Chapman - Senior Workshop Calculations

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CHAPMAN
Senior Workshop
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A. J.
Calculations
Third Edition
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SI Units
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Senior workshop calculations
l\1
Senior workshop
calculations
Dr.
W. A.
J.
Chapman
MSc(Eng), FIMechE, HonFIProdE
<D
EDWARD ARNOLD
W.A.J. Chapman
1972
First published 1941
by Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited

25 Hill Street
London
WIX 8LL
Reprinted 1944, 1947, 1949, 1952
Second edition 1954

Reprinted 1957, 1959, 1961, 1962, 1965
Third edition 1972
Reprinted 1973, 1978
ISBN
7131 3260 4
All Rights Reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherEdward Arnold (Publishers)
wise, without the prior permission of
Ltd
Photoset and printed in Malta by Interprint (Malta) Ltd
This book
is
a revision of the workshop practice material in Senior
Workshop Calculations This revision was made necessary by the advent

of the SI System and of developments in some aspects of teaching and
.
industrial practice.
is
Senior Workshop Calculations has enjoyed a vogue of thirty years and

used in many parts of the world. From the various expressions I
have received
the
work of
am
sure that
it
has rendered a useful contribution to
countless students as well as to that of mature workers
engaged in engineering.
During the revision it was decided to separate out the text dealing
with practice calculations as a first priority. The text includes most of
the material required by students and practitioners in workshop and
production engineering practice and should provide a useful textbook
for National Certificates and Diplomas, and for City & Guilds courses
in Mechanical and Production Engineering subjects.
In the work of revision I have received considerable advice and help
from Mr M. G. Page, BSc(Eng), FIMechE, FIProdE, and I should like
here to acknowledge my warm appreciation of his generous and kind
assistance.
I
hope that
it
has always been
Hatfield, 1972
form the book will continue to serve the

and other workers in those aspects of engineering
in its present
interests of students
my
desire to foster.
W. A.
J.
C.
Contents
The SI system of units and conventions

Basic SI units - Supplementary and derived units -
1 Introduction:
Multiples and sub-divisions of the unit
- Representation of
and quantities - Dimensioning - Mass,

weight and force - The kilogramme weight - Equations of
motion - Acceleration
unit symbols
2 Measurements and gauging

Limits and tolerances - Limit systems - Calculations of
limits - Slip gauges - The spirit level - The sine bar radii and holes - Location of points on
angular surfaces - Measurement of tapers with balls and
Gauging large
rollers
- 3-wire measurement of screw threads -
Miscellaneous measurement problems
13
3 Calculations for cutting, turning and boring

Speeds and feeds - Arithmetic and geometric progression Cutting tool life - Tool angles - Effect of tool height Taper turning - True shape of form tools, flat and circular Approximate change wheels by continued fractions Cutting power for turning and drilling
4 Calculations
for gears
56
and gearcutting
- The tooth Vernier - Constant chord

measurement Module pitch - Plug Method of checking
gear teeth - Base pitch - Stub teeth - Backlash - Helical
(spiral) gear calculations - Worm gearing - Bevel gearing
Involute gear teeth
84
5 Milling and the milling machine

Milling cutters - Cutter teeth -
Rake - Clearance - Tooth

- Tooth grinding - Helical teeth - Speeds and feeds
for milling cutters - Milling power calculations - The
dividing head - Simple, compound, differential, angular
indexing - Spiral milling - Cam milling - Solid angles
angle
113
6 Mechanical principles
Vectorial representation - Addition and subtraction of
- Application of vectors- forces on a cutting tool Balancing of faceplates - Vector velocity diagrams for
mechanisms - Moment of a force - Parallel forces
vectors
148
7 Mechanical principles II
- Machines and efficiency - The inclined plane

and screw - Bearings - Bearing pressure - Bearing friction
- Stress and strain
Friction
8 Mechanical principles
176
III
- Acceleration - Equations of motion - Force Energy; kinetic and potential - Circular motion - Accelerating
torque - Energy of flywheels - Temperature - Heat - Amount
of heat - Heat energy
Velocity
and
Appendices
Appendices
III
II:
ISO
standard holes and shafts
and IV: BSI standard holes and shafts
Appendix V: Conversion table
198
225-6
226-7
228-9
Appendix VI: The trigonometrical addition formulae
230
Appendix VII Continued fractions
23
Answers
235
Index
242
Introduction
The SI system of units and conventions

The initials SI are an abbreviation for Systeme International d'Unites
(International System of Units), the modern form of the metric system,
finally agreed upon at an international conference in 1960. It is now
being adopted widely throughout the world and is likely to become the
primary world system for units and measurement. As we shall discuss
below, the system rationalises the main metric units of measurement and
standardises their names and symbolic representation. It also rationalises
certain mechanical principles and conventions.
The British system of weights and measures is many centuries old, and
the derivation of its units with their multiples and sub-divisions is often
obscure. The system has been refurbished from time to time but the yard
and the pound with their multiples (e.g. mile) and sub-divisions (e.g.
ounce) have persisted; so have such ridiculous measures as 5| yards = 1
= 1 acre or 141b = 1 stone remained with us to
try the mental agility of generations of students, not to mention the more
mature, and less mentally agile population.
The metric system was founded during the French Revolution and has
been adopted for use by most countries with the notable exceptions of the
rod, pole or perch, 4 roods
British
Commonwealth and
the U.S.A., but even in these countries it is

measurements.
The basic units of the SI metric system are the metre and the kilogramme and it is exclusively decimal, so that all multiples and subdivisions of the standard are found by applying factors of 10 (1 kilometre =
1000 metres; 1 kilogramme = 1000 grammes; 1 hectare (area) = 100 x 100
square metres, and so on) In the English system, of course, there is no such
orderly pattern and indeed, the foreigner might well question our sanity
when he hears us refer to 1 12 pounds as a hundredweight.
However, we have, at last, been caught up with the progress of the times
and as a nation we have decided to change over to the metric system. The
entire text of this book conforms with the SI system and the object of this
introductory chapter is to provide help and reference for the reader as he
finds his way into what may seem, at first, to be a complexity. The best
used for precise
scientific
INTRODUCTION
advice that can be given for achieving rapid progress in coping with the
change is to become familiar with the new measures and to learn, as soon
as possible to think in terms of them,
and not to
persist in
making mental
conversions back to the old units. This process can be speeded up by

acquiring, as soon as possible, a mental appreciation of a range of lengths,
Some of these could be
(say) the mental judgekilogramme, the amount

of fluid comprising 1 litre (1000 cm 3 ) and the pressure corresponding to
1 bar (approx 1 atmosphere)*
In this way it will soon be possible to think
of these measures in their own right and not grope around converting
them to their English equivalents (1kg = 2-21b; 1 litre = about If pints
and so on). A similar process is concerned in the learning of a foreign
language where fluency will never be achieved until a student thinks in
terms of the language concerned and abandons all attempts to interpret
mentally from, and into, English. It is well known that another language
is quickest learned by living amongst those who speak nothing else. If the
reader can approach this new mathematical and scientific language in
this frame of mind he will find that the former system will rapidly recede, so increasing the ease with which he can cope with the problems
weights, capacities, etc.
ment of 25
millimetres,
metre, the weight of
involved.
Basic SI units
SI system
The
is
based on
six
primary units as follows:
Table
1.
Basic SI units
Unit
Symbol
Metre
Kilogramme
Second
Mass
Time
Electric current
Ampere
Temperature
Kelvin
A
K
Luminous
Candela
cd
Quantity
Length
Intensity
In addition to these there are a

units.
We
number of supplementary and derived
give below a selection of those which are most likely to be
required by students using this book.
ventions
is
given in BSI publication
A full list of the SI Units and con-
PD
*The reader has probably heard of the bar

