous, l i n e a r , a l g e b r a i c e q u a t i o n i n

therefore, a n o n t r i v i a l s o l u t i o n e x i s t s o n l y i f t h e d e t e r m i n a n t

an and,
formed by

results i n a polynomialequationfor
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of a vanishes.This
n
2
u)
which representsapproximatelythefrequencyequation
of thesystem.
t r i a l f u n c t i o n s w i t h N = 2:

Let us consider the following specific

u =

cy 1

u*=.:(x

(x2-

'

x3

+x
6 ) + CY2

(x3- x4+

2(F2+4F+24) x3
F2+ 6F + 72

16F

x5)

(6.80)

F2+ 12
+

2(F2+12F+120

{ x - F2+

+ 24;

F2+ 6F
x4

72

F2+ 6F -t 72
F2+16F

(6.81)

.t 240

Functions (6.80) and (6.81) s a t i s f y t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s (6.72) and (6.74),

as d i s c u s s e db e f o r e , we o b t a i n t h e
respectively.Followingtheprocedure
frequency equation:

108

where

ell

4
3

=-

- A + FB
-45 B + -FA
-70
60

0 1 2 = l - - A 6+ - B 6+ + " F5 5

%1

712

r a l - A A ' + - B 2' + - - - F
5
3
30

43

- - - + 103
-A"

1680

177
31 +
-336
(42)(54)

722 =

- 840

43

79
1800

+-

2(F2+ 4F
F2+ 6F

FB
+

105

28
A I F + =1B ' F

79 B
1800

840

721 =

A =

2FA
35

10

"

B'
73
(18)(60)

19 B'
*' - 495

+ 24)

+ 72

F2+12

B =

+ 72

F2+ 6F
A' =

F2+
B' =

+ 120)
16F + 240

2(F2+12F

F2+ 6F

F2+16F
Equation (6.82)

72

+ 240
w i l l y i e l d d i s t i n c t real r o o t $ f o r v a n i s h i n g F ,

and when

F i s i n c r e a s e d t h e two r o o t s w i l l c o a l e s c e a t t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e F = Fcr beyond

which (6.82) w i l l y i e l d complex r o o t s .

By t r i a l and e r r o r Fcr is computed t o

be 19.45, whereas a more p r e c i s e c a l c u l a t i o n byBeck

[33] y i e l d s Fcr = 20.05.

I n c i d e n t a l l y , i f one uses only the

t r i a l f u n c t i o n (6.80), t h e method of
G a l e r k i n y i e l d s Fcr = 20.6.
This r e s u l t w a s f i r s t computedby
Levinson [66].

A similar approximate method of s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s was worked o u t i n d e pendentlyoftheabove

by B a l l i o [79].

109

6.3
Enerny

Considerations

It a p p e a r s a p p r o p r i a t e t o d i s c u s s e n e r g y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h e c o n t e x t
ofmethodsof
analysis, because such considerations,
as i n t h e class ofconof approximate methodsof
servative systems, may l e a d t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t
a n a l y s i s .I na d d i t i o n ,e n e r g yc o n s i d e r a t i o n s
may b e u s e f u l i n d e r i v i n g t h e
d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s of motion (as well as t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s ) a d t o
provide additional insight into certain aspects
of i n s t a b i l i t y phenomena.

As compared t o t h e v a s t amount of l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h s t a b i l i t y
of mechanical systems with follower forces,
i t is somewhat s u r p r i s i n g t o
While i n v e s t i o b s e r v et h a to n l y
few s t u d i e s c o n t a i n e n e r g y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
g a t i n g t h e dynamicsof
a r t i c u l a t e d p i p e s , Benjamin [ 8 0 ] invokedHamilton's
p r i n c i p l e and d i s c u s s e dt h ee n e r g yt r a n s f e rt ot h e
system. I n Ref. [71] an
make i t a p p l i e x t e n s i o n of the usual energy method was proposed, such as to
of c i r c u l a t o r y s y s t e m s w i t h and without
cable for the stability analysis
velocity-dependentforces.
Energy c o n s i d e r a t i o n s formed t h eb a s i s of d e r i v i n g
Ref.[81].
e q u a t i o n s of motion i n s y s t e m s w i t h f o l l o w e r f o r c e s i n
Energetic andthermodynamic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n s t a b i l i t y of c o n s e r v a t i v e
and nonconservativesystemswerediscussed
i n Ref. [82].
I n Ref. [83] an approximate energy method f o r f i n d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t h e f o r c e p a r a meter and the amplitude of s t e a d y - s t a t e o s c i l l a t i o n s of nonlinear, nonconserof
v a t i v e , autonomoussystems was s u g g e s t e d . S t a b i l i t y c r i t e r i a o n t h e b a s i s
"equivalent energy" conditions were established
i n Ref. [21].

110

CHAPTER VI1
POSSIBILITIES OF PHYSICAL REALIZATION
7.1

Introduction

It is a peculiar common feature of much published analytical work on the

dynamics and stability ofmechanical systems with follower forces, that the
possible physical origin of such forces is not mentioned. The follower forces
are introduced into theanalysis either through a sketch, with forces being
merely.indicated by arrows, or through a specified functional dependence of
the forces on generalized coordinates. Thus the problem is reduced immediately
to a mathematical analysis and the relationshipto mechanics (as a branch of
physics or engineering) becomes mosttenuous. The motivation for much of this
type ofwork appears to have been sheer curiosityin determining the sometimes
unexpected behavior ofan imagined system, rather than an explanation of observed phenomena.
This clearly unsatisfactory state of imbalance in the developmentof an
area of appliedmechanics can be rectified by paying, as a first step, attention to thepossible physical origin of the follower forces which are introduced into the analysis and building, as a second step, actual demonstration
models, to be followed
by a quantitative experimental program.
Let usdiscuss in this Chapter some possible
origins of follower forces.
If the mechanical system shouldbe able to lose a position of equilibrium
through oscillations with increasing amplitudes, a source of energy should
be coupled, through the follower forces, to the system.In one category of
problems involving rotating shafts this energy is supplied
by the driving
motor and stability is lostby lateral oscillations. This category of problems is deliberately not coveredin this report.
In another category, the energy
is supplied through a moving fluid to
the mechanical system. If the fluid surrounds the mechanical system whose
stability is being studied, the problem belongs to the broad and technically
most significant area of aeroelasticity. The kinetic energy ofa fluid can
be transferred tothe system also throughinternal flow in flexible pipes and
by means of impinging.jets. Some of these possibilities will be discussed
presently.
It is conceivable that other forms of energy, such as, e.g.,
chemical
and electro-magnetic energy, could constitute appropriate sources which,
under suitable conditions of coupling, could induce
flutter-type instabilities. Among all these possibilities, the author aware
is
only of some recent
work on instability (including flutter) of bars induced
by radiant heat, as
mentioned in Sect. 7.4.

111

7.2

I n s t a b i l i t y Modes of Cantilevered
Attached Pipes
7.2.1

Bars Induced bv F l u i d FlowThrough

General

Let u s d i s c u s s , as a n example, t h e p r o b l e m s t a t e d i n t h e
aboveheading.
T h i s p a r t i c u l a r example has been chosen, because various types of instabilities occur i n a r i c h e r v a r i e t y t h a n ,
e.g.,
i n a s i n g l e , axi-symmetric f l e x i b l e
a system discussed i n Chapter V I 1 1 s i n c e some a c t u a l
pipe conducting fluid,
experimentshavebeenreported.
It w i l l be shown that a c a n t i l e v e r e d b a r
having two axes of synanetry may l o s e s t a b i l i t y by e i t h e r t o r s i o n a l d i v e r g e n c e ,
t o r s i o n a lf l u t t e ro rt r a n s v e r s ef l u t t e r ,b u tn o tt r a n s v e r s ed i v e r g e n c e .
The
C o r i o l i s f o r c e s c a n have e i t h e r a s t a b i l i z i n g o r a d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t o n
both the torsional flutter
and t h e t r a n s v e r s e f l u t t e r , d e p e n d i n g
upon t h e
parametersofthesystem
[84]. S t a b i l i t y of a similar b a r s u b j e c t e d t o a
s i n g l ee c c e n t r i cf o l l o w e rf o r c e
was d i s c u s s e d i n Ref. [ 8 5 ] . The treatment
can be considered a s p e c i a l case of no C o r i o l i s f o r c e s .

7.2.2

D e r i v a t i o n ofEquationofMotion

andBoundary

ConditJons

We consider a t h i n - w a l l e d , c a n t i l e v e r e d ,
elastic beam w i t h two p a i r s o f
a t a d i s t a n c e h/2 from the
f l e x i b l e p i p e s , which are a t t a c h e d t o t h e b a r
z - a x i s (so t h a t t h e whole systemdeforms as a u n i t ) and pump . f l u i d a t a conas sketched i n F i g . 7.1.
W
e designate
s t a n t v e l o c i t y U throughthepipes,
t h e l e n g t h of the system by L, t h e t o r s i o n a l r i g i d i t y by C = GJ, and t h e
w a r p i n g r i g i d i t y by C1 = ECw, [ 8 6 ] , and similar t o t h e work ofBenjamin
[80]
obtaintheequation
of t o r s i o n a l m o t i o n of the system, using Hamilton's
p r i n c i p l e . Withtp(z,t)
d e n o t i n g t h e angle of r o t a t i o n a t s e c t i o n z and a t
time t, t h e s t r a i n e n e r g y
of t h e t o r s i o n a l d e f o r m a t i o n
i s [87]

where primes d e n o t e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o
is

Z.

The k i n e t i c e n e r g y

where a d o t d e n o t e s d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o
time, m is t h e mass of
t h e assembly p e r u n i t of length (exclusive of the
mass o f t h e f l u i d ) ,
and r
is t h e p o l a r r a d i u s of g y r a t i o n of the cross-section of the system.
The t o t a l k i n e t i c e n e r g y o f t h e f l u i d
may be obtained by adding t o t h e
T2, t h e change i n
k i n e t i c e n e r g y of t h e f l u i d c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e p i p e s ,
t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y of t h e f l u i d e n t e r i n g
small i n t e r v a l of time A t :

112

and leaving the pipes during

a very

T'

+ 2MU

T2

(-$Uo2- $) :U

At

(7.3)

where T ' i s t h e t o t a l k i n e t i c e n e r g y
of t h e f uid, H t h e mass d e n s i t y of t h e
fluid per unit length
ofeach p a i r ofpipes,
the outlet velocity vector,

8i

and Ui t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y v e c t o r .
But
= U
,!
where P i s t h e u n i t v e c t o r
+
i
nu; where ;is t h e u n i t v e c t o r t a n g e n t t o
in the z-direction,
and Uo = r

thetop(bottom)pipe
a t z = L, r i s t h e p o s i t i o n v e c t o r of thetop(bottom)
of t h e
p i p e a t z = L, and n i s t h e r a t i o of t h e area of e a c h p i p e t o t h a t
attachednozzle a t t h e f r e e end. Hence, 6T' becomes

Thecomponents
in the y-direction,

of t h e a b s o l u t e v e l o c i t y of t h e f l u i d are
1 ( y I)2 ]
i nt h ez - d i r e c t i o n ,
and U [1 5

9 + U(ay/az)
where w(z,t)

denotes the average

disulacement a t s e c t i o n z and a t time t i n t h e z - d i r e c t i o n .
T then becomes ( w i t h i na na d d i t i v ec o n s t a n t )
2

But y

With

( h / 2 ) ~ , which y i e l d s

beingtheunitvectoralongthey-axis,

w e have (see Fig.

7.1)

Then

i
(r + nu;)
where ;(L)6w(L)
now becomes

L = T1

+w

6r

nu fjw(L)

i s neglected(being

+ T2

- V1

h2
+4
[G(L) +

nU cp'(L)]

a term of h i g h e ro r d e r ) .

+ 2Mnl?w(L)

6cp(L)

(7.6)

The Lagrangian
(7.7)

113

and H a m i l t o n ' s p r i n c i p l e t a k e s

on the form

where

Carrying out the variations

and u s i n g i n t e g r a t i o n

2
a ' p = O

az

by p a r t s , w e o b t a i n

z = L

We now i n t r o d u c e t h e f o l l o w i n g d i m e n s i o n l e s s q u a n t i t i e s :

CL2

and

114

(7.9)

then become

(7.10)

5'1

which are a n a l o g o u s t o t h o s e o b t a i n e d i n
R e f . [72] f o r c a n t i l e v e r e d b a r s
subjected a t t h e f r e e end t o f o l l o w e r f o r c e s .
exceDt f o r t h e t h i r d term i n
t h e f i r s t equation,which
i s due t o t h e C o r i i l i s a c c e l e r a t i o n .
As we s h a l l
see i n t h e s e q u e l , - t h i s term can have e i t h e r a d e s t a b i l i z i n g o r a s t a b i l i z i n g
e f f e c t .T h a t
is, f o r s u f f i c i e n t l y small C o r i o l i sf o r c e s( nl a r g e
and p ' small)
thesystemlosesstability
(by t o r s i o n a l o r t r a n s v e r s e f l u t t e r )
under smaller
F thanobtainedvhenn
=
(no C o r i o l i s f o r c e s ) .
On t h e o t h e r hand, f o r p '/n
sufficiently large, the
c r i t i c a l v a l u e ofFcan
be increased by i n c r e a s i n g

'h.

