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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Technical Paper

Phase evolution in hot forging of dual phase titanium alloys:

Experiments and numerical analysis
Stefania Bruschi b , Gianluca Buffa a, , Antonino Ducato a , Livan Fratini a , Andrea Ghiotti b
a
b

Department of Chemical, Management, Computer Science and Mechanical Engineering, University of Palermo, Italy
Department of Industrial Engineering DII University of Padua, Italy

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 9 June 2014
Received in revised form
12 December 2014
Accepted 22 December 2014
Available online xxx
Keywords:
Forging
Titanium alloys
Phase transformation
FE model

a b s t r a c t
Modern aeronautical and aerospace industries must face the demanding challenge of reducing operational consumption and production costs coming from materials and labor. Current trend of engineering
is oriented to meet both requirements increasing the use of materials characterized by high specic resistance as titanium alloys. Hot forging can be used to reduce the production costs of titanium components:
forging in closed dies of billets or semi-nished forms, at different temperatures above or below the transus temperature, allows the production of complex shapes with limited amount of edge trim removal
and machining rework after forging. Unfortunately, as far as Ti6Al4V titanium alloy is regarded, several
material peculiarities have to be properly taken into account in order to produce defect free Ti6Al4V
alloy components. In the paper, an experimental and numerical campaign, focused on a typical case study
for aeronautical engines, is carried out. The aim of this research is to investigate the process mechanics
and the causes for the nal microstructure observed through micrographic analysis. Once set-up and
tested against experimental loads, the model was used to predict phases distributions after both forging
and cool down.
2015 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Forging is a manufacturing forming process involving the application of compressive forces in order to deform a workpiece and
create a desired geometric change. Forging affects the properties of
the forged product material. In particular, forging can strengthen
the material by eliminating cracks and voids within the metal.
Grain structure can also be altered due to the material ow during the process. Thus, forging represents an optimum way to create
favorable grain structure greatly increasing the strength of the produced parts. For these reasons, forging gives distinct advantages
over other processes as casting or machining in terms of mechanical
properties of nal products.
Different materials can be successfully used in forging, ranging
from low-carbon steels, used in the automotive eld, to special
applications materials like aluminum, titanium, and nickel-base
alloys. In the last two decades, the quality of formed products and
the efciency of production lines increased by means of numerical analysis. This approach was made possible thanks to the

Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 3293517915; fax: +39 091 23861869.

E-mail address: gianluca.buffa@unipa.it (G. Buffa).

evolution of the electronics and computer science, which allowed

the decrease of both the hardware costs and computational times.
In this competitive eld, in the last years, aeronautical and
aerospace industry attention was strongly focused on the development of the forging process of materials characterized by high
specic resistance and used for high added value applications.
Titanium alloys often contain a signicant amount of other elements, which are added for a variety of metallurgical reasons [1].
The strength of titanium alloys can often be comparable to steel, but
they have only about 60% of the weight. Their lower density allows
these alloys to be used in applications for which lower weight
is advantageous. Other important properties include high corrosion resistance and tolerance to high temperatures. In the last few
years, titanium alloys have been extensively used in automotive
applications including crankshafts, connecting rods and a variety
of drivetrain components [2].
Titanium has two solid crystalline forms: at low temperature,
the crystalline phase is called alpha, having a hexagonal closed
packed (HCP) structure; at high temperature, the crystalline phase
is called beta and shows a body centered cubic (BCC) structure
(Fig. 1). The temperature at which the solid becomes fully beta
is called -transus temperature and changes as a function of the
alloying elements, ranging from 670 to 1050 C [3].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2014.12.001
1526-6125/ 2015 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Bruschi S, et al. Phase evolution in hot forging of dual phase titanium alloys: Experiments and numerical
analysis. J Manuf Process (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2014.12.001

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Fig. 1. (a) HCP and (b) BCC crystalline structure of titanium alloys [4].