Met Office forecasts.
pressure in
kg
s
5686.
in reference to millibars
of atmospheric
SUPPLEMENTARY AND DERIVED
UNITS
SI
Supplementary and derived units

Table
2.
Selected supplementary and derived SI units
Quantity
Symbol
Unit
Area
m
m
Square metre
Cubic metre
Volume
Kilogramme per cubic metre

Metre per second
Density
Velocity
2
3
kg/m 3
m/s
m/s 2
Acceleration
Metre per second squared
Force
Newton
Newton metre
Newton per square metre
N(kgm/s 2 )
Joule
J(Nm)
Watt
Radian
rad
Temperature
(Everyday use)
Degree Celsius*
Specific heat capacity
Joule per kilogramme
Moment
of force
Pressure, stress
Work, energy
Heat quantity
Power
Plane angle
Nm
N/m
degree Celsius
Electric tension
*It
is
(J/s)
J/kgC
Potential difference >
Electromotive force
Volt
probable that the word "centigrade"
will remain,
but SI recommends the use of
Celsius to prevent confusion with another unit.
Multiples and sub-divisions of the unit

In the same way, that in the British system where the yard
is
divided into
and inches and multiplied into the furlong and mile, the pound multiplied into the cwt and ton and divided into the ounce, so it is necessary to
feet
make
similar provisions in the SI system.
system for this purpose
is
One of the advantages of the
the simplicity of its multiples and sub-multiples
because of its decimal (10) character. We will give, again, a selection of the
chief factors likely to be required by the reader leaving him to study the
BSI literature if he wishes to pursue the remainder.
4
It will be noticed that multiples and divisions involving 10
10 5 and
certain higher powers are not included in the system. This has been done
in order to rationalise the procedure by using, after 10 2 and 10~ 2 only
,
powers which are multiples of 3, and the full list of such factors extends
from 10 12 at the higher end to 10~ 18 at the lower.
INTRODUCTION
Table
SI multiples and sub- multiples
3.
Factor by which
unit
is
multiplied
One million = 10
One thousand = 10
One hundred = 10 2
Symbol
Prefix
mega
kilo
k
h
da
d
kilometre (km)
centi
centimetre (cm)
milli
millilitre (ml)
micro
/"
microvolt (juV)
hecto
Ten =
deca
10
tenth = 10-'
One
One hundredth = 10 ~ 2
One thousandth = 10 ~ 3
One millionth = 10 -6
Example
deci
megawatt
(MW)
hectare (ha)
decagram (dag)
decimetre (dm)
Having now considered the quantitative manipulation of the basic

we may now go on to consider the facilities available for alternative
smaller divisions, or larger multiples of the main units, and of certain
additional variations allowable in the system. By this means it is possible
to employ a unit of suitable proportions for any particular set of circumunits
stances. (Table 4).
Representation of unit symbols and quantities

It often happens that when we move into a new house, or office, or
take on something which changes our way of life we take the opportunity
of overhauling our methods. So it is with the changeover to this new
system where the adoption of SI
is
accompanied by various conventions
regarding the presentation of information.
These are summarised

(a)
as follows:
Writing the unit symbols

(i)
The
full stop, usually placed after an abbreviated word, is never

used after an abbreviated symbol except at the end of a sentence.
Thus, 50kg, 10m, 8 kg, 30s, 5N/mm2 all without a full stop, but:
"the vehicle had a mass of 1100 kg." end of sentence, full stop.
The plural
is not used. (50cm not 50 cms)
The proposition "per" is replaced by the oblique / (rev/min
not rev per min)
,
(ii)
(iii)
Symbols
and volumes are qualified by the index, (cm 2

not sq cm and cm not cu cm)
(Note that when converting quantities denoted by indices: lm 3 =
(100cm)3 = lOCFcm3 = 106 cm3 ) (continued on p. 6).
(iv)
for areas
REPRESENTATION OF UNIT SYMBOLS AND QUANTITIES
Table
4.
Recommended
multiples and sub-divisions of the basic SI units
Other units acceptable

Quantity
Plane angle
m rad
Length
km
the system and
Multiple or
in
sub-multiple
likely to persist
degree
minute' second"
cm*
mm
Area
/urn
micron (i4mm)
km 2
hectare (ha)(104
cm
are (a)(10 2
mm
dm
Volume
cm
cm
litre (/)(100
millilitre (ml)
mm
Ms
Time
year, month, week.

day (d) hour (h)
minute (min)
ks
ms
/US
km/h
Velocity
Mg
Mass
tonne
(OR
metric ton) (t)

x 10 4 kg)
metric carat (2
mg
kg/ dm 3
Density
or kg/1
g/cm 3
MN
Force
g/1
kN
mN
kgf (weight of
pti
kg mass)
(not included in SI system
but likely to be used)

1
Moment
MNm:kNm:,uNm
N/mm N/cm kN/mm
mN/m :/xN/m
of force
Pressure
bar
kgf
= 9-806N
= 10N/cm
hectobar (hbar)
10 3 N/cm 2
(Will probably be used for
kN/mm 2 kN/cm 2 N/mm

N/cm 2 :kN/m 2
Stress
pneumatic pressures. High

pressures and stresses will
be expressed
in units
shown
opposite)
Work and
MJ:kJ:mJ
energy
Kilowatt hour
(kWh =
Specific heat capacity
*
3-6
MJ)
MW:kW:mW:/iW
Power
The cm
not
is
kJ/kgC
recommended
for general use
and
it
is
hoped that
it
will eventually
however, a very convenient unit for certain purposes as will be seen

from the uses of it later in our text. It will be observed, however, that the cm 2 and
disappear.
cm
are
It
still
is,
permissible.
INTRODUCTION
(b)
Numerical values
(i)
When
a quantity
is
less
than unity ( 1 ) always place zero (0) before
the decimal point. (0-625:0.0031, etc.)