We n o t e h e r e t h a t , i n t o r s i o n a l i n s t a b i l i t y
similar t o t r a n s v e r s e i n stability,theCoriolisforces
have a n e f f e c t similar t o t h a t of i n t e r n a l
That is, although damping(and
a l s oC o r i o l i sf o r c e s )
v i s c o u s damping [32].
i s a d i s s i p a t i n g agency,vhen i t i s s u f f i c i e n t l y small, i t may a c t as a channel for the transfer
ofenergy
tothesystemfromthesource,
which is always
[71].
associated with the type of nonconservative forces considered here
7.2.3

S t a b i l i t yA n a l y s i s

Frequencyequation.

We t a k e t h e s o l u t i o n

$(5)eiwT and o b t a i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e i g e n v a l u e

of system(7.10)

as cp(5,

T)

problem:

(7.11)

115

W
e then l e t $(E)

= AeiAt: and o b t a i n

Equation (7.12) is a polynomial of d e g r e e f o u r i n A and t h e r e f o r e h a s ,

by A
i n g e n e r a l , f o u r complex r o o t s . Let t h e s e r o o t s b e d e s i g n a t e d
J
j = 1y2y...r4.
Then,

XjAj = 0

j 1.1

(7.13)

j =1

2
where 11 = F(2-(r /2) x . System (7.13) h a s n o n t r i v i a l s o l u t i o n s i f
and only
if the determinant
of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of A * j = 12,. .,4 i s i d e n t i c a l l y
zero, i.e., the
frequency
equation
is
j

i ( X +A

A r e

(AI 12 + ~ l h l ~ 2 ) ( ~ 2 - h l ) ( h 4 - ~ 3 )

(7.14)
cont.

116

(7.14)
where

A 1, A2,

A3,

and A

Torsionalbuckling.

are defined as f u n c t i o n s of w through Eq. (7.12).

To o b t a i n t h e c o n d i t i o n f o r d i v e r g e n t t o r s i o n a l

motion, w e l e t w = 0 i n Eq. (7.12)and

Then, w i t h H = 6n2 and

7 = 2F

obtain A

192
2
x. = yrr , Eq. (7.14)

= 0 , and A

394
reducesto

= k J(2F-X).

(7.15)
which is i d e n t i c a l t o t h e e q u a t i o n o b t a i n e d
for t h e t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g of a
c a n t i l e v e r e d beam subjected a t t h e f r e e end t of o l l o w e rf o r c e s
[72].
The
f i r s t branch of t h e t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e f i r s t
mode of
i n s t a b i l i t y , i s shown by t h e s o l i d l i n e i n F i g .
7.2.
2

CY,
p, n, 15 and 2 = yn , Eqs. (7.12)and
T o r s i o n a lf l u t t e r .F o rg i v e n
(7.14) y i e l dt h ef r e q u e n c i e s
of t o r s i o n a lo s c i l l a t i o n s .
When
i s small,
t h e s e f r e q u e n c i e s are a l l l o c a t e d o n t h e l e f t
hand s i d e of theimaginary axis
i n t h e complex i w p l a n e and the system can perform only
damped t o r s i o n a l
oscillations.
As w e i n c r e a s e F, oneof these frequencies approaches the imaginary
axis,
and f o r a c e r t a i n v a l u e of F, say
Eqs. (7.12)and(7.14)
y i e l d a real

Fer,

v a l u e f o r w.
I f w e now i n c r e a s e F beyond t h i s c r i t i c a l value, oneof
the
Thebeam w i l l
r o o t s of (7.14) becomes complex withnegativeimaginarypart.
o s c i l l a t ew i t ha ne x p o n e n t i a l l yi n c r e a s i n ga m p l i t u d e .C o n s e q u e n t l y ,
we s h a l l
seek,forgiven
CY,
p, n, and 6, v a l u e s of w (real) and i?
which i d e n t i c a l l y
s a t i s f y (7.12)and(7.14).
Thiscanbedonedirectlywiththeaid
of a comp u t e r . The c o m p u t e rc a nb ei n s t r u c t e dt of i n dt h er o o t s
of Eq. (7.12) f o r
s p e c i f i e dv a l u e so f
a, $, n, 6, w, and y, and t h e n compute t h e v a l u e of A.
By v a r y i n g t h e v a l u e of w and y s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , t h e c r i t i c a l w and y may
e a s i l y b e s e l e c t e d which make both real and i m a g i n a r y p a r t s of A i d e n t i c a l l y
i s i l l u s t r a t e di nF i g .
7.3 where f o r a = 1.50, 6 = 1.0, i3
1.0,
zero.This
iA2 are p l o t t e d a g a i n s t
and n = 1, both real and i m a g i n a r y p a r t s of A = Al

2
4, A i s i d e n t i c a l l y
W
e see t h a t f o r y = 3.40, and w2 = 1.131~
t h ev a l u e s of w
z e r oS. i m i l arre s u l t s
may b eo b t a i n e df o ro t h e rv a l u e s
of a, p, and n. I n
t h i s manner t o r s i o n a l f l u t t e r c u r v e s may beconstructed.
The f i r s t branch

117

(the only practically significant

one) of torsional flutter is shown
in Fig.
7.2 by dashed lines, for 6 = 1, n = 1, and indicated values of 8. The solid
curve for torsional flutter in Fig. 7.2 is the limiting case when n=
and
corresponds to the torsional flutter of a cantilevered bar subjected at
the
free end to compressive follower forces[72].
It must be noted that,even for relatively largevalues of B(n=l),
Coriolis forcesmay have a destabilizing effectfor certain values
of
(For example, for B = 0.1 and 1.0 <cy C 1.35, as is seen
in Fig. 7.2.)

the

cy.

Transverse flutter. In addition to torsional buckling and torsional

flutter, the bar may lose stabilityalso by transverse flutter [87].
The
equation of motion and the boundary conditions
for this case have
been derived by employing Hamiltons principle
in [80] and DAlemberts principle
in [87].
Here, we may simply identifyC1 with EI, cp(z,t) with y(z,t) and
write

which, by introducing the following dimensionless quantities:

reduces to

118

Equation (7.12)
k4

now becomes

- 2p112 - w J(%

a d equation (7.14)

Fl)

- w2

(7.12 ')

t a k e s on t h e form

(7.14')

For a given B and n, w e now seek v a l u e s of w and F1 which i d e n t i c a l l y

s a t i s f y (7.12

')

and (7.14 ')

In t h i s manner w e o b t a i n t h e l i m i t of t r a n s -

7.2 f o r
v e r s e f l u t t e r , as shown by h o r i z o n t a l d a s h e d l i n e s i n F i g .
2
E I r /C1 = 1.5 and B
0.1, 0.2.
I nt h i sf i g u r e ,t h eh o r i z o n t a ls o l i dl i n e
i n d i c a t e st h e

l i m i t of t r a n s v e r s ef l u t t e rf o r

B = 0 . 5 , 1.0, t h et r a n s v e r s ef l u t t e ro c c u r s

n =
at y

[72].
We n o t et h a tf o r
12.2, and 15.8 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

These v a l u e s are not shown i n F i g . 7.2.

7.2.4

A-nalysisofFlutter

by I n d i r e c t Method

of f l u t t e r was
The method used i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n f o r t h e a n a l y s i s
a d i r e c t one.That
.is, f o r a givensystem we d i r e c t l y o b t a i n e d t h e
critical
v a l u e s of y and w. One may s o l v e t h e same problem by a n i n d i r e c t method which
was employed i n [87].

To t h i s end w e l e t A
Then we have

5;

j = 1,2,

...,4 d e n o t e t h e r o o t s

of Eq. (7.12).

119

(7.16a)

xlh23A4

The f i r s t e q u a t i o n i n

-w

is identically satisfied

(7.16a)

i f we l e t

l l = a - b - c

A2

a + b - c
(7.16b)

A 3-- - a - b + c
A 4 = a + b + c

we o b t a i n

and from the remaining equations

2
2
a2+b + c

2F-x
=y

(7.16~)

+ b4 -

a4

2a2b2

- 2b2c2 - 2c2a2 = -

u)

We now l e t

(7.16d)

and from ( 7 . 1 6 ~ ) o b t a i n

p2

q2

+ 2c2

+ q 2) c

(p 2

= 2F

$ .J(s f ) a2w
I

(7.16e)

120

wherep,q,
and c are all real.
thenintothefrequencyequation
of tedious manipulations,

A1

+ iA2

S u b s t i t u t i n g from (7.16d) i n t o (7.16b) and

(7.14), we f i n a l l y a r r i v e a t , a f t e r a series

= 0

- 4c2)ll 3 cos p s i n h q
- 4c4 ] - (3p 2- q2- 4c2)ll 1 s i n p cosh q

4c43

+ (p 2 -

(p2+ q2)T

A2

e:

2 2 2
{[P q (4

+ [2p 2q2 + pq

- P 21

2
+ C

2 2
c (p

- q2)

s i n 2c

- 6~2q21 - 3c4 (P2 -

+ 4c4 1 T, 3

+ 3c2 (p 2 -

2 2

{2 [-p q

4
4
(P + q

3q 2

2
q )

1 -4c 1

(7.17)

s i n p si& q

7c4]

[p

- q2 -

2
2c ] 7')

cos p cosh q

4
42
2
2
4
2
2
2
- p q { [ p + q + 2 c ( q - p ) + 2 c ] - [ p - q - 2 c ] ~ ~ c o s 2 c
2
f i n d p and
F o r a n assumed v a l u e of c and given (Y and u = 6n , w e maynow
= 0 . Then, from equations (7.16e) thecorresponding
q s u c ht h a t A1 =

F, B, and w, f o r a given n, may becomputed.

values of

The above method i s a n i n d i r e c t one, as w e do not know, i n advance,which

Moreover, i f a computer i s being
p a r t i c u l a r problem is beinginvestigated.
of p and q which s a t i s f y A = A2 = 0, i t i s t h e n j u s t a s
used t o f i n d v a l u e s
e a s yt o

employ t h ed i r e c t

method o u t l i n e di nt h ep r e v i o u ss e c t i o n .

However,

is f o r s u f f i c i e n t l y s m a l l ,./($ '/n),
f o r small v a l u e s of C o r i o l i s f o r c e s , t h a t
one may reduce Eqs. (7.17) by n e g l e c t i n g t h e h i g h e r o r d e r
terms i n c and study
t h e e f f e c t of small C o r i o l i s f o r c e s d i r e c t l y . T h i s
we shalldiscussinthe
followingsection.
7.2.5

The E f f e c t o f - S m a l l C o r i o l i s F o r c e s

W
e consider equation
terms o b t a i n

(7.17)

and by n e g l e c t i n g O ( C ) ~ and higher order

121

..._. ..

..

