Philosophical Instructions

MESBAH YAZDI

CONTENTS
Translators Introduction

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INTRODUCTORY DISCUSSIONS
Lesson One A Glance at the Course of Philosophical Thought (From Its Origins to the Islamic Epoch)
Lesson Two A Glance at the Course of Philosophical Thought (from the Middle Ages to the Eighteenth Century)
Lesson Three A Glance at the Course of Philosophical Thought (in the last two centuries)
Lesson Four The Technical Meanings of Science and Philosophy
Lesson Five Philosophy and The Sciences
Lesson Six What is Philosophy?
Lesson Seven The Position of Philosophy
Lesson Eight The Method of Philosophical Inquiry
Lesson Nine The Relation between Philosophy and the Sciences
Lesson Ten The Necessity of Philosophy

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EPISTEMOLOGY
Lesson Eleven Introduction to Epistemology
Lesson Twelve The Self-Evidence of the Principles of Epistemology
Lesson Thirteen The Divisions of Knowledge
Lesson Fourteen Acquired Knowledge
Lesson Fifteen Types of Universal Concepts
Lesson Sixteen Empiricism
Lesson Seventeen The Role of the Intellect and Sensation in Ideas
Lesson Eighteen The Role of the Intellect and Sensation in Affirmations
Lesson Nineteen The Value of Knowledge
Lesson Twenty The Evaluation of Ethical and Legal Propositions

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ONTOLOGY
Lesson Twenty-One Introduction to Ontology
Lesson Twenty-Two The Concept of Existence
Lesson Twenty-Three Entified Reality
Lesson Twenty-Four Existence and Whatness
Lesson Twenty-Five Precepts of Whatness
Lesson Twenty-Six Introduction to the Fundamentality of Existence
Lesson Twenty-Seven The Fundamentality of Existence
Lesson Twenty-Eight Unity and Multiplicity
Lesson Twenty-Nine Unity and Multiplicity in Entified Existence
Lesson Thirty The Levels of Existence

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CAUSALITY
Lesson Thirty-One Cause and Effect
Lesson Thirty-Two The Principle of Causation
Lesson Thirty-Three The Causal Relation
Lesson Thirty-Four The Dependence of the Effect on the Cause
Lesson Thirty-Five The Dependence of the Effect on the Cause
Lesson Thirty-Six The Relations of Cause and Effect
Lesson Thirty-Seven The Principles of Cause and Effect
Lesson Thirty-Eight The Efficient Cause
Lesson Thirty-Nine The Final Cause
Lesson Forty The Purposefulness of the Cosmos

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THE MATERIAL
Lesson Forty-One The Material and the Immaterial
Lesson Forty-Two What is Location?
Lesson Forty-Three What is Time?
Lesson Forty-Four Kinds of Substances
Lesson Forty-Five Continuation of the Discussion of the Kinds of Substance
Lesson Forty-Six Matter and Form
Lesson Forty-Seven Accidents
Lesson Forty-Eight Quality
Lesson Forty-Nine The Reality of Knowledge
Lesson Fifty The Union of the Knower and the Known

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THE IMMUTABLE AND THE CHANGING

Lesson Fifty-One The Immutable and the Changing
Lesson Fifty-Two The Potential and the Actual
Lesson Fifty-Three A Continuation of the Discussion of the Potential and the Actual
Lesson Fifty-Four Generation and Corruption
Lesson Fifty-Five Motion
Lesson Fifty-Six Properties of Motion
Lesson Fifty-Seven Divisions of Motion
Lesson Fifty-Eight Motion in Accidents
Lesson Fifty-Nine Motion in Substance
Lesson Sixty Further Discussion of Substantial Motion

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THEOLOGY
Lesson Sixty-One The Way to Know God
Lesson Sixty-Two Demonstrations of the Necessary Existent
Lesson Sixty-Three Tawd
Lesson Sixty-Four The Unity of Divine Actions
Lesson Sixty-Five The Divine Attributes
Lesson Sixty-Six Attributes of Essence
Lesson Sixty-Seven Attributes of Action
Lesson Sixty-Eight The Purpose of Creation
Lesson Sixty-Nine Divine Decree and Destiny
Lesson Seventy Good and Evil in the Cosmos

TRANSLATORS INTRODUCTION

The Author

The Translation

PART I
INTRODUCTORY DISCUSSIONS
Lesson One
A Glance at
the Course of Philosophical Thought
(From Its Origins to the Islamic Epoch)

The Beginning of Philosophical Thought

The Appearance of Sophism and Skepticism

The Period of the Flourishing of Philosophy

The End of Greek Philosophy

The Dawn of the Sun of Islam

The Development of Philosophy

in the Islamic Epoch

Lesson Two
A Glance at
the Course of Philosophical Thought
(from the Middle Ages to the Eighteenth Century)