(ii)
As
of
far as possible
10,
always express a quantity
in terms of a power
row of 0's. (36-2 x 10
of 0-0015) and preferably
so using the index of 10 instead of a
(hi)
instead of 36 200;
x 10~ 3 instead
use powers of 10 which are multiples of 3.
Separate a row of digits into groups of three by a space, instead
of using a comma. (71 562 instead of 71,562, or 0-006 13 instead
of 0-006, 1 3) But a group of four digits may be left without separation (e.g. 6713 or 0-0036 without separation).
1-5
Dimensioning (drawings)
It is customary, when dimensioning drawings, to dimension all sizes
in millimetres, and not to write the unit (mm) after the dimension. An
instruction may be given to the effect that all sizes are in millimetres
but this is not always done. All the diagrams in this book are dimensioned
according to this rule so that the reader will now recognise that <^^ >
means 65 mm.
Mass, weight and force
The reader will observe
that kg
is
the SI unit for MASS and that a unit for
however, the Newton (N)

amount of matter (or
material) of which it is composed and the kilogramme unit is equal to
the mass of the international prototype kilogramme which is in the
custody of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures at Sevres near
weight
is
not mentioned in the scheme. There
as the unit of
FORCE. The mass
of a body
is,
is
the
Paris. The only means of measuring and comparing masses is by weighing

them so that the weight of an object is proportional to its mass and
indeed, the weight of a body is the downward force its mass exerts under
the influence of the earth's gravitational pull.
We have seen this concept
very effectively illustrated since astronauts have been penetrating beyond

the influence of the gravitational pull of the earth and most readers will
have seen the fascinating television pictures of the interior of the capsule,
still having their mass, but without weight.
The definition of a newton (N) of force is that force which acting on one
kilogramme of mass will propel it along with an acceleration of one metre
per second per second (i.e. it gains 1 m per second every second). Put
into symbols this becomes:
with objects floating about,
IN = lkgm/s 2
THE KILOGRAMME WEIGHT
(kgf)
The kilogramme weight (kgf)

gravitational pull where we are (England) is such that it imparts an
acceleration of about 9-807 metres per second per second (9-807 m/s 2 )
on a freely falling body and this pull, acting on a mass of 1 kg causes it to
The
downwards force (its weight) of 9-807 Newton of force (since

Newton = 1 kgm/s 2 ). Thus the weight of a mass of 1 kg expressed in
exert a
1
newtons of force
lkg weight
is:
(kgf)
9-807 newtons (usually approximated to 9-81
The weight of a body having a mass of 150 kg = 150 x

The mass of a body
is
added to
cut off or
9-81
N)
N)
1471-5
a quantity which never changes (unless a piece
is
it),
but the force of gravity varies slightly on
means
the same
ferent parts of the earth. This
that the weight of
England
as
dif-
kg of mass
in
weight at the equator. The

variation is very small (about 0-5%) over the surface of the earth so that for
all but the very accurate scientific work there is a justification for using
the kgf unit of weight in everyday life. The reader will find kg loosely
not be quite
will
its
referred to as the "weight" of an article, when what is really meant is

the gravitational pull on a kg of mass. However, for some problems, such
as those involving weights and costs of materials, it will be convenient
work in kgf rather than newtons, since suppliers of materials will

always quote kg or tonne, and not newtons as the weight in their price
to
lists
and
specifications.
The following examples
will illustrate the
use
of force units:
Example
1.
standing on
support
round
its
steel bar, 100
mm diameter,
metre long
is
placed
end. If the contact between the end of the bar and
its
uniformly spread over the whole end face of the bar calculate
the intensity of pressure over the area of contact. Take the density of
is
steel as 7-83
g/cm
3
.
Mass of bar = (Volume)(density)
=jX
=
10 2
x 100 x
7-83
0-7854 x 10 4 x 7-83.
__
grams (Working
kg
61-5 kg
Downward force (weight) exerted by bar

= (mass) (gravity) 61-5 X 9-807 = 603 N
Area of bar end = 0-7854 x 10 2 cm 2
= 78-54 cm 2
===
in
cm)
INTRODUCTION
Intensity of pressure
=
Example
2.
force
603
area
78-54
N/cm 2
7-68
vehicle having a mass (m) of 2000 kg has a fractional
resistance to motion of m/20. If the drive
Resistance to motion
equivalent to an average
is
N find the speed attained after
force of 320
min from
2000
= -^
N=
100
rest.
= 320N - 100N = 220N

= mass (m) x accel (a)
220N = 2000 a
Effective driving force
and since
force (F)
"
Speed
after
220
All
,2
llm/s2
=2000
V=
min
=
=
Example
the
3.
6-6
X 60
m/s
A pin is being driven home by a hammer of mass
kg.
When
moving at 1-5 m/s it strikes the pin and drives it 10 mm

Assuming the hammer is brought to rest at constant decelera-
hammer
further in.
(accel)(time)
0-11
is
tion estimate the average force of the blow.

If the
rate
hammer travels 10mm (0-01 m)
from
1-5
m/s to
whilst decelerating at a constant
rest:
Average speed over the stopping period
= - =
0-75
m/s
and the space moved
0-01
~-=j
Hence:
duration of the blow
(t)
0-0133
We then have for the movement of the hammer after

initial
speed
and time
and from v
1-5
= 1-5 m/s:
= 0-0133
(u)
(t)
u + at
0-0133a
final
(see p. 10)
it
speed
strikes the pin:
(v)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
from which
The average
nnn o = 112-7 m/s
force of the
F=
blow
(retardation)
found from:
is
(mass)(accel)
112-7
= 112-7N
The equations of motion
The reader, no doubt, will have already realised that the SI system is
more orderly and coherent than the British system and this might be
pursued by considering its application to the equations of motion.
If s
then s
The
space travelled, v
=-
or
vt
basic unit for s
is
velocity (or speed)
and
time
(1)
the metre (m) and for
t,
the second. This gives us
= - = m/s (metres per second).
the secondary basic unit for velocity as v
it is not always desirable, or possible, to work in metres and

seconds but alternative units of larger or smaller dimension are available to suit the conditions or aspects of any particular situation, (e.g. for
Naturally,
a road speed
we should probably
Thus:
km/h
hour
to convert
kilometre
km
i.e.
=
=
1000
use kilometres and hours)
3600
1000 metres
3600 seconds
_
~
18
to m/s multiply by
_
~
m/S
18
-j-~.
Acceleration
Acceleration
is
the rate of change of velocity