-A1

.._

= p {2 [3p2q2- q4]

+q

{2Cp4-

3p2q2]

[p2- 3q2]

1]

[q2- 3p2]

17

cos p s i n h q

s i n p cosh q

(7.18)

where

(7.19)

The secondequation i n (7.18) i s t h e f r e q u e n c y e q u a t i o n f o r

C o r i o l i s f o r c e s [72]),and
thefirstequation,tothefirstorder

n = m, (no
of approxi-

of s u f f i c i e n t l y small C o r i o l i s
mation i n ,/($/SI) = O(c), p r e s e n t s t h e e f f e c t
f o r c e s . We n o t e t h a t l1and
arebothindependentof
c and, t h e r e f o r e , w e

may d i r e c t l y s e e k v a l u e s
of w and 5 which make them i d e n t i c a l l y z e r o . T h i s
i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n P i g . 7.4 f o r a = 1.5, where t h e c r i t i c a l load i s found t o
I n F i g . 7.5, t h e c r i t i c a l load y i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t CY f o r s u f be y = 1.67.
The s o l i d c u r v e f o r
f i c i e n t l y small C o r i o l i sf o r c e s( t h ed a s h e dc u r v e ) .
i s f o rt h el i m i t i n gc a s e
of n =
[72].
W
e
t o r s i o n a lf l u t t e ri nt h i sf i g u r e
note that the existence
of C o r i o l i s f o r c e s d o e s n o t
a l t e r t h e r e g i o n of d i as i s expected. However, i t makes t h i s r e g i o n a closed set,
vergentmotion,
t h a t is, i n t h e presence of C o r i o l i s f o r c e s , t h e p o i n t s o n t h e d i v e r g e n t
curve
indicate n e u t r a l l y s t a b l e states. The h o r i z o n t a l s o l i d l i n e i n F i g .
7.5 denotes the l i m i t of t r a n s v e r s e f l u t t e r f o r n = =, and the horizontal dashed
l i n e i n d i c a t e s t h a t l i m i t f o r S u f f i c i e n t l y small C o r i o l i s f o r c e s [32], ( f o r
2
E I x r /C1 = 1.5).
It may beof
interest,toobtainthecriticalvalues
of y f o r $ =
and
This, ofcourse,providestheupper
limit of t o r s i o n a l and t r a n s v e r s e
f l u t t e r . The d o t t e d c u r v e i n F i g .
7.5 r e p r e s e n t s t h i s l i m i t i n g
case f o r 6 - 1.
We n o t e t h a t t r a n s v e r s e f l u t t e r , f o r
$ = 0 and n = 1, occurs a t y - 4 7 , which
i s not shown i n Fig. 7.5.

n = 1.

122

7.3

S t a b i l i t y - o f a Bar i n Parallel_Flu-id Flow.pT&ing

t h e Head R e s i s t a n c e

i n t oC o n s i d e r a t i o n

The problem of a c a n t i l e v e r e d b a r p l a c e d i n a f l u i d f l o w was analyzed by

Kordas [ 8 8 ] . The head r e s i s t a n c e was assumed t o berepresented by p u r e f o l lower force, which
was n o t f u r t h e r r e l a t e d t o
any parameters of the bar or
t h ef l u i d .P i s t o nt h e o r y
[ 8 9 ] v a s assumed t o c h a r a c t e r i z e 'lateral p r e s s u r e
on t h e b a r .
The continuoussystem w a s r e p l a c e d by a system with two d e g r e e s
of the problem
offreedom and s t a b i l i t y limits i n terms o f r e l e v a n t p a r m e t e r a
were c a l c u l a t e d .

7.4

S t a b i l i t y of Bars S u b j e c t e dt oR a d i a n t

Heat

In a recent paper Augusti [ g o ] has suggested a s p e c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of

the links of an articulated bar,
which would make i t s e n s i t i v e t o r a d i a n t
heat. The l i n k s are made up of cells; theheatabsorbed
by e r c h c e l l c a u s e s
a r e l a t i v e r o t a t i o n of t h e two adjacent bars.
thermal deformations which induce
An i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e r e s u l t i n g e q u a t i o n s ,
e.g., f o r a b a r w i t h two
degrees of freedom, i s t h a t d e r i v a t i v e s of g e n e r a l i z e d c o o r d i n a t e s ( a n g l e s
of
r o t a t i o n ) up t o t h i r d o r d e r a r e i n t r o d u c e d .
Depending upon thecombination
of r e l e v a n t p a r a m e t e r s , s t a b i l i t y c a n b e l o s t
by f l u t t e r o r by divergence.
Thermally induced vibration
and f l u t t e r of f l e x i b l e booms vere discussed
by Yu [91] and commented on by Augusti[92],where
further references to this
phenomenon can be found.

123

CHAPTER V I 1 1
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS AND MODELS

8.1

Introduction

As already mentioned, i t i s t h e i n t e n t t o d i s c u s s i n t h i s
monograph only
those problems involving follower forces
which do n o t b e l o n g t o t h e
now almost
c l a s s i c a l areas o f a e r o e l a s t i c i t y and s t a b i l i t y of r o t a t i n g s h a f t s . I f
we
omit these two c a t e g o r i e s , t h e o n l y
two remaining areas ofproblemswith
f o l l o w e r f o r c e s whichhavebeen
realizedtodateinvolveinternalflowthrough
f l e x i b l e p i p e s and f l u i d j e t s i m p i n g i n g
on a deformable structure.

As regardstheformer
area, mentionshould bemade above a l l ofthepioneering work by Benjamin[80,93]
on the dynamicsof a system of a r t i c u l a t e d
c a n t i l e v e r e d p i p e s conveying f l u i d i n which both divergence and f l u t t e r were
observed and s t a b i l i t y b o u n d a r i e s were d e t e r m i n e d a n a l y t i c a l l y and a l s o by
means of quantitativeexperiments.Benjamin's
work was continued by Gregory
and Paidoussis [87,94]
who s t u d i e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y and experimentally continuous
t u b u l a r c a n t i l e v e r s conveying f l u i d . One s h o u l da l s o recall t h e e a r l i e r work
by Long [95] on v i b r a t i o n of a tube containing flowing fluid,
who, however,
d i dn o to b s e r v ea n yi n s t a b i l i t i e s ,b e i n gi n t e r e s t e do n l yi nt h ei n f l u e n c eo f
a simplysupported
t h ef l u i df l o w
on frequenciesofvibration.Divergenceof
w a s observed more r e c e n t l y by Dodds and Runyan [96].
pipe conveying fluid
were i n v e s t i g a t e d a l s o
Simply supported and c a n t i l e v e r e d p i p e s c o n v e y i n g f l u i d
by Greenwald and Dugund j i [97].
The dynamics and s t a b i l i t y of slendercylinderssurroundedby,rather
thancontaining,flowingfluid
w a s s t u d i e d a n a l y t i c a l l y and experimentally by
He p o i n t so u tt h a t ,p r o v i d e dt h ef l o wd i r e c t i o nc o i n c i d e s
Paidoussis [98-1001.
w i t ht h ea x i so ft h ec y l i n d e r
a t rest,then,for
small motionsabouttheposition
of r e s t , t h e f o r c e s e x e r t e d
by t h e f l u i d i n t h e
two c a s e s of e x t e r n a l and i n similar. This becomes e v i d e n t on c o n s i d e r i n gt h a tt h e
t e r n a lf l o wa r ec l o s e l y
f o r c e se x e r t e d by t h ef l u i d ,e x c e p t i n gt h o s e
due t o f l u i d f r i c t i o n , i n b o t h
c a s e s a r i s e from l a t e r a l a c c e l e r a t i o n oftheflowingfluid,caused
by l a t e r a l
motion of t h ec y l i n d e r .I ne x t e r n a lf l o w ,t h i sa c c e l e r a t i o n
i s s u f f e r e d by
thevirtualor"associated"
mass of f l u i d , which i s dynamically equivalent to
thecontained mass of f l u i d i n i n t e r n a l
flow. Hawthorne [ l o l l , taking advant a g eo ft h i ss i m i l a r i t y ,i n v e s t i g a t e dt h es t a b i l i t yo ff l e x i b l et u b e s
towed i n
i s p o s s i b l e i n suchsystems.
water and d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t d i v e r g e n c e i n s t a b i l i t y
i t i s deemed appropriate to mention
some r e l a t e d b u t conInthiscontext
s i d e r a b l y more complex h y d r o - e l a s t i c - p n e u m a t i c p r o b l e m s a r i s i n g i n s t r u c t u r a l
dynamicsoflaunch
v e h i c l e s s t u d i e d by Runyan, P r a t t and P i e r c e [102], as well
as thebroad area of p r o p e l l e r - r o t o r whirl f l u t t e r , a comprehensivereview of
which was r e c e n t l y p r e p a r e d by Reed [l03].

125

The mechanicsofimpinging
j e t s was s t u d i e d t o d a t e from the point of
viewof
f l u i d b e h a v i o r , one ofthegoalsbeingthedeterminationofthepress u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a t a r i g i ds u r f a c e .
By c o n t r a s t , i n a r e c e n ts t u d y c104]
a primarily elastic structure
subtheinterestcentered
on the behavior of
jet. Quantitativeexperiments were c a r r i e d o u t and
jectedtoanimpinging
compared w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s ,
as d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n .
8.2

Instability of

a Mechanical Sys t e m Induced bypan Imp-inging F l u i d Jet

8.2.1
General
The mathematical model of the physical system considered here
may be
6.2.
It c o n s i s t s of a canc a l l e dR e u t ' s problem,mentioned
a l r e a d yi nS e c t .
t i l e v e r w i t h a r i g i d p l a t e a t i t s f r e ee n d , which i s normal t o t h e axis. It
i s s u b j e c t e d t o a f o r c e , a c t i n g on the p l a t e , which i s a l w a y s c o l l i n e a r w i t h
8.1. Bolotin [8] r e p o r t st h a t
the undeformed a x i so ft h ec a n t i l e v e r ,F i g .
t h i s problem was f i r s t posed by Reut i n 1939and solved by N i k o l a i i n t h e
same
y e a r .I nt h i sc o n t e x t ,B o l o t i ns u g g e s t st h a tt h ef o r c ei nR e u t ' s
problem may
be r e a l i z e d by animpinging j e t of a b s o l u t e l y i n e l a s t i c p a r t i c l e s , s i n c e t h e
i s completelyabsorbed upon impact.
It appears,
k i n e t i ce n e r g yo ft h ep a r t i c l e s
however, t h a t no a t t e m p t was e v e r made t o f o l l o w up t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s , o r t o
r e a l i z e R e u t ' s problem i n any o t h e r way. B o l o t i n a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e
may inducesuch a f o r c e when t h e i n c l i p r e s s u r e from a j e t o f l i q u i d o r g a s
as thebardeforms,
i s neglected.*
n a t i o n oftheforce,
i t was discoInanattempttoconstruct
modelsbasedontheseideas,
v e r e d t h a t by c o v e r i n g t h e p l a t e w i t h s c r e e n s o f c e r t a i n
mesh s i z e s a problem
v e r yc l o s et ot h eR e u t ' s
one may b er e a l i z e d .
The r e s u l t a n t f o r c e , i n t h i s
case, has an inclination
which can be c o n t r o l l e d by a suitable arrangement of
screens of various
mesh s i z e s ; t h e p o i n t o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t a n t f o r c e ,
l i e s on the axis of t h e undeformed c a n t i l e v e r . When t h i sf o r c e
however,always
s t a y s normal t o t h e end p l a t e , t h e s y s t e m l o s e s s t a b i l i t y
by d i v e r g e n c e( a t t a i n i s conservative. On t h eo t h e r
ment o fa n o t h e re q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e ) ;t h ef o r c e
hand, i f t h e f o r c e s t a y s c o l l i n e a r w i t h t h e
undeformed a x i s of t h eb a r ,t h e
lossofstabilityoccurs
by f l u t t e r ( o s c i l l a t i o n s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a m p l i t u d e s ) ;
of t h ef o r c e ,
t h ef o r c e i s nonconservative. By c o n t r o l l i n gt h ei n c l i n a t i o n
various degrees of nonconservativeness may b e a t t a i n e d .

a systemwith two degrees of

The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d u s i n g
a c o n t i n u o u sc a n t i l e v e r .
The appliedforce
is induced by
freedom, r a t h e rt h a n
animpinging a i r j e t . The degree of nonconservativeness i s c o n t r o l l e d by emp l o y i n g s u i t a b l e end a t t a c h m e n t s , r e s u l t i n g i n e i t h e r d i v e r g e n t o r f l u t t e r - t y p e
motionsofthesystem.Also,theeffect
of viscous damping f o r c e s i s i n v e s t i gated. It i s found t h a tt h ee x p e r i m e n t a l l yo b t a i n e df l u t t e rl o a dc o r r e s p o n d s
rather closely to the theoretical prediction
when small d i s s i p a t i v e f o r c e s are

* Thi's,of

"~
~

-~

~"

__

~"

course, i s n o ta c c e p t a b l e ,s i n c e
i t i s preciselythepresence
ofthe component of t h e f o r c e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n
normal t o t h e impinging f l u i d
t h a t ,i nt h i sc a s e ,r e n d e r st h es y s t e mc o n s e r v a t i v e .

126

i n c l u d e d ;t h i sc o n f i r m st h ee a r l i e rf i n d i n g st h a t
have a d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t .
8.2.2

small damping f o r c e s may

Description-of Model and Supporting Equipment

two l i k e r i g i d r o d s , F i g .
8 . 2 . One rod i s e l a s t i The model c o n s i s t so f
c a l l yh i n g e dt ot h ef i r s tr o d
and f r e e a t t h eo t h e r end. The system i s cons t r a i n e d t o move i n a horizontal plane, being supported
by l o n g , l i g h t wires.
Various rigid attachments can
be placed a t t h e f r e e end of t h e secondrod.
The a t t a c h m e n t c o n s i s t s b a s i c a l l y of a r i g i d f l a t plate covered with a combii s r i g i d l yf i x e d
n a t i o n ofscreensofvarious
mesh sizes.Thisattachment
and mounted normal t o t h e axis ofthesecondrod.Intheabsenceof
any d i s i s i n e q u i l i b r i u m when t h e two rods are c o l l i n e a r ( u n d i s turbance,thesystem
turbedconfiguration).