The usual composition of all common titanium alloys for forging

processes comprises 70100% of pure titanium. The main alloying elements are: aluminum (06%), tin (06%), which work as
-phase stabilizers and cause an increase of -transus temperature. Vanadium (013%), molybdenum (011%), and chromium
(011%), which are -phase stabilizers, causing a decrease of transus temperature. The use of aluminum allows for lower density
with an advantage in the nal part weight, while all the other
alloying elements cause the increase of density. Based on the content of the alloying elements, titanium alloys are often classied
into ve major categories: alpha, near alpha, mixed , nearbeta and beta alloys. Each of these categories requires special
forging temperatures and operative considerations because both
the forging temperature and the cooling rate after forging have
a strong inuence on the morphology of the two phases within
the microstructure [5]. In fact, temperature control is essential to
achieve good forgeability and to produce the required microstructure [6] resulting in the desired mechanical properties of the forged
component.
Due to their high strength-weight ratio as well as their good corrosion resistance, titanium alloys are widely applied in aerospace
industry [7]. These materials present several advantages and a few
drawbacks that must be overcome. In particular, as far as industrial needs are regarded, through a proper design it is possible to
address three of the main issues: increase in the active and passive
safety, reduction of fuel consumption and environmental impact.
However, titanium alloys are characterized by lower ductility with
respect to steels, anisotropy and are often considered difcult to be
formed.
The heating stage of the billet is a critical part of the process. Key
factors are the limitation of contamination by oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen and temperature control within proper ranges. Titanium
alloy billets are heated before forging with various types of heating equipment, including electric furnaces, open gas furnaces, oil
furnaces, induction and resistance heating. The choice depends on
the specic alloy used and the temperature level needed as titanium alloys have a strong afnity with gaseous elements present
in most heating techniques. Above 600 C titanium alloys react with
both oxygen and nitrogen to form scale having an Alpha stabilized
structure which is very hard and brittle. If deep enough, it can cause
cracking problems and strong tooling wear. In this case the increase
of Alpha microstructure and relative scale formation may be limited
by pre-coating or by proper choice of heating parameters [810].
Induction heating, resistance heating, and uidized-bed heating are
frequently used in forging titanium alloys by automated forging
processes. State-of-the-art gas and electric furnaces for titanium
alloys often have fully automated handling systems with heating
time varying as a function of thickness of the stock to be heated and
heating equipment.
Nowadays process designers are strongly aided by numerical
models, which provide the possibility to simulate complex forming processes. Considering proper settings and assumptions, design
time reduction and process optimization can be achieved. The