,
i.e.
If
acceleration
= change
in velocity
time taken for the change
a body starts from rest and acquires a velocity of
using the symbol a for acceleration
v
=
t
v after
time
t,
and
KJ
INTRODUCTION
Since the basic derived unit for v
If,
= - to give
we
instead of starting from rest, the
of u. Then,
final velocity after
time
f
so
t is s,
(metres per second squared).
5-
the basic unit for acceleration is
Transposing the above a
m/s, and the basic unit for
is
get v
at.
body already had an
initial
velocity
t:
at
(2)
Instead of accelerating a body may be slowing down or decelerating. Then

the acceleration will be a minus quantity and
This slowing
down
The above
shown at Fig.
is
at
termed a retardation.
may be illustrated graphically and
relationships
Fig.
Example
4.
this
is
drop stamp
falls freely for 5
and
gravity. Find: (a) the time of fall
strikes the tup.
Takeg =
9-81
m/s 2
metres under the action of
(b) its velocity at the instant
it
ACCELERATION
The graph representing the

velocity after time
fall is
shown
at Fig. 2
and
if v is
the final
t:
Vel.
t
5>
\ArM\
s^. 5m\
"
Time
Fig. 2
We get:
,
5 vt
C
5
A
and
10
(1)
But for accelerated motion from

v
Hence, equating
rest
where a = g =
at
9-81
m/s 2
this to (1):
10
and
9-81
10
t *=
1-01 s
9-81
Substituting in (1) for
we
have:
10
1-01
9-9
m/s
Example 5. A machine ram is operating on a stroke of 360 mm. It starts

from rest, accelerates at a uniform rate until the centre of the stroke and
then retards at a uniform rate to a standstill at the end of the stroke. If
the stroke occupies 1-5 seconds find the acceleration and the maximum
speed attained.
INTRODUCTION
12
This problem
is
is
best solved with the help of a graph
represented in Fig.
and the motion
3.
Time
Fig. 3
The ram
accelerates
from
to A,
its
the reverse process takes place from
The area
360
OAB
velocity increasing uniformly,
A to
represents the space travelled which, in this case,
mm (0.36m).
m = KOB)(AC), and
0-36m = |(l-5s)(AC)
= 2 x 0-36
Hence
0-36
AC =
For half the stroke
l-5s
at
048
Hence a = - = T^^m/s = 0-64m/ s
v
and
B.
since
OB =
0-48 m/s
l-5s
is
Measurement
and gauging
Limits and tolerances
When
parts which must fit together are being made under conditions
which do not permit of each fitting pair to be mated up individually, it
becomes necessary to arrange the working dimensions so that if each
component is made to them, the required type of fit will be assured. To
achieve this, a system of limits and fits is adopted. The definitions used
in connection with limit systems will be gathered from the following
and Fig. 4.
jTolerance
r
I
'^///(//s
~i
__
'
oo
"^ so
>
">
ra
-S
"^ *
S9
On .c
^- .o> fN
-J ** a: K)
-J 00 -c os
.2>^
K>
a:
'.
1
'
w/z/Jm
it
Sha n
The low
519 80
31-9 68
limit is the
1>
Holt!
32
31
15
A
85?
Fig. 4
dimension of the smallest permissible
the high limit the largest permissible size.
The component
is
size,
and
acceptable
anywhere between the two.

is the difference between the two limiting dimensions.
[The tolerance on the above shaft is 31-980 - 31-968 = 0.012mm.]
The allowance is the variation between the sizes of the hole and shaft
necessary to give the type of fit required. For a running fit the shaft must
be smaller than the hole (clearance fit), whilst for a driving or force fit,
the shaft must be larger than the hole (interference fit). Between the
extremes of clearance and interference there is a range of fits such as
push fit, slide fit, etc., in which there is only a small variation between
the hole and shaft sizes (transition fit).
if its size lies
The
tolerance
MEASUREMENT AND GAUGING
14
Limit systems
The numerical value of
the limits for any related hole and shaft will
depend on:
The nominal size (i.e. whether 25mm, 50mm, 100mm, etc.)

The class of fit (e,g. running fit, push fit, force fit, etc.)
(c) The grade of workmanship desired.
The ISO system, set out in BS Specification No. 4500 (1969), allows for
(a)
(b)
and 18 grades of tolerance over a size range of zero to

sight this seems an enormous provision, but the fits
and grades of workmanship covered allow for everything from fine gauge
work to the roughest form of production, and even for some classes of
raw materials. Average workshop requirements may be met from a
limited part of the specification and for this purpose suitable recommendations are given. In the system the 27 possible holes are designated
by capital letters A B C D etc., and the shafts by small letters covering
the same range. The 18 accuracy grades are denoted by the numbers 01,
0, 1, 2, ... 16. The nomenclature adopted for specifying any particular
27 types of
fit
3150mm. At
first
hole or shaft with
with
its
its
tolerance grade
grade number: thus
H7
is
to write the hole or shaft letter
for a hole, or e8 for a shaft of the
fit
and
accuracy given by the letter and numeral concerned. A fit involving these
two elements is written H7-e8 or H7/e8
SELECTED
Type of
FITS
(HOLE BASIS)
Fit
Clearance
(Slack,
Running
etc.)
Transition
(Push, Slide etc.)
Interference
(force, Driveetc.)
(Details of the limits for the
250mm
above shafts over a diameter range 6 mm to

1, page 225.)
are given in Appendix
LIMIT SYSTEMS
15
For average workshop use the H hole associated with the accuracy
11 (H7 to Hll) are recommended as being satisfactory and
grades 7 to
details of the limits of these for a
shown
in the table
on
diameter range of 6mm to
250mm are
p. 226.
140
120
100
ill
80
60
40
20
E
E
S
o
20
60
v.
80
"o
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240 Clearance
Fig. 5
basis).
ISO System of Limits and
Fits.
Transition Interfere/! ce
Hole and
shaft relationships for selected
(Tolerance scale applies to the diameter range:
18mm 30mm.)
fits
(hole
16
From
the shafts included in the specification the table gives a selec-
tion of those
recommended
as likely to be the
the needs of the average workshop.
most useful
in
coping with
The holes with which they should be
associated as well as the approximate type of fit are also given.
Naturally from a selection of 27
curacy
it is
associated with 18 grades of accombinations, but the small selec-
fits
many
possible to choose
tion above should be sufficient to help the reader in his study of the
subject. Fig. 5 illustrates the hole
of the
H7
associated with the
fits
and
to
shaft relationship for a selection
Hll
holes as
recommended
in the
From the diagram the reader will be able to trace the

maximum and minimum metal conditions for the range of diameters to
BS
Specification.
which the
details apply.
Exercises 2a
Write down for problems Nos.
mum
and minimum clearance or
1.
75mm
2.
35
to 4 the hole
BSI H10 hole and e8
and shaft
limits,
and calculate the maxi-
interference. (See tables in appendices)

shaft.
mm BSI H9 hole and k6 shaft.
3.
20mm
4.
57
5.
Two 32mm BSI H8
BSI
H7
hole and f7 shaft.
mm BSI H8 hole and
centre distance
is
s7 shaft.
holes are bored in a plate at 105
to be checked by a
mm
gauge of the type shown
0-02
mm centres. Their
at Fig. 6. If the
"go" ends
Fig. 6
of the checking plugs are 12

centre distance.
6.
To
hole,
is
mm
diameter calculate their "Not go" diameters and their
"Go" end of a limit plug gauge, made for a 40 mm BSI H9

minimum hole size by 10% of the tolerance. Calculate the
allow for gauge wear the
made
larger than the
end of the gauge.