A fixed nozzle i s placed along the equilibrium

axis ofthesystem,
one
inch away from theattachment, and an a i r j e t i s made t o impingeupon t h e
attachment. The flow rate canbevaried
by means of a valve. The dynamic
a given flow r a t e can be read fran
a
p r e s s u r e a t the nozzle corresponding to
d i a l gage.
It i s observedthat as t h e f l o w r a t e ,
and hencetheforce
on theattachment,
i s increased and passes a c e r t a i n ( c r i t i c a l ) v a l u e , t h e s y s t e m d o e s n o t r e m a i n
i nt h eu n d i s t u r b e dc o n f i g u r a t i o n .S t a b i l i t y
is l o s t by e i t h e rf l u t t e r( o s c i l l a t i o n sw i t hi n c r e a s i n ga m p l i t u d e s )o r
by divergence(buckling
theattainment o f a n o t h e r e q u i l i b r i u m s t a t e ) , d e p e n d i n g
on t h e n a t u r e of theattachment
is a f l a t p l a t e with a smooth s u r f a c e (a f l a t s h e e t
used.
Iftheattachment
of aluminum) f a c i n g t h e a i r j e t , t h e n t h e l o s s
of s t a b i l i t y o c c u r s by d i v e r gence. By c o n t r a s t ,f l u t t e r - t y p em o t i o n
is observed i f theattachment i s a
p l a t ew i t hs c r e e n s
of c e r t a i n mesh s i z e s p l a c e d on t h e s u r f a c e t h a t f a c e s t h e
impinging f l u i d . The sequence of photographs i nF i g . 8 . 3 i l l u s t r a t e s the
f l u t t e r - t y p em o t i o n ,w h i l eF i g .
8 . 4 d e p i c t s a buckled s t a t e (divergence).Fig.
8.5 and Table 2 p r e s e n t t h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s f o r
a l l therelevantproperties
ofthesystem.

The supporting equipment consists of

a c a l i b r a t i n g s y s t e m which i s used
tocorrelatethe
dynamic p r e s s u r e , h e n c e t h e f l o w r a t e , w i t h t h e a c t u a l f o r c e
which a c t s on thesystem.Threesquare
s t e e lp l a t e sa r ep l a c e dh o r i z o n t a l l y
oneabove t h e o t h e r , and a r e s e p a r a t e d and supported by s e t s of s t e e l l e a f
s p r i n g s . The s t e e l leafspringsconnectingthe
two lower p l a t e sp e r m i td i s two p l a t e s
placement i n o n l y one direction,whilethoseconnectingtheupper
p e r m i td i s p l a c e m e n to n l yi nt h ep e r p e n d i c u l a rd i r e c t i o n .
Two s t a g e s are thus
formed. The displacement of eachstage i s , w i t h a highdegree of accuracy,
of
proportionaltothe
component oftheforce
which acts a l o n g t h e d i r e c t i o n
thedisplacement.
With t h ea i d of a p a i r of s t r a i n gagesattachedtothe
steel
l e a f s p r i n g s , and using a compensatingnetwork,readingscan
b e taken which a r e
p r o p o r t i o n a lt ot h er e s p e c t i v ed i s p l a c e m e n t s
ofeachstage.Inthis'
manner,
strain-gagereadingscanberelatedtothe
magnitude of the force acting on
thesystem.

127

The supporting equipment just described

i s used t o f i n d t h e d i r e c t i o n
and
the magnitude of t h e f o r c e on the attachment when t h e dynamic p r e s s u r e of t h e
impinging air j e t a t thenozzle is known. The attachment i s mounted on t h e
air j e t a t a
topplateofthesupportingstages
and t h e n s u b j e c t e d t o t h e
givenangleofincidence,Fig.
8.6.
The magnitudeandthedirectionofthe
a given angle of incidence
and f o r a given
resultant force corresponding to
dynamic p r e s s u r e are thus obtained experimentally.
8.2.3
Theory

As alreadymentioned,theproblemof
a cantilever with a rigid cross plate
a t i t s f r e e end and s u b j e c t e d t o a f o r c e which i s alwaysdirectedalongthe
was f i r s t posedbyReut
i n 1939.
i n i t i a l , undeformed axis o f t h e c a n t i l e v e r ,
It is e s s e n t i a l t o n o t e t h a t t h e a p p l i e d f o r c e i n R e u t s
problem is n o t a t t a c h e d
a l i n ei ns p a c e .I ns t r u c t o a m a t e r i a l p o i n t of t h es y s t e m ,b u tr a t h e rt o
t u r a l mechanics,boundary-valueproblems
are commonly posed f o r s u r f a c e t r a c upon which t h e ya c t .
As a
t i o n s which are c o n n e c t e dt ot h em a t e r i a lp o i n t s
result,thedifference
between thedisplacementsofthematerialpoints
and
ofthepoints
of a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e f o r c e s d i s a p p e a r s .
is induced by t h e a c t i o n o f a n
air j e t
Inthepresentproblem,theforce
upon t h e end p l a t e .
It may beassumed
t h a t suchan a c t i o n is e q u i v a l e n tt o a
r e s u l t a n t f o r c e whose p o i n t of a p p l i c a t i o n l i e s always on the axis of the undeformedsystem;
t h a t i s , a l o n gt h ed i r e c t i o n
of theflow.Thisforcecontinuously disengages from t h e m a t e r i a l p o i n t onwhich i t is i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y a c t i n g .
This f o r c e i s c o n s e r v a t i v e o n l y i f
i t s t a y s normal t o t h e end p l a t e as the
we w i l l d e n o t et h i sf o r c e
by P
systemdeforms.
I nt h es u b s e q u e n ta n a l y s i s ,
and the angle by which i t r o t a t e s , as thesystemdeforms,
by q2.
We consider small l a t e r a l motions of thesystem as shown i n F i g . 8.5.
The r i g i d b a r , d e s i g n a t e d
by I, is connected t o thesupport by a r o t a t i o n a l
s p r i n g of s t i f f n e s s K1 and c a r r i e s a t i t s o t h e r end a r o t a t i o n a l s p r i n g of
as 11. Inads t i f f n e s s K2 t o which i s a t t a c h e d a n o t h e r r i g i d r o d , d e s i g n a t e d
as shown i n
d i t i o n , r o d s I and I1 are connected t o two l i n e a r c o i l s p r i n g s
Fig.8.5.Sincethedisplacementofthespringconnectedtobar
I i s not
11, t h e s t i f f n e s s K properlyaccountsforthe
coupledwiththemotionofbar
1
b a r I1 is located a t a d i s e f f e c t of t h i ss p r i n g .
The springconnectedto
tanced2 from t h e c e n t e r of t h e m i d d l e j o i n t
and h a s s t i f f n e s s K
3
The i n e r t i a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d
and sevencentroidal
r o t a t i o n a ls p r i n g

moments of i n e r t i a I

is denoted by m

j = 1,2,.

..7.

and t h a t of therod

The c e n t r a l r o t a t i o n a l s p r i n g h a s i n e f f e c t

...

j = 1,2,
7,
j
The mass of t h e end

by seven masses m

I i s denoted by m2.

which are
4
a t t a c h e dt ot h er o d s
I and 11, r e s p e c t i v e l y . The mass of t h e rod I1 i s m
5
and m i s t h a t of t h e c o l l a r which f i t s t h e a t t a c h m e n t h a v i n g
mass m
6
7

128

two masses m3 and m

The d i s t a n c e between t h e c e n t e r s of t h e end and t h e m i d d l e r o t a t i o n a l

s p r i n g s is denoted by il, while the mass m is a t a d i s t a n c e i 2 fropl t h e cen7
t e r of t h em i d d l ej o i n t .
The dimensions al, bl,and
c1 are t h ed i s t a n c e s from
t h ec e n t e r
b2,and

of t h e end j o i n t t o

masses ml,

c2 d e s i g n a t e t h e r e s p e c t i v e d i s t a n c e s

m2, and m

r e s p e c t i v e l y ,w h i l e a2,
3'
of m4, m5, and m6 from thecen-

ter of the middle joint.

The two r o t a t i o n a l s p r i n g s were made of h i g h tempered s p r i n g steel with
i d e n t i c a l geometryand,therefore,theyhave
small damping w i t h , p l a u s i b l y ,
Sincetheattachmenthas
a l a r g es u r f a c e area
t h e same damping c o n s t a n t el.
which moves r e l a t i v e t o t h e i m p i n g i n g
a i r j e t , a n e x t e r n a l l i n e a r damping with
c o n s t a n t e2 a p p e a r s t o be a r e a s o n a b l e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of thecorresponding
damping mechanism.
The magnitude of t h e f o r c e
t i o n ofwhich e n c l o s e s a n a n g l e

due totheimpinging
a i r j e t i s P, t h e d i r e c mp2 w i t h t h e undeformed axis. a is assumed

t o be a c o n s t a n t which will be determined experimentally with the help

of the
a u x i l i a r y equipment as d e s c r i b e di nS e c t .
8.2.4.
'pl and 'p2 are t h er e s p e c t i v e
r o t a t i o n s of b a r s I and I1 f r a n t h e i n i t i a l s t r a i g h t p o s i t i o n .
of motion are obtained

The following equations

principle:

by employingD'Alembert's

where
All

= (m

+ m5+

m6+ ?)Xl

+ mla12+

m b

+ m3c 12+

2 1

11+ I2

Ig

A 1 2 = ~ l = ( m
4 2a + m
5 b2 + m
6 c2 + m7 X
2 ) 1
1
~ 2 ~ = m a ~ + 2r+ nm 6bc 22 + m L7 2 2+412+41 5 + 1 6 + 15, 2
Bll

= c2A12+ 2el

B12

Bpl

= 624112- 61

B22 = c2d22+ c1
Cll

= K1+K2+

K3i1

129

C22 = K2+ K d

3 2

El

F l u t t e r .C o n s i d e r
first t h e undamped case:
Undamped System
E2 5 0 .
Then B
= 0 . Assuming s o l u t i o n so ft h e
form
ij

i.e.,

let

cpl = aleiwt

(8.3)

where i = J-1, lpl and B2 are undeterminedamplitudes,

u)

i s anundetermined

frequency and t i s t h e time v a r i a b l e ,t h ea s s o c i a t e df r e q u e n c ye q u a t i o n

is

aw4 + b w2 + c = O

(8.4)

where
2
a = %1%2-

*12

F l u t t e r o c c u r s i f u) i s complex v i t h a negativeimaginarypart.
t h r e s h o l d ( c r i t i c a l ) v a l u e of P, c a l l e d P,, i s o b t a i n e d b y s e t t i n g
b2

- 4ac = 0

The

03-61

and i s

-2 2hk - f
'*lS2- f 2 - 4h:

* 2
f

2 2
2
2
hk -hkfg-4h j m + h j g

+ hmf 2

4hj

where

= 2A12C12

= A11%2

*llC22

%2c11

2
A12

130

31

C11124

= cllc22

Cl2L1~

c12

C1211

- C22..C1

A8 t h e v a l u e of P is i n c r e a s e d , f l u t t e r w i l l occur when P becomes equal

t o t h e lowervalue of P,.
Note t h a t P, is a f u n c t i o n of a throughequations
(8.8).
P, e x i s t s o n l y when t h e argumentof
t h es q u a r er o o ti n
Eq. (8.7) is
nonnegative.

Damped System
F l u t t e r . Using an assumed s o l u t i o no ft h e
form (8.3) i n
Eqs.(8.1)
r e s u l t si nt h ef o l l o w i n gd e t e r m i n a n t
which i s s e t e q u a l t o z e r o f o r
a nontrivial solution:

= o

el and e2 i n t h e e x p a n s i o n

I f we neglecttheproductof

of (8.9),

we

o b t a i n two equations by s e p a r a t i n gt h e real andimaginary p a r t s . The f i r s t

The e q u a t i o nr e s u l t i n g from t h e
equation i s t h e same as equation (8.4).
imaginary p a r t y i e l d s t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n :
w2

B1.1(PL2a+C22)
~.
+ B22(C11-PX1)-B12tPLl(l+rr)
.
A22Brl
AllB22' - 2A12B12

+ 2CI21

(8.10)

S u b s t i t u t i n g tu2 f r m Eq.
oldvalues

(8.10) i n t o Eq. (8.4) and denoting by Pd thethresh-

of P f o r t h i s c a s e ,

we o b t a i n

(8.11)

where
u = 2hqr + qa
2
+
S f r + k
s

(8.12)
cont

131

2
V f - hr
2
S

+=+m
8

2
w = L + f q +
S

(8.12)

and

r = (1 + ~ s ) +
C (1
~ +~ s ) c l l

2cl2(l

(8.13)

S)

where
c

01/e2A2

and

,f,

R1

w d2

(8.14)

Thus, t h e c r i t i c a l f o r c e
dependsnotonly
on (y, b u t a l s o on 6 , e s s e n t i a l l y
t h e r a t i o ofthe
damping c o e f f i c i e n t s . The c r i t i c a l f o r c e i s t h e lower of t h e
two valuesof
P and i t e x i s t s o n l y when theargument of t h es q u a r er o o ti n
d
Eq. (8.11) i s nonnegative.
(8.4).