Scholastic Philosophy

The Renaissance and the

Comprehensive Change in Thinking

The Second Phase of Skepticism

The Peril of Skepticism

Modern Philosophy

The Fundamentality of Experience and

Modern Skepticism

Kants Critical Philosophy

Lesson Three
A Glance at
the Course of Philosophical Thought
(in the last two centuries)

Objective Idealism

Positivism

Rationalism and Empiricism

Dialectical Materialism

Pragmatism

A Brief Comparison

Lesson Four
The Technical Meanings of
Science and Philosophy

Introduction

Homonymity

The Technical Meaning of Science

The Technical Meaning of Philosophy

Scientific Philosophy

Lesson Five
Philosophy and The Sciences

The Philosophy of the Sciences

Metaphysics

Science, Philosophy, Metaphysics and

The Relations among Them

The Division and Classification of the Sciences

The Standard for Distinguishing among the Sciences

Whole and Universal

The Branches of the Sciences

Lesson Six
What is Philosophy?

The Relation between Subjects and Problems

The Principles of the Sciences and their Relationships with

Subjects and Problems

The Subjects and Problems of Philosophy

The Definition of Philosophy

Lesson Seven
The Position of Philosophy

The Essence of the Problems of Philosophy

The Principles of Philosophy

The Aim of Philosophy

Lesson Eight
The Method of Philosophical Inquiry

The Evaluation of the Rational Method

Analogy, Induction and Deduction

Rational Method and Empirical Method

Conclusions

The Scope of the Rational and Empirical Methods

Lesson Nine
The Relation between Philosophy and the Sciences

The Relations among the Sciences

The Assistance given by Philosophy to the Sciences

The Assistance given by the Sciences to Philosophy

The Relation between Philosophy and Gnosis (Irfn)

The Assistance given by Philosophy to Gnosis (Irfn)

The Assistance given by Gnosis (Irfn) to Philosophy

Lesson Ten
The Necessity of Philosophy

The Man of the Age

Social Schools

The Mystery of Humanity

The Solution to Some Problems

PART II
EPISTEMOLOGY
Lesson Eleven
Introduction to Epistemology

The Importance of Epistemology

A Brief Overview of the History of Epistemology

Knowledge in Islamic Philosophy

The Definition of Epistemology

Lesson Twelve
The Self-Evidence of the Principles of Epistemology

The Nature
Epistemology

of

the

Dependence

of

Philosophy

on

The Possibility of Knowledge

A Survey of the Claims of the Skeptics

The Rejection of the Doubts of the Skeptics

Lesson Thirteen
The Divisions of Knowledge

In Search of the Cornerstone of Knowledge

The First Division of Science

Knowledge by Presence

The Reason Behind the Infallibility of Presentational

Knowledge:

The Concomitance of
Presentational Knowledge

Acquired

Knowledge

with

Gradation in Knowledge by Presence

Lesson Fourteen
Acquired Knowledge

The Necessity for the Survey of Acquired Knowledge

Idea and Affirmation

Elements of the Proposition

Divisions of Ideas

Universal Ideas

A Study of Universal Concepts

A Response to a Doubt

A Survey of Other Views

Lesson Fifteen
Types of Universal Concepts

Types of Intelligibles

Characteristics of Each of the Types of Intelligibles

Respectival (Itibr) Concepts

Ethical and Legal Concepts

Ought and Ought Not

Legal and Ethical Subjects

Lesson Sixteen
Empiricism

Positivism

A Critique of Positivism

The Priority of Sensation or Intellect

Lesson Seventeen
The Role of the Intellect and Sensation in Ideas

The Fundamentality of the Intellect or Sensation for Ideas

Critique

Inquiry into a Problem

Lesson Eighteen
The Role of the Intellect and Sensation in Affirmations

Points about Affirmations

Inquiry about a Problem

Lesson Nineteen
The Value of Knowledge

Return to the Original Problem

What is Truth?