BSI f7 shaft is to be ground out to suit a
gauge made for a 50
k7 shaft. Determine the alteration necessary.
slot is made
8. Two blocks each 25
wide are made to BSI h7 limits and a 50
diameter of
7.
this
mm
limit caliper
mm
mm
to
H8
limits.
Compare
the
fit
of these blocks put together with that of a single 50
mm block
SLIP
GAUGES
17
made
to h7 limits. (Assume the width of the blocks put together to be equal to the sum
of their individual thicknesses.)
9. A number of limit plug gauges are available, made for the former Newall fin.
Class
and,
B hole
if so,
10.
in).
what
alteration
A BS 40mm
19mm
H8
hole
Determine the greatest and
least
Could these be ground down
to suit a
BSI
would be necessary?
b9 shaft
is
placed in an
H8
hole.
clearance possible between the shaft and the sides of the hole.
Slip gauges
For the purpose of checking the accuracy of micrometers, verniers and

it is necessary to have available some means of building
up any required length. In most workshops this is achieved by the use of
slip gauges. These consist of blocks of different thicknesses, which
are made to such a fine degree of accuracy and flatness on their measuring
faces, that they may be "wrung" together and the overall length of any
number of blocks so joined is the sum of their individual lengths. These
gauges are often called Johannsen gauges after their originator. (Fig. 7)
other gauges,
The Coventry Gauge and Tool Co. Ltd.

Fig. 7
set of slip
gauges (107 pieces).
{Lid of box not shown)
is
The number of blocks in a set will depend upon the range of sizes that
made up, and a medium-sized set of such gauges contains
required to be
47 pieces of the following
sizes.
18
Metric dimensions: widths of bloeks in

Pieces
9
Range
1005
101-109
1=1-1-9
24
4
mm.
Steps
0-01
01
1-24
1-0
25 50, 75, 100
25-0
47 Total
From such a selection it is possible to choose blocks to build up almost

any dimension that can be named within the capacity of the set. It will
be seen that there will be alternative methods of making up a size, but
the one should be chosen which employs the smallest number of pieces.
Example
3.
Choose blocks
to assemble the following sizes: (a) 37.31
mm
0)6 1-685 mm.

To assemble
(a)
we may
the following blocks:
101
1-3
1000
2500
37-31
use
Dimension
(b)
may be
obtained
as follows:
1005
108
1-6
8-00
50-00
61-685
The above example should indicate to the reader how to proceed for
any other size, the method being to start at the figure on the extreme right
of the dimension required, choosing gauges to accommodate each
figure in turn.
English sizes
For routine English work, slip gauges made to inch dimensions may be
obtained but it is possible, by calculating the metric equivalent, to use
gauges from a metric set.
Example
2-
1758 in.
4.
Make up
a set of slip gauges to check a gauge measuring
THE
The metric
25-4 and
The
is
equivalent of 2-2758 in
19
found by multiplying 2-1758 by
equal to 55-26532 mm.
may be assembled from the
nearest size to this, that
given above,
Gauges
is
SPIRIT LEVEL
to
is
55-265 which
make up
is
0-00032
set
of gauges
mm or 0-000012in. too small.
to 55-265 are as follows:
1005
106
1-2
50
55-265
Exercises 2b
From
the
list
make up
given on p. 18
sets
1,11-11
2.
4.
mm
68-78 mm
5.
mm
75-70 mm
7.
9.52mm
8.
44.45mm
10.
dimension given as
34-925
,4
of
slip
gauges to give the following
23-64
q-
mm
is
6.
mm
11 5-36 mm
9.
80.99mm
3.
to be checked.
sizes:
35-635
Make up two
separate sets of
blocks, one to measure each limit.

11.
Make up
sets
of
slip
gauges to check the jaws of a limit gap gauge for a
30mm BSI
f7 shaft.
12.
Two
holes, 0-875 inch diameter
and 10625 inch diameter, are bored in the face of a

mm, and make up a set of slip gauges to test
casting at 1-5625 inch centres. Convert to
between the insides of test plugs placed
The spirit level

The spirit level
in the bores.
consists essentially of a glass vial fixed into a frame.
inside top surface of the vial
is
not straight but
is
The
formed to a radius, con-
vex upwards, as shown in Fig. 8. In some instruments the inside of the vial
is ground barrel-shaped as shown, whilst in others the glass tube which
Fig. 8
20
forms the vial is bent to a radius. The vial contains spirit with sufficient air
space to leave a bubble, and is cemented into the frame and accurately
located so that when the base of the frame is level the bubble rests at the
centre of the scale.
The relations governing the movement of the bubble and the angle of
tilt of the level will be followed from Fig. 9 and the following:
faitt
Bj_J
""77777777777777777777777777^77777777777^1^
Fig. 9
Arc
of
its
CAD represents the upper inner surface of the vial and O the centre
radius.
OB
perpendicular to
represents the base of the level.
OA.
If
OB
in
now tilted to
bring
OB
is
horizontal and
to B,, point
A on the
swing to A, but the bubble will remain vertically above O and will
travel along the vial to A.
vial will
If
If
is
BB,
the angle of
is
tilt,
then 6
(radian)
= A,A
the length of the arc through which one end of the level (length
L) swings, then 9 (radian)
BB,
= jr
BB,
AA,
and BB, =
L.
AA,
Actually, the height h that one end of the level is above the other is the
dimension we require, but when dealing with angles as small as those con-
THE
cerned here, the difference between BBj and h
is
SPIRIT LEVEL
21
so small as to be
negligible.
Thus we can say that h = ^-(distance bubble moves)

If the
angle of
tilt is
required in degrees, then since
(radian)
= Movement
(degree)
of bubble
57-3
(Movement of bubble)
Unfortunately, not many makers of levels mark them with particulars as
may be determined experimentally by

by a known amount and after noting the movement of the bubble, calculating the radius from the above expressions.
to the radius (R) of the vial, but this

tilting
one end of the
Example
is
raised
vial.
5.
level
A spirit level is 300 mm long, and
002 mm above
Calculate the radius of the
h
y=
We uhave that
, 17
0-02
300
Example
6.
30 m. Find
found that when one end
moves
1-50
mm along the
vial.
Movement of bubble
=
_ 1-5
~ R
R =
From which
it is
the other, the bubble
^p^'
The base of
or 22- 5m
mm
is 450
long and the radius of the vial is
of one end above the other, and (b) the angle of
level
(a) the height
500mm
22
corresponding to a bubble movement of 3 mm.
tilt,
_ Movement
T=
*
of bubble
_ L (movement
of bubble)
R
450 x
....
0-
30 x 1000
Angle of tilt
in
degree
?
3q
^qq^
045mm
0-005 73
20-6 second
22
The sine bar

For accurate work
in connection with angles the sine bar possesses

advantages over the usual forms of protractor. Sine bars differ in form,
but the considerations affecting their setting are the same in every case.
Two common types of sine bar are shown in Fig. 10.
The bar shown at (a) has two plugs which are let in and project about
mm from the front face. At (b)
is shown a bar which is stepped at the

secured into each step, being pulled in by a screw so as
to contact with each of the faces of the step. Both at (a) and (b) the following points are important if the sine bar is to be of any use:
12
ends and a
(i)
(ii)
roller is
The
rollers or plugs should both be of the same diameter.