Divergence. For divergence,orbuckling,

The c o n d i t i o n i s then

u)

i s set e q u a l t o z e r o i n

c = o
Denotingthevalueof

Eq.

(8.15)
P a t which t h i s o c c u r s

by Pb, we have
(8.16)

where j, k, and m a r e d e f i n e d

As are P, and P

d,'
the mass d i s t r i b u t i o n .

by Eqs. (8.8).

i s a l s o a f u n c t i o n of

Pb e x i s t s o n l y i f

k2

(y,but

i t is independent of

4jm 2 0.

Results. With thesystemparametersgiven,includingthespringconstants,

Eqs. (8.7), (8.11), and
which aredeterminedexperimentally(seeSect.8.2.4),
be s o l v e df o r P f o re a c hs p e c i f i e dv a l u e
of a. T h i s r e p e t i t i o u s
(8.16)must
t a s k was performed w i t h t h e a i d
of a CDC 3400 computer.

As can be s e e n i n F i g .
alongtheequilibriumline;

132

8 . 5 ,f o r
= 0 , t h ef o r c e
P i s alwaysdirected
i . e . , t h el i n ed e f i n e d
by c
p
l = cp2 = 0. When a- 1,

t h ef o r c e i s a l w a y sp e r p e n d i c u l a rt ot h es u r f a c e
of theattachment.
As d i s i s nonconservative, while i n t h e
cussed earlier, i n t h e f o r m e r c a s e t h e f o r c e
l a t t e r i t i s conservative. It t u r n s o u t t h a t w i t h t h e p r e s e n t s e t u p , e x p e r i m e n t a l l y r e a l i z a b l e a are i n t h e r a n g e 0.23 S 01 5 0.91.
Unfortunately,mechanicalfailure
of t h e j o i n t s o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e a d vanced s t a g e ofexperimentalmeasurementsand,consequently,
when t h e model
was reassembled,thespringconstants
K
and K changed. Thus i t became
3
necessarytodesignatetheprevious
model by system I and thereassembled mod e l by system 11. With d u e r e s p e c t t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n s y s t e m p a r a m e t e r s ,
8.13.
s t a b i l i t y c u r v e s , P versus a, are shown i n F i g s . 8.12and

5,

8.2.4 Experimental
~

~~

Procedure and R e s u l t s

a. To f i n d
C o-r r_
e l_
a t i~
o .n. -~
of Force
With
~.
-.
-A i r Pressure and Determinationof
the magnitude and the direction of the force acting
on the attachment due t o
a g i v e n a i r f l o w rate, the supporting equipment described in Sect.
8.2.2 i s
used.
"

~"

The nozzleassembly i s detached fran the

model and mounted a d j a c e n t t o
thecalibratingdevice,Fig.8.6,paralleltothedirection
of motion ofone
of t h es t a g e s .
The r i g i da t t a c h m e n t i s separated from the model and mounted
on a s p e c i a lb r a c k e t on t h et o pp l a t e
of t h ec a l i b r a t i n gs t a g e s .T h i sb r a c k e t
may be r o t a t e d so t h a t t h e a n g l e
between a normal t o t h e a t t a c h m e n t
and the
,
be varied. Markings are provided
c e n t e r l i n e of thenozzle, namely ~ 2 may
2 0 , 25,and
30 deg.
f o r q2 = 0 , 5,10,15,
The f i r s t s t e p i s t o f i n d a r e l a t i o n between thedisplacementofthe
is done by applying known
s t a g e s and t h ef o r c ea p p l i e dt ot h et o pp l a t e .T h i s
forcesalongthedeflections
of eachstage and notingthestrain-gagereadings.
If the direction
parallel tothenozzle
i s designated by x and theperpendic u l a r d i r e c t i o n by y , r e i a t i o n s of t h e form
Px = SIAex

(8.17)
P =SAe
Y
2 Y

and P a r et h ef o r c e s ,
and Ae and Ae are t h ed i f f e r e n c e s
Y
X
Y
instrain-gagereadings
betweennoload
and f u l l l o a d , f o r t h e
x and y-direcSI and S are t h ep r o p o r t i o n a l i t yc o n s t a n t s .
t i o n s ,r e s p e c t i v e l y .
2

may be w r i t t e n .

The next s t e p is t o c o r r e l a t e t h e f o r c e ,
P, w i t ht h e a i r p r e s s u r e , p.
From thefree-bodydiagram
of the attachment mounted on t h e c a l i b r a t i n g system, Fig. 8.7, t h ef o l l o w i n gr e l a t i o n s
are obtained:

(8.18)

133

where t h ef o r c e

P h a s been s p l i t i n t o i t s components Px and P

Y'

f u n c t i o n s of t h ep r e s s u r e , p. The parameter
of p a l s o . From Eqs. (8.18) we can write

which are

i s assumed t o be a f u n c t i o n

(8.19)
and angle cp , s t r a i n - g a g e r e a d i n g s are t a k e n f o r
2
a set ofpressures.Theseinturnyieldtheforces
P and P corresponding
X
Y
t o eachpressure.
The angle of incidence, v2, i s thenvaried from 0-30 deg
For a givenattachment

i n 5-deg increments and f o r e a c h v a l u e

of cp2 anaveragevaluefor

P /P
Y

obtainedover

a range of p r e s s u r e s p.

and P

a r el i n e a rf u n c t i o n s

P /P

i s independent of p.

is

It t u r n so u te x p e r i m e n t a l l yt h a t

as one would expect, and t h u s t h e r a t i o

ofp,

This means t h a t

cy

mustbeindependent

of p because

of Eq. (8.19).

If a r c t a n P /P
Y

is p l o t t e dv e r s u s

q 2 , the r e s u l t i s (very

nearly) a straightlineand,therefore,theslope
may be i n t e r p r e t e d as a i n
Eq. (8.19).
Q i s a c o n s t a n tf o r
a givenattachment.
The c r i t i c a l f o r c e

i s r e a d ,o ri n t e r p o l a t e d

c o r r e s p o n d i n gt ot h ec r i t i c a lv a l u e

i s withinthescope
In this
tachmen t.

as thevalue

of pressure.

of P

For small q z , P

a t cp = 0
2
Px; t h i s

of t h e l i n e a r i z e d t h e o r y .

manner, the value

of

cy

i s obtained experimentally for each

at-

Determination of Stiffnesses.
Dynamic Method.

The s p r i n gc o n s t a n t s

K1,

K2, and Kg may be determined

experimentally by a simple dynamic a n a l y s i s of variousmotionsofthesystem.

end j o i n t and t h el i n e a rs p r i n g
The s p r i n gc o n s t a n t K a s s o c i a t e dw i t ht h e
1
attachedtobar
I may be evaluated by l o c k i n g t h e m i d d l e j o i n t
so t h a t t h e
two bars move as a r i g i d u n i t , F i g .
8.8. A f t e rg i v i n g a small d i s t u r b a n c e ,
t h en a t u r a lf r e q u e n c y
i s measuredfromwhich
Kl i s determined.In
a similar
manner, t h e s p r i n g c o n s t a n t

3 ofthemiddlejoint,may

be determined by lock-

ingthe end j o i n t , removing t h e l i n e a r s p r i n g a t t a c h e d t o b a r

thesystem t o o s c i l l a t e f r e e l y , F i g .
8.9.

I1 and allowing

canbefound
i f K2 i s known.The
l i n e a rs p r i n g i s
3
attachedtobar
I1 i n i t s o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n and t h e n a t u r a l f r e q u e n c y
i s measured.Thisgivesanexpressionforthe
combined s t i f f n e s s fromwhich K may
3
be evaluated.
Springconstant

134

S t a t i c Method. An alternate procedure i s t o u s e a s t a t i c method whereby f o r c e s are d i r e c t l y a p p l i e d and t h e r e s u l t i n g d e f l e c t i o n measured. The

procedure is d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s t e p s
and i s explained i n F i g s . 8.10 and 8.11.
T h e o r e t i c a l l y ,t h e s e
two methods s h o u l dy i e l di d e n t i c a lr e s u l t s .E x p e r i m e n t a l l y ,t h er e s u l t so ft h e
two methods d i f f e r e d s l i g h t l y , T a b l e
2.The
stat i c measurement i s t o b e p r e f e r r e d b e c a u s e t h e
dynamic method depends upon the
square of experimentally measured f r e q u e n c i e s which are not known w i t h g r e a t
accuracy.
Sunnnary and Results. The b a s i c s t e p s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e
are
as follows:First,chooseanattachment
and mount i t onthe model. Raise
t h e a i r pressure slowly from zero
and n o t e t h e c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e a t which t h e
system s t a r t s e x h i b i t i n g a m p l i f i e d o s c i l l a t i o n s ( f l u t t e r ) o r
shows a s t a t i c
l o s so fs t a b i l i t y( b u c k l i n g ) .
The supportingequipment i s t h e nu s e dt of i n d
cy and t o f i n d the f o r c e P c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e
c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e p. The
s p r i n g c o n s t a n t s are t h e n d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y f o r u s e i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
analysis.
a l l be of about the
When choosing attachments, i t i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e y
same weight and t h a t a wide range of cy becovered more o r less uniformly. A
wide v a r i e t y of s c r e e n s and sandpapers were weighedand combinations were
c h o s e n t h a t met theserequirements.
The v a l u e s of cy which were experimentally
r e a l i z e d l i e i n t h e r a n g e 0.238 t o 0.913, t h e l a t t e r beingforanattachment
c o n s i s t i n g of a smooth f l a t p l a t e .

are shown t o g e t h e r w i t h
I n F i g s . 8.12 and 8.13, t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s
t h et h e o r e t i c a lc u r v e s .
As was mentioned, two systems had tobeconsidered
becauseof
a m e c h a n i c a l f a i l u r e of t h e j o i n t s . F o r e a c h e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n a
p o i n t of i n s t a b i l i t y i s drawnon the diagram a t the corresponding cy and P.
A 0 i s used f o r a f l u t t e r p o i n t , w h i l e @ i s used todenotedivergence.
The measurements a r e l a b e l e d 1 through 8 f o r system I and 1 through 12 f o r
system 11.
Table 3 summarizes theexperimental
a comparison between these results.
8.2.5Discussion

and t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s and provides

of Re~sults.Conclusions and Recommendations

The results of t h i s s t u d y are summarized i n F i g s . 8.12 and 8.13 and i n

critical points lie
Table 3. It i s notedthattheexperimentallydetermined
somewhat below t h e t h e o r e t i c a l s t a b i l i t y c u r v e s f o r
undamped f l u t t e r and d i vergence. I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h f o l l o w s , t h e p o s s i b l e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s
discrepancy are explored.
One of the primary reasons for the discrepancy
between t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
s t a b i l i t y c u r v e f o r undamped f l u t t e r and the experimentally observed points
of flutter appears to
l i e i n t h e f a c t t h a t damping i s p r e s e n t i n t h e p h y s i c a l
system. The damping mechanism assmned i n t h e a n a l y s i s h a s a l r e a d y
been d i s small damping takenintoaccount
c u s s e d .S t a b i l i t yc u r v e sf o rf l u t t e rw i t h

135

are shown i n F i g s . 8.12 and 8.13 f o r several v a l u e s of t h e damping r a t i o e.