utilized numerical models have to be properly tuned in order

to become effective devices for forging process design. Correct
thermo-mechanical data, within the temperature ranges of the process, as well as proper data and algorithms are needed to correctly
simulate the phase transformation phenomena. In literature, a few
numerical models concerning phase transformation and forming
processes of titanium can be found.
Katzarov et al. [11] proposed a model for the analysis of the
-transformation for a Ti6Al4V alloy based on an implicit timestepping technique that resolves a diffusion equation as function
of the volume occupied by the -phase in a space-time domain.
In Ref. [12] the authors proposed a 2D thermo-plastic model to
study the hot die forging of titanium alloy aerofoil sections based on
compression tests and analysis of microstructure of forged pieces.
It is worth noticing that a growing interest is developing in
the scientic community regarding the set-up of numerical models simultaneously taking into account mechanical, thermal and
metallurgical effects [1316].
The state of art of numerical models applied in hot forming processes includes the constitutive approach, which take into account
both the classical thermo-mechanical aspect and metallurgical one.
Most of them provide good prediction accuracy within a narrow
workability window. The authors of this paper want to extend the
availability of a coupled thermo-mechanicalmetallurgical analysis to a hot high dynamic forming process in which the deformation
work strongly inuences the thermal evolution and phase transformation kinetics.
In this paper, the authors present the results of an experimental and numerical campaign on the forging process of a Ti6Al4V
turbine blade using a screw press. The numerical model was developed using the Lagrangian implicit commercial code DEFORMTM ,
able to take into account the thermo-mechanical behavior as well
as the phase transformations As far as both the thermo-mechanical
and the metallurgical problems are regarded, the model was netuned starting from literature data. It is worth noticing that the
model does not consider the diffusional phenomenon and its contribution to microstructural evolution of material but only the
thermo-mechanical aspect of the transformation. The nal objective of the present work is to analyze and explain the metallurgical
phenomena taking place during both the forging process and the
subsequent cool down.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Material
The material utilized in the present investigation is the
titanium alloy Ti6Al4V that accounts for more than 50% of the
whole titanium alloy industrial production and is widely utilized in
the aeronautic industry for its high ratio between the strength and
mass [17,18]. The Ti6Al4V chemical composition is reported in
Table 1. Even at high temperature, this material presents a limited
forgeability window [19,20], which makes necessary to carefully
select the working parameters utilized in its hot forging. Two different approaches to dening the forging process parameters are
followed by the industries. (i) the forging, which implies temperatures below the Ti6Al4V -transus temperature (equal to
about 995 C) and produces components of equiaxed primary in
Table 1
Chemical composition of the Ti6Al4V alloy.
Element

Weight %

Ti

Al

Fe

Others

Balance

Max 0.14

Max 0.13

<0.1

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Fig. 3. Model of the dies with the spring elements (on the right), and detail of the
thermocouples embedded in the dies to monitor the interface temperature (on the
left).

Fig. 2. The 2300 kN screw press used in the experiments (left) and, and the scheme
of the plane strain case study derived from a blade forging (right).

a transformed matrix, having an optimal combination of strength

and fatigue properties. (ii) the forging, for which the process is
carried out above the -transus, resulting in acicular primary
in a transformed matrix, with consequent enhancement of the
fracture-related properties. Depending on the service-life of the
component to be produced, either the rst or the second approach
is followed in the industrial practice. In the present study, the rst
approach, namely forging at temperatures below the -transus, is
used.
In the as-received condition, the Ti6Al4V presents a mixed
+ microstructure, with equiaxed primary in a transformed
matrix. If the alloy temperature exceeds the -transus temperature, the microstructure transforms in and, when cooling down
to room temperature, it is characterized by acicular primary in a
transformed matrix, typical of a -forging. In order to obtain components characterized by properties typical of -forging processes,
the temperature increase in the workpiece due to the deformation
heating must not exceed the -transus temperature.
2.2. Experiments
The tests were carried out on a 2300 kN screw press (see Fig. 2,
left). The hot forging laboratory experiments were designed in
order to approximate the forging of turbine aerofoil type sections:
the sketch of the case study used in the experimentation, reproducing nearly plane-strain conditions, is reported in Fig. 2 (right). This
geometry was chosen as the thickness variations in the nal section, the consequent distributions of contact pressure and sliding
velocity at the interface, and the high surface extension involved
are typical of actual industrial processes [21]. The Ti6Al4V billets
were 30 mm diameter and 50 mm long cylinders.
The dies utilized for the forging tests present a convex prole
and are closed by thick plates in order to assure nearly plane strain
metal ow during deformation. An external frame able to withstand the high separating forces due to hydrostatic pressure keeps
the plates together. Both the lower and the upper dies are heated
through resistance cartridge heaters up to 180 C. The scheme of
the experimental set-up and a photo of the lower die are shown in
Fig. 3.
The heating of the Ti6Al4V billets up to 980 C was carried
out by means of an induction furnace (heating time of 80 s with an
electrical power of 8 kW). At the furnace exit, the billets were manually positioned on the press lower die: the average temperature
measured on the billet surface through an infrared thermo-camera
just before the forging hit was approximately equal to 890 C. The
die temperature during the deformation phase was measured by