Their centre distance must be absolutely correct. (The diagram
is
mm
dimensioned as 200
centres, but sine bars are available in 100, 250 and
300
centres as well.
(iii) The centre line AB of the plugs must be absolutely parallel with
the edge of the bar used for measuring (generally the bottom). It is desirable for the two edges of the bar to be parallel, with AB parallel with
mm
both.
Fig. 10.
When
in use, the
bar shown at
(a)
lends itself to clamping against an
angle plate, whilst that at (b) can be rested on two piles of Johannson
gauges to give
it
the correct inclination.
Calculation for sine bar setting
In Fig. 11,
C is the centre distance of the plugs, h is the height of one plug
above the other and a
is
the angle to which the bar must be
set.
CALCULATION FOR SINE BAR SETTING
23
Fig. 11
Then
QR
and
i.e.
= C sin a
= (centre
difference in height of plugs
Example
7.
Calculate the setting of a 200
distance)
(sine of angle).
mm sine bar to measure an angle
of 36 38'.
We
have
tljat sin
36 38'
Hence one plug mut be
0-5967
200 X 0-5967
set 11 9-34
119.34
mm above the other.

mm sine bar to check the angle
Example
8. Calculate the setting of a 250

of g taper of 1 in 16, ^n tjie diameter.
The taper is shown in pig. 12(a) and, if it
then in triangle
is
assumed to pe
ABC,
16
AC =
16,
BC =
4,
and
ta
Fig. 12(a)
BAC =
4-4 =
=o 03125
-
3i
16 units long,
24
|=
6 =
=
sin
From which
and
Now
and since the
setting
is
for a
250
1 47'
30"
3 35'
sin 3 35'
0-0625
mm sine bar:
250 X 0-0625
15- 625
mm
Fig. 12(b)
The
set-up
shown
at Fig. 12(b),
A and B being two sets of block gauges
assembled to give the setting calculated above.

Precaution when checking plane surfaces with the sine bar
The reader should observe that when using the sine bar to check the angle
between two plane surfaces (e.g. the surfaces of an angle plate) the bar
must be set accurately at right angles to the slope of the face being
measured. The following example will illustrate how an error may be introduced if this is not done.
Example
9.
A surface was being checked by a 100 mm sine bar which, due
was placed 6 mm out of square with the slope of the

The angle obtained from the sine bar readings was 59 30'. Find
to an error in setting,
surface.
the true angle of the surface being measured.
The conditions
are
shown diagrammatically, and exaggerated,
in Fig.
13.
The readings should have been taken on the line of greatest slope AB,
AC.
CH is a perpendicular drawn from C on to AB, and from the conditions
but were actually taken on
CH = 6 mm.
AC = 100 mm, E, F and G are points
A meet verticals through B, C and H.
of the problem,
AB
==
through
where horizontal
lines
GAUGING LARGE RADII
25
Fig. 13
In triangle
ACH:
AH = AC - CH
2
100 2
62
= 9964
AH = \/9964 =
99-82
Now since CH is parallel to the slope, C and H

CE = HG
In triangle
CAE:
AC =
.'.CE
Then
Sine
HAG
99- 82
=
=
mm,
QQ
HG =
_.
100,
and
CAE =
59 30'
100 sin 59 30'
100 x 0-8616
= 8616mm
HAG
86- 16 mm and HAG
CE = HG;
since
HA
are the same height and
in triangle
is
the true angle of the plate
= 0-8631 from which, HAG, the true angle of the plate
59 40'
i.e.
an error of
Gauging large
From some
10'
radii
classes of work
it is necessary to measure the radii of circles

which are too large to be straddled by calipers or a micrometer. Where the
complete circle is available its circumference may be measured by a tape
and the diameter obtained by dividing by n. This method, however, is by
no means perfect, and is not at all convenient when the radius to be
measured is not part of a complete circle.
An alternative method is to determine the radius by reference to the
distance of its surface from the corner of a vee block resting on it.
26

In Fig. 14
centre
ABC
represents the faces of a vee block resting on a circle,
and radius R.
r^'-i
Fig. 14
ABO will be = as shown.

The circle and the block contact at D, and in triangle BOD, since D is a
right angle, angle BOD = 90 ^
If 6
is
For
the included angle of ABC,
half angle
its
different-sized circles placed in the vee, the variable length that
we can measure
is
BE, so that the problem becomes one of finding a suitR in terms of this length and the angle of the vee.
able expression for
Now BE = BO - EO
and
BO =
But
OD
EO = OD = R
90
secant
.\BO=ODsec
= R
since sec ( 90
Hence
-!)-
cosec
cosec
- l)
(90 -
Npte:
secant
cos
BE = i?cosecy--R
R =
-7T
iacosecy
From which
|)
BE
cosec
lj
cosecant
-r
sin
GAUGING LARGE RADII
For any given angle of vee, the quantity cosec ^
27
constant and
1 is
can be calculated and stamped on the gauge. All that is then necessary is
to measure BE, and divide it by this number to give R.
Example
of 120
is
A gauge of the type shown in Fig. 14 having an included angle

placed on a tube and the length BE measures 2 1-25 mm. Find the
10.
diameter of the tube.
BE
R=
Here
cosec
21-25
cosec 60
dia.
of tube
1-1547
137-36
0-1547
and
21-25
21-25
mm
137-36
274-72
mm
The main difficulty in the use of a gauge of this type is the accurate
measurement of the distance BE. This may be overcome by constructing
the gauge and incorporating a depth gauge or micrometer head on the
centre line at B. An alternative construction is to make the gauge with a
fiat portion as shown at Fig. 15, using slip gauges to check the distance
between the work and the flat.
It will be an interesting example to plan such a gauge as
this.
Plan out a vee gauge to measure round work, to cover a