It i s seen from t h e s e f i g u r e s t h a t i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f
damping t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
No attempt
s t a b i l i t y c u r v e s come t o p a s s v e r y n e a r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p o i n t s .
was made t o d e t e r m i n e 6 w i t h a high degree of a c c u r a c y s i n c e t h e assumed
damping mechanism, while reasonable, was c h o s e n m o s t l y f o r i t s s i m p l i c i t y
a d i t i s doubtful that i t representscompletelytheactual
damping i n t h e
system.Supplementaryexperimentsindicatedthatthe
assumed v a l u e s of G are
realistic.
The r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n d i c a t e t h a t
damping has a d e s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t o n
the system and t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e of damping e x t e n d s t h e f l u t t e r r e g i o n t o
h i g h e r v a l u e s of a. Also,thelowervaluesofthe
damping r a t i o are a s s o c i cona t e d w i t h lower v a l u e s of f l u t t e r l o a d s and a w i d e r f l u t t e r r a n g e . T h i s
f irms r e s u l t s shown p r e v i o u s l y i n C h a p t e r I V .
The t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e s bounding t h e r e g i o n s o f f l u t t e r ( w i t h
and without
damping) and divergence were found t o b e r a t h e r i n s e n s i t i v e t o
small changes
of
i n system parameters, as i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 2 , w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n
t h es p r i n gc o n s t a n t s .
The dynamicmeasurementof
t h es p r i n gc o n s t a n t sp r o videsanotherpossiblesourceforthediscrepancysincethecalculationdepends on t h e s q u a r e of a measured q u a n t i t y ; i.e., the frequency of f r e e o s c i l l a t i o n s . But, t h es p r i n gc o n s t a n t s
were d e t e r m i n e da l s ou s i n gt h es t a t i c
method p r e v i o u s l yd e s c r i b e d .D i f f i c u l t i e s
may arise here, however, i n measuring the applied force
by means of hanging weights on a l i g h t s t r i n g which
passes over an a i r bearing.
Since the two methods of measuring the spring constants gave
somewhat
i t was d e c i d e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e e f f e c t o f
a 5
differentresults,Table2,
K1, K2, o r IC3. A computerprogram was w r i t t e n
percentdifferenceineither
i n which each calculated spring constant
was s u b j e c t e d t o a k 5 p e r c e n t unc e r t a i n t y .I fa ne n v e l o p e
is drawn abouttheninecurvesthusobtained,the
e f f e c t is r o u g h l y t o g i v e a m a x i m u m e r r o r of f 6 gm ( o r 2 4
10 percent).
No other system parameter, Table 2,
i s subjecttoanerrorapproaching
5 perare i n s i g n i f i c a n t when
cent,exceptpossiblythe
moments of i n e r t i a , b u t t h e s e
terms t o which they are added.
compared to the mass-times-distance-squared

The observed discrepancy between the theoretical curve for divergence

and
the experimental points
may be d u e a l s o , i n p a r t , t o t h e u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h e
v a l u e s of t h e s p r i n g c o n s t a n t s , b u t t h e m a j o r c a u s e
of e r r o r seems t o l i e i n
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of i n i t i a l i m p e r f e c t i o n s and n o n l i n e a r e f f e c t s .
imperSince the physical
model i s n o t a n i d e a l l i n e a r s y s t e m f r e e o f
An a r b i t r a r y
f e c t i o n s ,t h e r e i s no s i n g l e ,s h a r p l yd e f i n e dd i v e r g e n c el o a d .
c r i t e r i o n of the load required for
a o n e - i n c h d e f l e c t i o n of t h e m i d d l e j o i n t
was used as t h ec o n d i t i o nf o rd i v e r g e n c e .
By t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , t h e
experiment a l p o i n t s ofdivergence were somevhatbelow(15-25
percent) the divergence
8.13, and Table 3. In
curvesobtainedfromthelinearanalysis,Figs.8.12,
anattempttoexplainthisdiscrepancy
i t seems a d v i s a b l e t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e
as well as t h e e f f e c t s o f i n i t i a l i m p e r f e c t i o n s .
nonlinear divergence theory
cy = 0.717 (run 11).
This i s d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n f o r

136

The r e s u l t s of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e shown i n Fig. 8.14, w i t h a d e t a i l e d

d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e c u r v e s g i v e n i n S e c t .
8.2.6.
It i s n o t e d t h a t t h e p o s t u same l o a d f o r b o t h t h e
lated criterion for divergence gives very nearly the
l i n e a r ( c u r v e A) and t h e n o n l i n e a r ( c u r v e
B) cases, and t h u s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l
divergence curves given i n F i g s . 8.12 and 8.13 a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t t h e d i v e r gence loads for the nonlinear theory in conjunction with the adopted criterion.

is discussed in
The s t r o n g effect of imperfections on the divergence load
Sect. 8.2.6.
I n i t i a l i m p e r f e c t i o n s i n t h e amount cplo = 0.01, cpz0 =
0.01, as

shown i n curve D, are i n d e e d r e a s o n a b l e f o r t h i s

model. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o
a no-load d e f l e c t i o n ofabout0.1inch
atthemiddlejoint.This
small imperfection lowers the theoretical divergence load

by about15percent.

f l . Note t h a t
Curve F i s t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l f o r c e - d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e f o r r u n
t h es h a p eo ft h ec u r v ed i f f e r s
somewhat from t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curves shown. It
should be pointed out that the points used to
draw t h i s c u r v e are r a t h e r d i f air pressure constant to obtain
a deflection
ficult to obtain since holding the
readingdoesnotpreventthemotion
of t h e model. S i n c e t h e r u n
of t h e c u r v e
F i s somewhat d i f f e r e n t from t h e o t h e r c u r v e s , t h e l i k e l i h o o d e x i s t s t h a t
o t h e rs o u r c e sf o rt h ed i s c r e p a n c y
may be p r e s e n t . It may b e a p p r o p r i a t e t o
mention here that
i t has been noted repeatedly
in the past that structural
systemsbuckle a t loads below t h o s e t h e o r e t i c a l l y e x p e c t e d .
To p r o v i d e b e t t e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e d i s c r e p a n c y u n d e r d i s c u s s i o n , t h e
experimentalprocedure was a l s o s c r u t i n i z e d .
The method of c o r r e l a t i n g t h e a i r
p r e s s u r ea sr e a d
on t h e d i a l gage, t o t h e a c t u a l f o r c e
on theattachment, was
studiedwiththeconclusionthat
no a p p r e c i a b l e e r r o r c o u l d
be introduced.
8.2.6

NonlinearDivergenceAnalysis

The e q u a t i o n s of motion,assuming

v1

and cp2 a r e n o t

small, n e g l e c t i n g

inertialeffects,therebyrestrictingtheequationstousefordivergence
anal y s i s , and a l l o w i n g f o r i m p e r f e c t i o n s
by assuming t h a t t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s not a s t r a i g h t l i n e , are

(8.20)

+ %d2(i1

sin

q1 + d2

sin

p2) cos G2

137

where
= c
p1 '910' cp2
cp2
of 'pl a d ( ~ r2e s~p e c t i v e l y .
'I=

%os

Restricting the magnitude of

and 'p10
'pl and

and cp
are theno-loadvalues
20
by s e t t i n g

(8.21)

t h e e q u a t i o n s may be w r i t t e n as polynomials of the

form

(8.22)

A computerprogram was w r i t t e n t o s o l v e t h e s e
two t h i r d - d e g r e e a l g e b r a i c
The r e s u l t s
equations simultaneously for various values
of P, cp10' and
are g i v e n i n F i g .
8.14 f o r cy = 0.717(run11)
i n t h e form P versus
The

'~2~.

'pl.

v a r i a t i o n of cp w i t h P i s e s s e n t i a l l y similar. The v e r t i c a l d o t t e d l i n e
2
presentstheangle
q1 c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o o n e - i n c h d e f l e c t i o n
of the middle
j o i n t , which i s t h e b u c k l i n g c r i t e r i o n
Curve A r e p r e s e n t s t h e l i n e a r

re-

used i n t h i s s t u d y .

case f o r

qo=

cp20 = 0.

No d e f l e c t i o n

i s reached. Curve I) r e p r e s e n t st h ei m p e r f e c t i o n o c c u r su n t i lt h eb u c k l i n gl o a d
f r e en o n l i n e a r case where theapproximations (8.21) are used. The buckling
l o a d s p r e d i c t e d by curves A and B are r a t h e r c l o s e .
Curves C, D, and E are drawn f o rt h ev a l u e s

of cp

and cp20 i n d i c a t e d .
10
Note t h a t t h e b u c k l i n g l o a d s ,
as determined by t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e response curves with
the d o t t e d v e r t i c a l l i n e s depend s i g n i f i c a n t l y o n t h e magn i t u d e of 'plo and

eo.

Curve F i s the experimental response curve for the

ment used f o r r u n 11 (a = 0.717) i n p l a c e .

138

model w i t h t h e a t t a c h -

8.3

Demonstrational Models

Considerable insight into the possible types

ofdynamic behavior of
mechanical systems subjected to nonconservative forces
may be gained not
only through quantitative experiments, but also
by q u a l i t a t i v e o b s e r v a t i o n s
ofdemonstrational models. A set of suchmodelshasbeenrecentlydesigned
and constructed a t t h e S t r u c t u r a l MechanicsLaboratory of Northwestern Uniset f u r t h e r a t the Applied
versity[l05],
and i t i s i n t e n d e d t o d e v e l o p t h i s
Mechanics LaboratoryofStanfordUniversity.
A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e
models follows.
Model A
The model c o n s i s t s of two l i k e r i g i d pipe-segments(Fig.
8.15a). The
f i r s t is e l a s t i c a l l y hinged t o a f i x e d b a s e , w h i l e t h e o t h e r
is e l a s t i c a l l y
hinged t o t h e f i r s t and carries a nozzle a t t h e f r e e end. 1 n . a d d i t i o n t o
t h e elastic h i n g e s , t h e s t i f f n e s s
of the system can be varied
by means of
lateral, s p i r a l s p r i n g s .
The system i s c o n s t r a i n e dt o move i n a h o r i z o n t a l
plane,beingsuspended
by l o n g , l i g h t s t r i n g s .
A f l u i dc a nb e
conveyed through
t h ep i p e s ,e n t e r i n g
a t t h e f i x e d endand leavingthroughthenozzle.Inthe
absence of t h e f l u i d , or f o r small rate of discharge, the pipes
are a t rest
and c o l i n e a r ,d e f i n i n gt h ee q u i l i b r i u mc o n f i g u r a t i o n .
Two symmetricallyplaced s t r i n g s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e f r e e
end of the pipe
and p u l l e d toward t h e f i x e d b a s e
at a smallanglerelativetothepipe
axis.
It i s observed that as t h e f l o w r a t e
i s increased, and p a s s e s a c e r t a i n
does notremain i n t h e u n d i s t u r b e d c o n f i (critical)value,thepipesystem
guration. The l o s s of s t a b i l i t y o c c u r s e i t h e r by d i v e r g e n c eo r by f l u t t e r ,
a t t h e f r e e end
depending upon t h e s t i f f n e s s of t h e a u x i l i a r y c o i l s p r i n g s
and t h e t e n s i o n i n t h e
wires. If t h e c o i l s p r i n g
a t t h e f r e e end is s u f f i c i i s removed, and t h e t e n s i o n i n t h e
wires small, t h e n t h e l o s s
entlysoft,or
of s t a b i l i t y o c c u r s by f l u t t e r - t y p e motion. By c o n t r a s t , f o r s u f f i c i e n t l y
stiff coil springs, or for large
enough t e n s i o n i n t h e wires, thesystemloses
s t a b i l i t y by divergence(Fig.8.15b).

I n experimenting with this system,

i t was found t h a t t h e s y s t e m c a n
adm i t two d i s t i n c t c r i t i c a l f l u t t e r flow rates. One is a s s o c i a t e dw i t h relatively large initial disturbances
and t h e o t h e r c o r r e s p o n d s t o
small i n i t i a l
perturbations.That
is, f o r a c e r t a i n r a n g e of flow rates, thesystem i s
asymptotically stable vhen disturbed
by s u f f i c i e n t l y small i n i t i a l i n p u t of
undeformed
energy,while i t o s c i l l a t e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a m p l i t u d e a b o u t t h e
axis f o r s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e i n i t i a l p e r t u r b a t i o n s ( l o s s
of s t a b i l i t y i n t h e
l a r g e ) . Above t h i sr a n g et h es y s t e m
loses s t a b i l i t y by f l u t t e r f o r any i n i t i a l d i s t u r b a n c e s ( l o s s of s t a b i l i t y i n t h e small).