k-type thermocouples embedded inside both the dies. The wires

were positioned inside the grooves machined in one of the two
halves and the hot junctions were made by electro-discharge welding the two wires to the die material at the end of the grooves.
Number and location of the thermocouples were designed in order
to ensure proper accuracy in surface temperature monitoring [22].
The experimental conditions were designed in order to replicate, as closely as possible, the industrial process in terms of forging
temperature, die temperature and ram velocity. The experiments
were carried out using the 100% of the press ywheel energy and
a ram stroke of 200 mm, capable to assure a ram impact velocity
of about 550 mm/s. The experimental data were acquired at 10 kHz
and processed by a dedicated LabviewTM application.
After cooling down to room temperature, the Ti6Al4V forged
billets were cut along their longitudinal symmetry plane, divided
into four parts in order to examine the whole section including
the ash region, and nely polished. Finally, they were chemically
etched by immersion in Krolls reagent, with an etching time ranging from 30 s to 45 s, and observed through an optical microscope.
2.3. Transformation model set-up and tuning
The numerical simulations were carried out using the commercial FEM implicit Lagrangian code DeformTM [23], allowing coupled
thermo-mechanical analyses [2426] of forming processes with
phase transformation. Although the software pack has a built-in
material library that includes Ti6Al4V titanium alloy, for this
research, the authors collected literature data regarding the ow
stress curves in a temperature range from 25 to 1200 C and strain
rate range from 0.001 to 1000 s1 [27,19,2830], with a range of
stress values from 1400 to 25 MPa. An example of the mechanical
data collected by the authors is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Ti6Al4V ow stress curves at 0.1 s1 strain rate and different temperature
values.

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Fig. 6. TTT start curve and transition zone for beta to + -phase transformation of
Ti6Al4V titanium alloy.
Fig. 5. -phase transformation model curve compared with the experimental
transformation curve.

The literature research was conducted paying particular attention to the phase transformation phenomena of the Ti6Al4V
titanium alloy in order to investigate the microstructural evolution
of the material as a function of the thermal history. At the end of the
research activity the authors collected over 200 ow stress curves,
coming both from the database of the JMatproTM Demo software
and research papers. Tabular format was used to model the material
plastic behavior. Using the collected data, the interpolation error for
a given temperature and strain rate condition during the simulation was signicantly reduced with respect to the material model
given in the default software library. The phase transformation
algorithm was implemented using the dedicated DEFORMTM interface for coupled thermo-mechanical analysis with microstructural
evolution based on diffusive and diffusionless models.
The rst transformation was modeled by means of the simplied
form of the Avrami model embedded in the code [23].

 
D 
TTs

v = 1 e

A T T
e s

(1)

where:

v is the percentage of -phase that transforms into ;

T is the temperature;
Ts = 600 C is the transformation starting temperature;
Te = 980 C is the end of transformation temperature;
A = 1.86;
D = 4.35.

This model was demonstrated effective for prediction of transformations in titanium alloys [31]. Eq. (1) provides the percentage
of the transformed phase. A starting distribution corresponding
to the provided Ti6Al4V at room temperature (-phase = 91%
and -phase = 9%) was given as initial phase distribution. The
coefcients of the Avrami model for this rst phase transformation
were calculated by performing a minimization of the standard deviation between the experimental curve of the phase transformation
and the numerical model curve [23]. The results of the optimization
are shown in Fig. 5, representing the -phase change during the
heating stage.
The approximation given by the Avrami generalized model provides a good overlapping of experimental curve (Fig. 5) but the
complete phase change takes place at a temperature which is about
50 C higher than the real -transus temperature. This difference
results in a residual -phase of about 6% at 980 C.
The transformation model was completed with the beta to +
phase change during cool down. The rst approach to this model

was to use the Time Temperature Transformation (TTT) curves of

the material to calculate the transformed phase volume fraction
[32]. It should be observed that TTT curves can be used instead of
the more appropriate Continuous Cooling Curves (CCC) considering
that during the extremely small time steps used for the simulation
small temperature changes take place and almost isothermal conditions can be considered. In this research, an evolution of the model
is used. A mixed approach, in which the TTT start curve (Fig. 6) is
coupled to the general Avrami model, is adopted.
The TTT curve provides the starting line of phase change while
the Avrami equation controls the amount of transformed phase. The
coefcient (Avrami number) of the Avrami equation was found in
literature [31]:
v = 1 exp(bt n )