1 1
range of diameters varying from 250mm to 750mm.
Example
Fig. 15
28
We
will
portion
make
FG
the gauge with an included angle of 120, and the flat

the corner of the vee such that it just contacts with
filling in
mm
a 250
circle placed in the vee, as shown in Fig. 15 The length of the
gauge must be sufficient to accomodate a 750mm circle.
The length must exceed twice the distance from E to line AB, i.e. > 2AE
sin 30 = > 2 x 375 x h say, 400mm.
If flat
FG just touches a 250 mm
circle
placed in the vee,
then
CB = CD
sec 30
125 x 1-1547
= 144.34mm
and from the vee corner B to FG the distance is 144-34 - 125 = 19-34 mm.
It now remains to find the relation between the radius of any circle
placed in the vee, and the distance from its circumference to line FG.
From Fig. 14 we have that from B to the circumference of a circle radius
R,
= R
cosec
which becomes 0-1547/? when j
We have to
subtract 19-34
d =
and transposing to give
60.
mm from this,
0-1547/?
so that
19-34
mm
results in
RD =
d+
19-34
0-1547
mm
The distance d can be measured with slip gauges, or a micrometer depth

gauge incorporated in the construction as before. By marking the above
formula on the gauge, the checking of sizes becomes a routine job.
The measurement of large bores
interesting example of the measurement of a large diameter is available to us in the gauging of large holes with a point gauge This is shown in
Fig. 16(a), where a hole of diameter D is being gauged by a point gauge
of length L. In practice, L is a very small amount less than D, and when
the gauge is held at one end, a small amount of rocking movement on
An
either side of the centre line
byw.
is
possible at the other end. This
is
indicated
THE MEASUREMENT OF LARGE BORES
29
Fig. 16(a)
The conditions are shown exaggerated at Fig
6(b)
The full circle is the
hole being gauged, and the dotted circle (centre A) is that which the end of
the point gauge would describe if it made a full sweep Actually, the end of
.
moves over the arc BHF.The amount by which this guage

smaller than D is shown by CH. Let this be S.
the gauge only

is
Fig. 16(6)
An approximate solution to the problem which will be accurate enough

for
most practical purposes
is
as follows:
30
If
BC
is
and
circle,
B is a right angle, since

ABC: AC 2 = CB 2 + AB 2
joined, angle
in triangle
AC =
AB = L
D;
Hence we may
it is
the angle in a semi-
and
CB
very nearly equal to w.
is
D = L + w
D=L+8
2
say:
But
approximately.
+ S) 2 = L 2 + w 2
L + 2LS + S 2 = L 2 + w 2
(L
Now S will be
a very small quantity, probably less than 0-02
S 2 will be so small that
Hence
we may
ignore
mm so that
it.
+ 2LS = L 2 + w 2
2LS = w 2
S
= 2L
This enables us to find the amount the gauge
when we know how
far the
is
smaller than the hole
end may be rocked on either side of the centre
line.
Example
12. If a
375
mm point gauge rocked 6 mm at one end, calculate
the diameter of the hole being gauged.
w
and
^
2
The
difference (S)
if the total
32
'
*
Hence, Hole diameter
The
X 375
750
Exercises 2c
is 25 m. When
2^m
mm
= 375-012mm
radius of the vial of a spirit level
a machine
6 mm,
is
0-012mm
1.
movement
3mm
this
is
placed on the bed of
What is the end to

end error in the machine?
2. A machine bed is 1-8 m long and is tested by a level 150mm long. One division on
the level corresponds to an inclination of 0-06 mm per m. The level is transversed in
steps of its length, from the LH to the RH end of the bed, with the following results:
long, the bubble
Position of Level
Reading
(Division)
+ LH end high
- RH end high
is
from
its
central position.
1*
(continued on
p. 31)
THE MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND LARGE RADII
10
Position of Level
+ LH end high
- RH end high
Reading
(Division)
-1
11
31
12
-1
a scale diagram showing the dip in the bed to an enlarged scale, and calculate
Make
the total error.

3. If a level is to be sensitive enough to indicate 1 minute of angle by
ment of the bubble, what must be the radius of the vial?
4.
250mm
Calculate the setting of a
sine bar to
check a taper of
mm of move-
in 6
on the
diameter.
5.
100
mm
sine bar
drawing as 2636'
What
6.
is
4'.
is
used to check the inclination of a surface which is given on the

height of one plug above the other is found to be 45-03 mm.
The
the error in the angle of the surface?

sine square has 4 plugs spaced at the corners of a 125
mm square. To mark out the
template shown at Fig. 17, the template is secured to the sine square and line AB is
The square is then tilted and set to the correct
first marked parallel to two of the plugs
1
CD
BC,
the lengths x and v.
angles for marking

also
and
AD.
Calculate the settings for marking these lines and
Fig. 17
mm
mm
sine bar, the reading obtained is 122-30

an angular surface with a 200
out of alignment with the line
bar is 6
the
other.
If
the
above
one
plug
height
of
for the
of maximum slope, calculate the true angle of the surface and state the error in the
7. In testing
mm
reading.
8.
at
point gauge 500
one end.
When
it
is
mm
long,
when
tried in a bore, rocks a total
amount of 12 mm
movement is
tried in a position at 90 to the first position, the
24 mm. Calculate the mean diameter of the bore and the out of roundness.
9. A vee of 120 with a 12mm flat at its bottom is placed on a cylinder and the distance
from the flat to the curved surface of the cylinder is 2-40 mm. Calculate the diameter of
the cylinder.
32
10. In Fig. 18
and B are two spherical seating pins 14 mm diameter.

so that the distance between the circle and the
Calculate the height
setting pin
be 0-50 mm.
(A and B are true half spheres.)
shall
50
Fig. 18
11. How much rock must be allowed on a point gauge 460

be finished to 460-06
diameter?
mm
long
if
the bore
is
to
mm
The
location of points on angular surfaces
When
a component having an angular surface is shown in orthographic

projection on a drawing, only the projected view is given, and unless a
true auxiliary view is added to give particulars of points located on
the surface, some means must be found to calculate their position.
Two
or three problems of this type will be illustrated in the following
examples:
Example
13.
The plan and
elevation of a block with two holes
is
shown
in Fig. 19 (a).
Find
(a)
the centre distance of the holes,
XX
between
and AB, both dimensions as measured
on the sloping surface.
In dealing with problems of this type it is well to cultivate the sense of
visualizing lengths in 3 perpendicular directions, and also of being able
to make a rough pictorial sketch of the data. The sketch is generally
very useful in helping to show up how the problem should be treated.
(b) the angle
In Fig. 19
(b),
A and B
are the hole centres,
surface where the centre lines intersect, and
through
meets a horizontal through C.
C is a point on the sloping
D is the point where a vertical
THE LOCATION OF POINTS ON ANGULAR SURFACES
33
(b)
(a)
Fig. 19
Then
ACD:
in triangle
CD =
AC
The
centre distance
26 mm,
D=
90 and
CD
26
cos 35
0-8192
AB
is
C =
35
= 31-74mm
the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle
ABC.
AB =
2
AB =
The angle made by
26 2
31-74 2
n/1684
41-04
1684
mm
AB with the side of the block is the angle ABE and