A thorough and s y s t e m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( b o t h a n a l y t i c a l and experimental)

was presented by Benjamin[80,93].
The
of a r t i c u l a t e d p i p e s c o n v e y i n g f l u i d
model d e s c r i b e d h e r e r e p r e s e n t s
a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of Benjamin's system
by i n cluding a nozzle to control Coriolis forces,
lateral springstocontroleff e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s , a d t e n s i o n wires t o c o n t r o l t h e d i r e c t i o n
of t h e r e s u l of
t a n t f o r c e s a c t i n g a t t h e f r e e end. It a p p e a r s t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f l o s s
i n suchsystems.
s t a b i l i t y i n t h e l a r g e was not observed before

139

Model 1

T h i s model c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y o f a p i e c e of a rubber tube, fixed

at
oneendand
e l a s t i c a l l y r e s t r a i n e d i n t h e axial d i r e c t i o n a t t h e o t h e r end,
a t which r o t a t i o n i s prevented,Fig.
8.16.
The tube i s c o n f i n e d t o move i n
t h eh o r i z o n t a lp l a n e ,b e i n g
suspended by means oflong,
l i g h ts t r i n g s .
A
f l u i dc a nb e
conveyed throughthetube,entering
a t t h e f i x e d end.The
other
end b e i n g c l o s e d , t h e f l u i d
i s ejected through two nozzles, placed a t a cert a i n d i s t a n c e from t h e f i x e d end s y m m e t r i c a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e t u b e i n
thedirectionparalleltothetangenttothetube
a t t h a ts e c t i o n .
The
nozzles are mounted i n a f i x t u r e which i s made t o s l i d e on an a i r cushion.
a t t h e e l a s t i c a l l y c o n s t r a i n e d end
The s l e e v e p r o v i d i n g t h e s l i d i n g s u p p o r t
i s alsosupported by an a i r bearing. I n Fig. 8.16 thetubessupplying
air
for the bearings
are s e e n o n t h e l e f t p a r t o f t h e p h o t o g r a p h .
It i s observed that t h e s t r a i g h t e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n
may be l o s t
rate of t h e a i r passing through the tube exceeds
a c e r t a i n criif the flow
t i c a l value. Loss o f s t a b i l i t y c a n o c c u r
by e i t h e r f l u t t e r or divergence,
depending upon t h e d i s t a n c e between thenozzles and t h e f i x e d end. It may
beremarked t h a t by a t t a c h i n g a series of p a i r s o f n o z z l e s a l o n g t h e t u b e ,
may
t h e problemof a b a r s u b j e c t e d t o d i s t u r b e d t a n g e n t i a l f o l l o w e r f o r c e s
be realized.

Model C
This model c o n s i s t s of a c a n t i l e v e r e d t h i n e l a s t i c s t r i p a t whose f r e e
end a c i r c u l a r r i g i d p l a t e i s a t t a c h e d i n a p l a n e normal t o t h e axis, Fig.
8.17.
The s u r f a c e of t h e p l a t e c a n
be v a r i e d by p l a c i n g s c r e e n s of d i f f e r e n t mesh sizes. A nozzle whose axis i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e
axis of t h e s t r i p
can be made t o d i s c h a r g e f l u i d a t a c o n s t a n t rate whichimpinges upon t h e
plate.
It i s observed that as a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l flow rate i s exceeded, t h e
c a n t i l e v e r may l o s e s t a b i l i t y by e i t h e r f l u t t e r o r d i v e r g e n c e , d e p e n d i n g
upon t h e mesh s i z e of t h es c r e e na t t a c h e dt ot h ep l a t e .
Both t o r s i o n a l and
of l o s s of s t a b i bendingdeformation are observed t o o c c u r f o r b o t h t y p e s
lity, with torsional deformations
becoming more pronounced w i t h i n c r e a s e d
eccentricity.
Model D
T h i s model c o n s i s t s of a c a n t i l e v e r e d t h i n e l a s t i c s t r i p a t whose two
longitudinal edges flexible tubes
are attached through one of which fluid
a t c o n s t a n t rate can beconveyed,
e n t e r i n g a t t h e f i x e d end and leaving
The o t h e rt u b ed o e sn o t
conveyany f l u i d
throughtheopen
end, Fig. 8.18a.
and i s p r o v i d e d s o l e l y t o d e c r e a s e t h e
asymmetryof
thecross-section.
It i s observed that as the flow rate exceeds a c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l v a l u e ,
t h ec a n t i l e v e rl o s e ss t a b i l i t y
by b e n d i n g - t o r s i o n a lf l u t t e r ,F i g .
8.18b.
It
i s a l s o o b s e r v e d t h a t a c e r t a i n r a n g e offlow rates r e s t o r e s t h e o r i g i n a l
undeformed e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n which may havebeen l o s t by l a t e r a l

140

bucklingcaused by a t t a c h i n g a givenweight a t t h e f r e e end. Fig. 8.18~shows

a t zero flow rate and Fig. 8.18d shows t h e r e s t o r e d
the buckled configuration
originalequilibriumposition,achieved
w i t h a c e r t a i n f l o w rate. As t h e f l o w
rate i s i n c r e a s e d f u r t h e r beyond a c e r t a i n v a l u e , s t a b i l i t y i s l o s t by f l u t t e r .
Model E
T h i s model c o n s i s t s , as i n t h e p r e v i o u s two cases, of a c a n t i l e v e r e d
elastic s t r i p a t whose two l o n g i t u d i n a l e d g e s f l e x i b l e t u b e s
are attached.
A r i g i d p i p e i s placed along the transverse free edge
a d connected to the
l o n g i t u d i n a lt u b e s ,F i g .
8.19.
F l u i d i s conveyed a t a c o n s t a n t rate through
a t t h e f i x e d endof t h e c a n t i l e v e r , and i s
t h el o n g i t u d i n a lt u b e s ,e n t e r i n g
discharged through an
end opening i n t h e r i g i d p i p e ,
whose o t h e r end is closed.
I t i s observed that as t h e f l o w rate i s increased beyond a - c e r t a i n crit i c a l v a l u e , s t a b i l i t y i s l o s t by b e n d i n g - t o r s i o n a l f l u t t e r .
The system may
be considered as model of a n a i r c r a f t wing w i t h a J e t e n g i n e a t t h e f r e e end.
Model F
This model c o n s i s t s of a r i g i d c l o s e d c y l i n d e r which c a n r o l l o n a h o r i A p i e c e of a r i g i d p i p e i s a t t a c h e d t o t h e c y l i n d e r
bymeans
zontalplane.
of a n e l a s t i c hinge,which carries a nozzle a t t h e f r e e end, Fig. 8.20a.
Fluid can be conveyed i n t o t h e c y l i n d e r
by means of a f l e x i b l e t u b e , which
thenentersthepipe
and i s discharged through the nozzle.
It i s observed that as t h e r a t e of d i s c h a r g e i s increased beyond a certainvalue,thesystemacquires
a (stable)equilibriumpositionsuchthatthe
p i p e is v e r t i c a l and i t s axis passes through the center of the cylinder, Fig.
8.20b.
As t h e rate of d i s c h a r g e i s i n c r e a s e df u r t h e r ,a n o t h e rd e f i n i t e
( c r i t i c a l ) v a l u e i s reached, beyond which t h e s y s t e m b e g i n s t o e x e c u t e o s c i l state
lations with increasing amplitudes about the preceding equilibrium
(flutter)

Mode1 G
This model c o n s i s t s of a r i g i d c y l i n d e r , as i n t h e p r e v i o u s model, which
can roll on
a convex r i g i d c y l i n d r i c a l segmentwhich i n t u r n i s f i x e d i n a
concave r i g i d c y l i n d r i c a l segment, t h i s l a t t e r b e i n g f r e e t o r o l l o n
a horiz o n t a lp l a n e ,F i g .
8.21a.
The r i g i d c y l i n d e r i s closed a t t h e end p l a n e s and
i s provided with an opening
and a nozzle on the
lateral s u r f a c e , t h e axis of
thenozzlepassingthroughthecenterofthecylinder.Fluidcan
be conveyed
and i s discharged through the nozzle.
through a f l e x i b l e t u b e t o t h e c y l i n d e r
I t i s observed that as t h e rate of d i s c h a r g e i s increased beyond a c e r t a i n
value, the systemacquires a ( s t a b l e ) e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n s u c h t h a t t h e
a x i s of thenozzle i s v e r t i c a l , F i g . 8.21b.
As t h e rate of d i s c h a r g e i s i n creasedfurther,anotherdefinite(critical)value
i s reached, beyond which
thesystembeginstooscillatewithincreasingamplitudesaboutthepreceding
equilibrium s t a t e ( f l u t t e r ) ,F i g .8 . 2 1 ~ .I ft h e
convex c y l i n d e r segment on
which t h e c y l i n d e r r o l l s
i s replaced by a f l a t p l a t e , F i g .
8.21d, no f l u t t e r
is observed.

141

Model H
T h i s model c o n s i s t s of a r i g i d p i p e segmentsuspended by means of a
f l e x i b l e t u b e andhanging in t h e v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n ,
Fig. 8.22.
The lower
end o f t h e r i g i d p i p e
carries a n a t t a c h m e n t , t h e e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f w h i c h
c o n s i s t s o f two nozzles placed i n a p l a n e normal t o t h e axis o f t h e p i p e
segment, p a r a l l e l t o e a c h o t h e r .
The f l e x i b l e t u b e i s connected t o a f i x e d
base.Fluidcanbe
conveyed t h r o u g h t h e f l e x i b l e t u b e , e n t e r i n g t h e r i g i d
p i p e segmentand d i s c h a r g i n g t h r o u g h t h e n o z z l e s i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s .
It is o b s e r v e d t h a t f o r
any c o n s t a n t f l o w rate above a c e r t a i n minimum
value, the rigid pipe begins to
move l i k e a s p h e r i c a l pendulum w i t h monotonically increasing amplitude, which
w i l l approach a l i m i t i n g v a l u e f o r a s u f f i c i e n t l y s m a l l f l o w rate. Theminimum value of the constant flow
rate which
is n o t s h a r p l y d e f i n e d .
It i s f u r t h e r
producestheonsetofthepipemotion
same motion i s i n i t i a t e d i f t h e r i g i d p i p e
segment i s made
observed that the
and v i c e v e r s a .
v e r y s h o r t as compared t o t h e f l e x i b l e t u b e ,

a t t h e f r e e end t o a twistThe problemof a c a n t i l e v e r e d b a r s u b j e c t e d

i n g moment which r o t a t e s w i t h t h e end c r o s s - s e c t i o n of t h e b a r was f i r s t
considered by N i k o l a i [2].
He found t h a t t h e undeformed r e c t i l i n e a r e q u i l i b r i u m c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s u n s t a b l e f o r anynonvanishingmagnitudeofthe
t w i s t i n g moment.

142

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150

TABLE 1
BETWEENTHE EXACT SOLUTIONAND THE TWO-TERM
SMALL VELOCITY-DEPENDENT FORCES

COMPARISON

GALERKIN APPROXIMATION:

Galerkin
Met hod

1.0
0.0

0.0
0.0

0.0

1.0

~~

0.0

1.0

0.0

1.0

0
1.
.0
92
"

1.0

1.0
10.0
"