(2)

where:
n = 1.35 is the Avrami number;
b is a coefcient calculated by the TTT start curve of the alloy.
The model was tuned on the basis of the results of an experimental study by Malinov and Sha [33] focused on the analysis of a
60 mm 3 mm 1.5 mm Ti6Al4V sheet metal, heated from room
temperature to beta zone till a complete transformation of the phase to -phase. The workpiece was then cooled with different
cooling rates and it was nally quenched by water back to room
temperature. During the process the evolution of the mixed +
phase was studied.
The experimental procedure followed in the paper was numerically modeled by the authors in [32] and the results compared with
satisfying agreement.
2.4. Design of the forging simulation
The above described model was used to simulate the forging
process of a Ti6Al4V turbine blade formed by means of a screw
press in dry conditions. Process parameters and geometries were
properly set in order to reproduce the experimental methods. Fig. 7
shows the initial billet and the forged one.

Fig. 7. Billet (a) and forged workpiece (b) geometries.

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Fig. 8. 2D simulation objects.

A 2D model with plane strain conditions was used to simulate

the process (Fig. 8).
The experimental screw press was modeled using the following
parameters:
Max force: 2300 kN;
Stiffness: 61500 (100%), 19200 (56%), 6500 (40%) kN/mm;
Initial ram stroke: 200 mm
The lubrication conditions were modeled using a shear factor equal to 0.7. The authors focused their attention on the heat
exchange coefcient and its distribution along the contact area
between the workpiece and the dies. Bruschi, Ghiotti and Croin
[34] showed the inuence and variation of the thermal exchange
coefcient with respect to normal pressure and sliding speed. Fig. 9
shows the heat transfer coefcient as function of normal pressure.
In each simulation, the billet was heated at 980 C, then cooled
down to 890 C and forged with initial die temperature of 180 C.

Fig. 10. Experimental and numerical load curves results for the tested conditions.

due to the dry conditions used. Smaller dimension of the matrix

can be observed just on observation point (c ), which experienced
a longer contact time with the die thus reducing its temperature
more with respect to the other parts of the aerofoil.
First, the temperature eld was analyzed. In Fig. 11 the micrographs of the transverse section are reported for the points
highlighted. It is seen a symmetric microstructure, i.e. (a) is similar to (e), (b) to (d), etc. The numerical prediction was used to
investigate the reasons for the observed experimental evidence and
to prove the assumptions made. In Fig. 12 both the temperature

3. Results
Fig. 10 shows the forging load vs. time curves, as measured in
the experiments for the dry conditions and numerically calculated.
As it can be seen, a good overlapping is obtained proving the
effectiveness of the tuned model. Fig. 11 shows the transverse section of the actual forged aerofoil in case of dry forging conditions
and with press stiffness of 100%. Ten different points, ve at mid
height of the section and ve close to the edge surface of the part,
were utilized for the microstructural observations. The whole aerofoil section presents acicular phase in a transformed matrix: this
result implies that, during the forging process, the temperature has
fairly exceeded the Ti6Al4V -transus temperature. The obtained
microstructure is therefore typical of the forging process, even
if the process was conducted under forging conditions. The
temperature increase during the process is due to two concurrent factors: (i) the deformation heating resulting in a temperature
increase in the billet, which cannot be dissipated due to the low
contact-time. (ii) the heat coming from the friction forces work

Fig. 9. Heat transfer coefcient vs. normal pressure at die/workpiece interface [34].