Criteria for the Recognition of the Truth

Inquiry into a Problem

The Criteria of Truth and Falsity of Propositions

The Case Itself (Nafs al-Amr)

Lesson Twenty
The Evaluation of Ethical and Legal Propositions

Features of Ethical and Legal Knowledge

The Criterion for the Truth and Falsity of Evaluative

Propositions

A Review of the Most Famous Opinions

Inquiry about a Problem

Answer to an Objection

Relativism in Ethics and Law

The Difference between Legal and Ethical Propositions

PART III
ONTOLOGY
Lesson Twenty-One
Introduction to Ontology

Introduction to the Lesson

Warnings about Concepts

Warnings about Language

The Self-evidence (Badhat) of the Concept of Existence

The Relation between Existence and Perception

Lesson Twenty-Two
The Concept of Existence

The Unity of the Concept of Existence

The Substantival Concept and the Copulative Concept of

Existence

Existence and Existents

Lesson Twenty-Three
Entified Reality

The Self-evidence (Badhat) of Entified Reality

Ways to Deny Reality

The Secret of the Self-Evidence of Entified Reality

The Source of Belief in Material Reality

Lesson Twenty-Four
Existence and Whatness

The Relation between the Topics of Existence and Whatness

How the Mind Becomes Acquainted with the Concept of

Existence

How the Mind Becomes Acquainted with Whatness

Lesson Twenty-Five
Precepts of Whatness

Respects of Whatness

Natural Universals

The Cause of the Individuation of Whatness

Lesson Twenty-Six
Introduction to the Fundamentality of Existence

A Brief Look at the History of the Problem

Explanation of Terms

Explanation of the Point of Contention

The Benefits of the Discussion

Lesson Twenty-Seven
The Fundamentality of Existence

Arguments for the Fundamentality of Existence

Philosophical Metaphor

The Resolution of Two Doubts

Lesson Twenty-Eight
Unity and Multiplicity

Remarks on Some Issues Pertaining to Whatnesses

Types of Unity and Multiplicity

The Unity of the Concept of Existence

The Graduated and the Uniform

Lesson Twenty-Nine
Unity and Multiplicity in Entified Existence

Individual Unity

The Unity of the World

Lesson Thirty
The Levels of Existence

Positions on the Unity and Plurality of Being

The First Argument for Graduated Levels of Existence

The Second Argument for Graduated Levels of Existence

PART IV
CAUSALITY
Lesson Thirty-One
Cause and Effect

Introduction

The Concepts of Cause and Effect

The Ways in which the Mind becomes Acquainted with

these Concepts

Types of Cause

Lesson Thirty-Two
The Principle of Causation

The Importance of the Principle of Causation

The Purport of the Principle of Causation

The Criterion of the Need for a Cause

Lesson Thirty-Three
The Causal Relation

The Reality of the Causal Relation

Knowledge of the Causal Relation

Distinguishing Features of Cause and Effect

Lesson Thirty-Four
The Causal Relation among Material Things

The Cause of Belief in the Causal Relation among Material

Things

An Evaluation of the Above-mentioned Belief

The Way to the Knowledge of Material Causes

Lesson Thirty-Five
The Dependence of the Effect on the Cause

The Mutual Implication of Cause and Effect

The Simultaneity of Cause and Effect

The Persistence of the Effect is also in Need of a Cause

Lesson Thirty-Six
The Relations of Cause and Effect

The Homogeneity (Sinkhiyyah) of Cause and Effect

The Removal of a Doubt

Unity of an Effect for Unity of a Cause

Unity of Cause for Unity of Effect

Lesson Thirty-Seven
The Principles of Cause and Effect

Some Points regarding Cause and Effect

The Impossibility of a Causal Circle

The Impossibility of an Infinite Regress

Lesson Thirty-Eight
The Efficient Cause

Introduction

The Efficient Cause and its Types

Points Regarding the Types of Agent

Will and Freedom

Lesson Thirty-Nine
The Final Cause

An Analysis regarding Free Actions

Perfection and Goodness

The End and the Final Cause

Lesson Forty
The Purposefulness of the Cosmos

Introduction

Aristotles View regarding the Final Cause

Criticism

The Solution to Several Problems

The Purposefulness of the Cosmos

PART V
THE
MATERIAL
IMMATERIAL
Lesson Forty-One
The Material and the Immaterial

Introduction

AND

THE

The Meaning of Immaterial and Material

Characteristics of Corporeal and Immaterial Beings

Lesson Forty-Two
What is Location?

Introduction

The Problem of Space and Time

The Difference between Space and Spatial Location and

between Time and Temporal Location

The Reality of Space

Lesson Forty-Three
What is Time?