10.0
-

~~~

1
~

I
I
I

1.0

2.035
1.780

I
I

10.0

10.0

100.0

I
I
I

1.768
1.082

1.462

1.447

1.73

1.729

1.924

1.0

1.155

1.133

1.483

1.469

1.735

1.738

1.925

1.926

~~

1.0
1.0
1.0

I
I
"

~~

1.611

1.0
1.0

1.0

1.0

1.426

1.0
~-

1.618
~

~~

2.035

1.107

1.0

1.0
~

I
I
I

1.795

1.794

1.935

1.940

1.895

1.902

1.926
1.964

100.0
100.
1.996
0

1.0

2.000

151

TABLE 2
SYSTEM DATA

Dimensions

Centroidal
moment of
inertia
2
(Em-cm )

Part

( 4
al = 0.692

10.20

bl = 16.3

22 .o

c1 = 31.9

42.1

a2 = 0.692

10.20

b2 = 16.3

22.0

1655

c = 32.3
2

3.2

- 0

d2 = 25.3

43.5

a,

-0

1655

771

= 32.4

i2 = 32.6

Spring constants
System I

System I1

K1

6
5.70 x 10 dyne-cm

K2

5
9.12 X 10 dyne-cm

...
...
...

3.50

2
10 dynefcm

K1

5.34

6
10 dyne. cm

5.45 x 106 gm-cm

9.02

105 dyne-cm

6
9.41 x 10 gm-cm

3.35

2
10 dynefcm

2
3.53 X 10 gm/cm

K2

K3

152

Dynamic
method
Static
method

TABLE 3

SUMMARY OF NUHERICAL RESULTS

SYSTEH I

Experimental

SYSTEM I1

Theoretical

Theoretical

crit

<

m
-

2.5

70.2

89

62

+ 0.3

69.7

88

62

Run

1 0.343

56.4

72

55

0.327

55.2

70

55

...
...

0.560

94.9

.. ..

124

-23.4

118.3

55

...

3.8

75.7

125

-20.1

116.0

117

-18.0

111.9

125

-21.7

110.2

...

+ 6.9

69.8

89

62

77.0

..

66

100.320

70.2

87

62

110.717

105.0

120.238

69.7

4 0.368

57.2
73

0.548

99.9

0.913

95.9

7 0.533

97.9

.. ..
.. ..
.. ..

0.346

58.8

77

0.454

55

~~

Experimental

error

error

>

...
...

+12.9
+11.1

.. ..

140

-15.1

90

...

+19.2

140

-17.0

130

-13.8

140

-21.3

63

.. ..
.. ..
.. ..

+16.7

.. ..

...
...
...
135

-14.8

83

...

+12.4

62

+11.4

+12.9

Observed loss of stability: F = flutter, B = buckling.

1 Undamped flutter.
2 Damped flutter,

E =

5.0.

3 Buckling.

153

Fig. 1.1

Column under compressive eccentric load

155

1 Punstable

equilibrium

'-4
,stable

equi

libr'ium

f
Fig.1.2Equilibrium

156

curves of a centrally loaded column

_I

=m

Fig. 3.1

Two-degree-of-freedom model

157

-3

-2

-3

-I

>

Fig. 3.2

-2

-I

Load verlu8 frequency curve8 forparticular valu.8

of par-eter ct i n the range 0 5 a 5 1

a = 0.5

UNSTABLE
STABLE

-+

UNSTABLE

STABLE

Fig. 3.3

Detail of load versus frequency curve forcy = 0 . 5 ,

illustrating multiple ranges o f stability and
instability

159

INSTABILITY

INSTABILITY
(DIVERGENT YOTfON )

4
"
"
"
"

INSTABILITY

INSTABILITY

(FLUTTER )

_"""""" 1

(DIVERGENT MOTION)

-I

-2
INSTABILITY
(DIVERGEWIT MOTION)

-4

Fig. 3.4

Critical loulr vcr~ur paramtar a

stability

-----I

unrtable

I
I
I

c = crll~22- a12cy21

<0

(b)

Fig. 3 . 5

Region6 of s t a b i l i t y for cy12~21> 0

instability(onlydivergence
possible)

c =

"11u22 < 0

stability

-----Fig. 3.6

Regions of stability for ul2aZ1 = 0

instability (only divergence

posrible)

Plainarea:flutter

Shaded area:

may occur

no f l u t t e rp o s s i b l e

\b-0
g2I 0

g;=o

Note:

straight l i n e s 8-;

0 have

slops v; v a d p .re

Fig. 3.7

defined

Existenceofflutter

163

- f l u t t e r u y occur

Fig. 3.8

164

no f l u t t e r porsible

Existence of f l u t t e r for A

c-0

epol/iJ

.......
.......
......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.......
.......
......
......
.....
......
.....
.......
......
...
......
...

div.
Of

this

c-0

Ct2=0

Ct1= 0

P l a i n area:
Divergence
Shaded area:

F i g . 3.9

may occur

No divergencepossible

Existence of divergence

165

166

.
.. . .

VII'VI'

v'

IV'

XI

"1 1

XI

IV

Fig. 3.11

VI

VI1

Stability and instability areas

167

Area I
I

Area I1
I
I
I

f:

I
I

Area 111
I

.F

F'

' 'D

-D

<

Po0

P-0

P -0

' P -0

Ip

Area V
Area IV

Areas VI,VII

iF

I
I
!D

IF

ID
I

.D

'lP00

Point R
Line RT

P- 0

Area VI11

Area I X

!F

' Po0

YD

"PO 0

iDI
I

ID
Fig. 3.12

168

Details of loss of stability

i n areas I through XI1 (Cont'd.)

P-0

Area X

Area X I

Area XI1

.F

' IP -0

' P-0

P-0

ID

- Stability
"
"
"

instability

D i n d i c a t e st h a ts t a b i l i t y
by divergence

is lost

F i n d i c a t e st h a ts t a b i l i t y

i s lost

by f l u t t e r
includes

Area I

Boundary 1/11 and I/XII'

IV

II

11

V
V1,VII

I1

I1

I V D and IV/I
V/II

tI

VI/III,VII/X,

I1

VI11

I1

VIII/XIV

II

IX

I1

IX/XI and Point Q

I1

)I

*I

XI1

I1

tI

11
It

I1

11

Fig.3.12

and Point T

X/XI

XI /XI1

Details of loss of s t a b i l i t y
i n a r e a s I through XI1 (Concluded)

169

F,lutter for P
8bd

P >o

<0

91

.......
.......
......
......
.......

.....
::::/
.......
....
....
....

? U

&

a w

4 0
V

F i g . 3. 13

Loss of s t a b i l i t y by

{ divergence

i f load P

i o increared(decreased)
from zero value

170

Region I

?ig. 3.14

Region I1

Region 111

Region I V

Point Q

Loas of a t a b i l i t y in regions I through I V

171

Fig. 4.1

172

Tvo-degree-of-freedom model

-I

.o -

6*o

24.914

-I

.o

ImQ

I-

Fig. 4.2

Orthographic projections and pcrrpcctivc of root curve8

of charactaristlc equation with no d v i n g

1.0

1.0

-I

.o

Reg

1.0

"1.0

+F

tF
6.0

-1.0

Fig.

4.3

'

Orthographic projectionr ami perrpectivr of root curve8

of characterirtic equationwith damping

1.0

-=
/-;

0.959,

IC

ASYMPTOTE

0.16
I

I/
IO

P i 8 . 4.4

I I.07

20

30

Critical l o d veratu ratio of damping coefficient# for Bi <<1

' B

F
BI=0

/ Fe =
2.0

Fig. 4.5

Significance of c r i t i c a l load F

a8 B increases
2

F
{Fe=2.O86
2 .a

I.

F, = 1.464

I .o -

2. log ( I / 1.0001)
3. log ( I / I.0003)

0.002

Fig. 4.6

4.

log ( I / 1.001)

5.

l o g ( I / 1.003)

6.

log (l/l.Ol)
I

0.0 0 4

0.006

0.008

Critical load for various degree8 of Instability ver8~1

~p.11 d w l n g coefficients

= B

I/
2 .o

1.c

/I

-C

1.

l o g ( l / I)

6.

l o g ( I / 1.01)

7.

log ( l / l . 0 5 )

8.

log ( l / l . l )

9.

log ( l / l . 2 5 )

0.5

I .o

1.5

Fig. 4.7

Critical load orvariousdegrees

of i n s t a b i l i t y
versus large damping c o e f f i c i e n t s

Fig. 4.8

Two-degree-of-freedom model

179

- F x
- x

1,

f(I
.

Fig. 4.9

./.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
....................
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
......................
.....................
. .
1 ./I
. .p,<o: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . ........................
.
....................
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

General nature of roots of characteristic equation

Fig. 4.10 Types of divergent motion

8-F
X

- x

I
I

I
I

6-

XI

- x

I
I
I
I

4-

Fig.4.11Critical

load8 and I n s t a b i l i t y w c h a n l r u f o r

A
C

A
A
~

A
A
~

x
A

Fig. 4.12

A
A

s=o

CQ

A
A

A
A

A
A

S
A

~
~

A
A

Critical loads and instability mechanism8 for

B = 1

A
A

A
A

A
A

F i g . 4.13Critical

load8 and i n r t a b i l i t y mechanirms for

= 11.071

. . . . . . . ./\. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

....................
....................
:\. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................
. H= p2= 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
........................
.........................
..........................
......................... ,.
...........................
........................
..................

Fig. 4.14Critical

load8 and instability meChani8m8 for fi

--

I .o

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

F i g . 4.15

Critical load versus ratio of damping coefficients for a

0.6

Fig. 4.16

Appropriate valuasof 8 veraur valuerof

of dertabiliring effect

CT

for complete elimination

Fig. 4.17

188

Characteristic roots in the

colp lex plane

Fig. 4.18

Critical loads w i t h and

without d a q i n g

189

Fig. 4.19

190

Geometry of cantilevered pipe

conveying fluid

2 0.0

I5.a

10.c

5.0

0 .o

/
~

3.5

.~

I .(

5.0

10.0

Fig. 4.20

Typical plot of frequency equation

19 1

2.(

y =0.0

F i g .4 . 2 1C r i t i c a lf l u t t e r
parameter v s . theratio
ofCoriolisforcetointernal
damping force:
zeroexternal damping

192

"-

."

A
y=IOC

"
"

<

y =o.o

2.5

5.0

7.5

10.0

PI 8
F i g . 4.22

C r i t i c a lf l u t t e r parameter vs. theratio of Coriolis

force tointernal damping force:external
damping
asindicated

193

4c

1
1

3:

x:
Exact Solution25

I
1
I

20

15

IO

Approximate
. ..

"-"
."

Fig. 4.23

194

0.2

0.4

0.6

-.

0.8

."

1.0

Comparison between the exact solution

and the two-tern
Galerkin approximation: zero external and internal
damping

,
O J
Pip. 4.24

Syoter with two degree. of freedom

195

F i g . 4.25

196

System withdistributed

external damping

Fis. 4.26

Types of oscillatory
behavior

197

i'
= Be

I
"
"
"
"

I
Fig. 4.27

198

R=

I
I
Translation of imaginary axis
in root plane

F
1
.

2.026

2.o

I .o

Fig. 4,28

Critical force8s 8 function of u for various values of B2.

Thick line joins values of transition force
Fte

199

yl
6

Fig.6.1Stabilityregioninthe

parameter plane for Example 2

i
Fig. 6.2

A cantilever under a follower force

(the Beck problem)

20 1

F
Plate

Fig. 6.3

A cantilever under a forcedirected

undeformed axis (the Reut problem)

202

along the

Fig. 6.4

A cantilever under both a followerforce

and a force directed along the
undeformed

axis (a conservative system)

203

tx
U-

U-

/=

Bottom Fiber

/
/
/
"
L

UO

!h/2

!h/2

Pig. 7.1

204

Cantileverwith
f l u i b l e pipes

"y

two pairs of

z-

a =h
r
Fig. 7.2

Type8 of instability as a function of 8yatcm geometry

205

30

20

IO

-10

-20

-30

206

207

I
I

Torsional

Torsional

n small
I

203

Pig. 8.1 Reut's

problem

209

F i g . 8.2

2 10

.-

- ..

..

Photograph of the model

rr

"

C.

Fig. 8.3

Sequence of photographsdepictingflutter

211

Fig. 8.4

2 12

Buckled state:
Divergence

Pig. 8.5

Schematic of the model

2 13

F i g . 8.6

2 14

Photograph of the calibrating system

Nozz I e 7

-Attachment

Fig. 8 . 7

Attachment muntedoncalibrating
system (top view)

215

Locked

F i g . 8.8

216

Configuration to find R1 by dynamic method

LinearSpring

Detached
K3d2

to find K 2

- End

Joint Locked

Fig. 8.9

Configuration to f i n d K2 and ,K
method

by dynamic

217

1I3

l e Joint L o c k e d

I,
I

Fig. 8.10

2 18

KI+I

Configuration t o find K

by static method

Fig. 8.11

Configurationto
method

f i n d K2 and K3 by s t a t i c

2 19

1001
[Run Number

a 75

"

"
"

-- -- Flutter (undamped case)

-"""
FIutter(damped case)
Divergence

251

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.7

0.6
Q

Pig. 8.12

Stability diagram

Syrtcm I

'

0.8'

0.9

1.0

L 6

Run Number I I

50

25

0.0

Divergence

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

U
Fig. 8.13

Stability diagram

- Syrtem XI

0.8

0.9

I .o

I?:

I5(

I2f

Linear
Case

(A)

cp

Nonlinear
Cases

(B)

'p

10

IOC

CT
Y

10

= 0.0,

'p20

0.0,

q20

0.0

0.0
-0.001

7f

'p20

(E) 'pl0 = 0.05,

Experimental Case ( F )

'p

5c

10

and

'p

20

'p20

-0.01

-0.05

unknown

2:

"I

0.4

I
I

0.8

I .o

P
Buckling
Fig.8.14

222

Force versusdeflectionfornonlineardivergence
with i n i t i a l i m p e r f e c t i o n s

theory

. ..

Fig. 8.15

Demonstration node1 A

223

F i g . 8.16

224

Demonstration-Model B

I.

Fig. 8.17

Demonstration Model C

225

...

Fig. 8.18

Demonstration Model D

226

.I

. .

E
(b)

Fig. 8.18

Demonstration W e 1 D

227

(dl

F i g . 8.18

228

Demonstration Model D

. ...

Fig. 8.20

230

Demonstration Model F

Pig. 8.21

Demonstration Model G

231

Fig. 8.21

232

Demonstration Model G

(dl

Fig. 8.21

Demonstration Model G

233

Fig. 8.22

234

Demonstration Hodel R