Fig. 11. Microstructure obtained when forging under dry conditions.

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analysis. J Manuf Process (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2014.12.001

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Fig. 12. (a) Temperature distribution at the end of the forging process and (b) thermal histories for the points (a), (b), (c), (a ), (b ) and (c ).

distribution at the end of the forging process and the thermal histories of the points (a), (b), (c), (a ), (b ) and (c ) are reported.
The three points laying at mid height of the transverse section,
i.e. (a), (b), and (c), experience an increase in temperature due to
the combination of short process time, low thermal conductivity
of the utilized titanium alloy and distance from the die surface. In
particular, an almost identical temperature evolution with time is
observed for points (b) and (c), reaching about 1000 C at the end of
the process (Fig. 12). In turn, looking at the points close to the top
surface of the aerofoil, a decrease in temperature is found, due to
the larger inuence of the heat exchange with the dies. Finally, due
to small dimension of the ash area, similar temperature curves are
obtained for points (a) and (a ), with an increase in temperature at
the end of the process because of the large deformation that area
undergoes.
The evolution of the phase transformation has been studied by
the developed numerical tool. Fig. 13 shows the volume fractions
at the end of the forging process.
Due to the increase in temperature determined by the deformation work decaying into heat, a percentage of phase equal to about
15% is observed at the core of the forged component and in the ash
area. It is worth noticing that, during the pre-heating of the billet, a
signicant percentage of the phase transformed into resulting
in a microstructure characterized by predominant (about 90%,
see Fig. 5). Then, during the forging process, in the airfoil areas that
experienced a decrease in temperature, the phase transformed
into + phase with acicular grains, while the untransformed
percentage of volume fraction remained constant. On the other
hand, in the areas that experienced an increase in temperature
due to the deformation work and reduced heat exchange, further
transformation of the residual phase occurred, resulting in an
increased percentage of the lamellar + phase (Fig. 13).
After the cool down of the part, the residual phase transforms into lamellar + phase, resulting in a nal microstructure
mostly characterized by + phase with small volume fractions of
untransformed phase. As expected, the latter phase is present in
larger volume fractions closed to the central area of the top surface

Fig. 13. Phase distributions at the end of the forging process.

Fig. 14. Phase distributions after cool down.

of the part, where longer contact time with the die occurred. Fig. 14
shows the numerical prediction of the nal phase distributions in
the produced part.

4. Conclusions
In the paper, an experimental and numerical campaign was
developed on hot forging of Ti6Al4V titanium alloy.
A numerical model, able to predict the distribution of the main
eld variables, the forging load and the evolution of the material microstructure was set up. Experiments were conducted by
pre-heating the billed below the -transus temperature. However,
a prevalent fully lamellar structure was found by experimental
observations.

Please cite this article in press as: Bruschi S, et al. Phase evolution in hot forging of dual phase titanium alloys: Experiments and numerical
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The numerical model was used in order to explain this behavior.

On the base of the obtained results the following main conclusions
can be drawn:
During the forging process temperature increases in the areas
located at mid height of the transverse section. This is due to the
extremely reduced process times and contact times between the
dies and the workpiece because of the elevated press stiffness
adopted;
Consequently, a further increase in the phase occurred during the process. The grain transformed both during the forging
and during the cool down into a + structure characterized by
acicular grains (lamellae);
Larger phase volume fraction is observed close to the center
of the top and bottom surface of the produced part, due to the
cooling this area experiences even during the process. For the
same reason smaller grains are observed in the same area.
Future work includes the implementation of a homemade software for quantitative experimental measurement of the phase
volume fraction.
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Please cite this article in press as: Bruschi S, et al. Phase evolution in hot forging of dual phase titanium alloys: Experiments and numerical
analysis. J Manuf Process (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2014.12.001