Discussion about the Reality of Time

The Theory of adr al-Mutaallihn

An Explanation of Some Points

Lesson Forty-Four
Kinds of Substances

Theories about the Kinds of Substances

Corporeal Substances

Psychic Substances

Two Proofs for the Immateriality of the Soul

Lesson Forty-Five
Continuation of the Discussion of the Kinds of Substance

Intellectual Substance

The Doctrine of the Nobler Contingent

Imaginal Substance

Lesson Forty-Six
Matter and Form

Views of the Philosophers on Matter and Form

An Argument for the Aristotelian Theory

Critique

Lesson Forty-Seven
Accidents

Views of Philosophers about Accidents

Quantity

Relational Categories

Lesson Forty-Eight
Quality

The Category of Quality

Psychic Qualities

Sensible Qualities

Qualities Specific to Quantities

Dispositional Qualities

Conclusions

Lesson Forty-Nine
The Reality of Knowledge

Introduction

A Review of the Types of Knowledge

The Reality of Knowledge by Presence

The Nature of Acquired Knowledge

The Immateriality of Perception

Lesson Fifty
The Union of the Knower and the Known

Introduction

The Controversy

Explanation of the Topic

Types of Union of Existence

A Review of the Theory of adr al-Mutaallihn

Inquiry into a Problem

PART VI
THE
IMMUTABLE
CHANGING
Lesson Fifty-One
The Immutable and the Changing

Introduction

AND

THE

An Explanation Regarding Change and Immutability

Types of Change

The Positions of the Philosophers Regarding the Types of

Change

Lesson Fifty-Two
The Potential and the Actual

Introduction

An Explanation of the Concepts of the Potential and the

Actual

The Division of Existents into the Actual and the Potential

The Relation between the Potential and the Actual

Lesson Fifty-Three
A Continuation of the Discussion of the Potential and the
Actual

The Correspondence of Potentiality and Actuality in the

Case of Change

Infinite Regresses of Material Events

The Principle of the Necessity of the Priority of Matter to

Material Events

The Temporal Creation of the Material World

Lesson Fifty-Four
Generation and Corruption

Introduction

The Concepts of Generation and Corruption

The Presence of Two Forms in a Single Matter

The Relation of Generation and Corruption to Motion

Lesson Fifty-Five
Motion

The Concept of Motion

The Existence of Motion

Problems Raised by those who Deny the Existence of Motion

and their Solution

Lesson Fifty-Six
Properties of Motion

The Constituent Factors of Motion

The Features of Motion

The Requirements of Motion

Lesson Fifty-Seven
Divisions of Motion

Introduction

Divisions of Motion on the Basis of Acceleration

The Evolution of the Moved due to Motion

Lesson Fifty-Eight
Motion in Accidents

Introduction

Spatial Motion

Motion in Position

Motion in Quality

Motion in Quantity

Lesson Fifty-Nine
Motion in Substance

Introduction

Objections to Substantial Motion

Answers to the Objections

Arguments for the Existence of Substantial Motion

Lesson Sixty
Further Discussion of Substantial Motion

A Reminder of Some Points

Types of Substantial Motion

The Relation between Substantial Motion and Actuality and

Potentiality

The Continuity of Substantial Motion

Vertical Continuity

Horizontal Continuity

PART VII
THEOLOGY
Lesson Sixty-One
The Way to Know God

Introduction

The Science of Theology and its Subject

The Innateness of Knowledge of God

The Possibility of Demonstrating the Existence of God

Demonstrations from Cause to Effect and from Effect to

Cause

Lesson Sixty-Two
Demonstrations of the Necessary Existent

Introduction

First Demonstration (The Argument from Contingency)

The Second Demonstration (Ibn Sns Demonstration)

The Third Demonstration (Mull adrs Demonstration)

Lesson Sixty-Three
Taw d

The Meaning of Taw d

Taw d in the Necessity of Existence

The Negation of Actual Parts

The Negation of Potential Parts, Time and Space in God

The Refutation of Analytic Parts

Lesson Sixty-Four
The Unity of Divine Actions

Introduction

Unity in Creation and Lordship

Unity in the Emanation of Existence

The Refutation of Compulsion and Delegation

Lesson Sixty-Five
The Divine Attributes

Introduction

The Limits to Knowing God

The Role of Reason in Knowing God

Positive and Negative Attributes

Attributes of Essence and Attributes of Action

Lesson Sixty-Six
Attributes of Essence

Introduction

Life

Knowledge

Knowledge of Essence

Knowledge of Creatures

Power

Lesson Sixty-Seven
Attributes of Action

Introduction

Hearing and Seeing

Speaking

Will

The Concept of Will

The Reality of Will

Wisdom and the Best Order

Lesson Sixty-Eight
The Purpose of Creation

Introduction

Purpose and Final Cause

Some Points

The Purposefulness of God, the Supreme

Lesson Sixty-Nine
Divine Decree and Destiny

Introduction

The Concepts of Destiny and Decree

A Philosophical Explanation of Destiny and Decree

Levels of Action

The Relation of Destiny and Decree to Human Volition:

The Benefits of this Discussion

Lesson Seventy
Good and Evil in the Cosmos

Introduction

The Concepts of Good and Evil

A Philosophical Analysis of Good and Evil

The Secret of the Evils of the Cosmos