AE =
ABC =
Sm ABE
AB
26
4T04
0-6335
/\
From which ABE =
3918
Example
14. Fig. 20 (a) shows the plan and elevation of a block in which
a hole has to be drilled, entering at the point A, and leaving at B.
Calculate the angular settings of the block for drilling.
34
Fig. 20(a)
The
Fig. 20(b)
centre line of the hole
the plan, point
of the job
is
XY in the elevation, and X,Y, in

A pictorial view
and in that diagram AC is a vertical
lettered
is
B being underneath
shown
at Fig.
20
(b),
the block as drawn.
and BC a horizontal line. For drilling the hole, the base of the block must
be set at an angle of 9, and the face containing A must be set at a, both
angles being with the vertical.
In triangle
CDB:
CD =
29 mm,
CB =
29 2
DB =
19 2
19
mm and D
90
1202
CB = ^1202 = 3467 mm
tan
AC
CB
1-5
-0-3317
34-67
1821'
tan
a =
DB
a =
33 14'
19
29
Example 15. Calculate the angular

AB shown in Fig. 21
ft
,_
- 6552
settings for drilling a hole
If
is joined to C, triangle ABC is formed and
equal to the line DE, shown on the end of the bar.
AC
is
on the line
parallel
and
DE =
and
OEsec
in triangle
45
= OE x
1-414
Hence,
bar
26 x 1-414
36-76
mm
ABC:
BC
A
AC = tanA =
from which
35
A=
if lines
52
36^76
,,
=M146
,
54 45'.
DE
and
EC
are
set at 54 45' to the horizontal
slope, a hole started at
will
marked on the
with
bar,
and the end of the
DE parallel to the line of greatest
break through
at
A.
Fig. 21
Example 16. In the drawing of the component shown at Fig. 22 (x)the

two sloping holes starting at A and B must meet at a point 10 mm from
the base of the block. Find the starting heights a and b of the angular
holes.
diagrammatic view of the base of the block is shown at Fig. 22 (y)

which the lines AB, BC and AC are assumed to be horizontal ones (i.e.
the projections of lines joining the points A, B and C).
in
36
Fig. 22
In triangle
ABD:
AB =
2
AB =
also
13
+ 16 2 - 2 x 13 x 16
+ 256 - 208 = 217
169
13
sin 60
sin
B =
B =
4951'
A =
180
sin
Hence
Since
DBC =
r-j-ss
BAC =
0-7644
14-73
+ 49 51')
(60
/\
90;
/\
also
= ._,..
13 sin 60
/\
In triangle
= 1473 mm
v^217
AB
cos 60 (cosine rule)
90
ABC; AB =
ABC =
-
709'
14-73.
90
B =
709'
4951
409'
1951'
409'
A=
1951'
C = 180 - (1951' + 409') = 120

14-73
- BC
= -: r^rr
from which BC =
irtog1
1951'
120
37
also
and
sin
also in the
The
same
5-77
mm
sin
triangle:
AC
14-73
sin 409'
sin 120
whence
centre lines of the holes of which

at 20 and 30 respectively.
AC =
10-97
mm
AC and BC are projections, slope
upwards
Hence, height of A above C = AC tan 20 = 1097 x 0-364 = 399 mm

and height of B above C = BC tan 30 = 577 x 05774 = 3-33 mm.
This completes the solution of the problem and gives us the following
data:
dimension a
dimension b
=
=
3-99
3-33
+
+
10
10
=
=
13-99
1
3-33
mm
mm
Exercises 2d
1.
straight-edge
is
placed on a surface sloping at 36 45' and
is set
at
an angle of
15 to the line of greatest slope. Calculate the inclination of the straight-edge to the
horizontal.
2. In Fig. 23 a hole is to be drilled, starting in the centre of the sloping face, and
breaking out at the corner B. Calculate the angle between the vertical plane containing
centre line
AB
^*^*^
civ?
,/
(
For
l~
of the block.
D_^t^>^
V/
3.
BCD
of the hole, and the face
Jf
51
between the centre line of the hole and the base

and breaking out in the centre of the base.
Fig. 23, calculate the angle
of the block, for a hole starting
at
Fig. 23
38
4. In Fig.
24
and B are two points on the sloping surface shown, and
parallel to the sloping edge.
sions a
and
b,
and
(iii)
Find
distance
(i)
angle line
AB makes with the horizontal,
line
AB
is
dimen-
(ii)
AB.
Fig. 24
5.
In Fig. 25, 6 holes are equally spaced, start on an 80
through on a 130
and the next.
mm
circle.
mm
pitch circle and break
Calculate the angle between the centre lines of one hole
6. In Fig. 26 find the distance a and the angle a for a hole whose centre
be tangential to the 60mm circle.
7. Calculate
height from the base to the centres of holes
the
line
and B
AB shall
in
Fig.
27.
8.
In Fig. 28 a hole
AB
A and leaves the bottom of the block at B. Find the

makes with the base of the block. Another hole is to
a plane parallel to the plane CDEF. The second hole must
starts at
length of this hole and the angle

start at
H, and be
run into the

line
drilled in
first (i.e.
it
their centre lines
must
intersect). Calculate the angle that the centre
of the second hole must make with the base.
Measurement of tapers by means of balls and rollers

Male taper with rollers (Fig. 29 (a)). If two similar rollers are placed in
contact with the taper on opposite sides as shown, then for rollers of
diameter d and centers c:
h
c tan
(1)
MEASUREMENT OF TAPERS BY MEANS OF BALLS AND ROLLERS
39
Fig. 26
165
Fig. 25
P.C.Crs.
36"
4 Holes
equally
spaced
105
Vertical height
from base
Fig. 27
Fig. 28
40
and the difference between the dimensions taken over the top and bottom
When the taper is dimensioned as 1 in a certain
length (say 1 in /) on the diameter,
pairs of rollers will be 2h.
then
- =
2/
and A
(2)
27
Fig. 29 {a).
taper given in
mm/ unit
length
may be
converted to
in
by
divi-
sion.
In some cases
of the taper, and
it
may be
if this
necessary to have a check on the diameter D

diameter is situated at a distance
from the centre
of the top pair of rollers:

In triangle
BEF:
BF =
BE
BF =
and since
COS 2'
dia of roller
=2
yop =
cos y, from which
BE
2
The
radius
EL
of the taper
-.-
GK (EG
cosy
is
parallel to the taper
centre line).
-,
T T
=
EL
D - _,
a
D
= EG tan _-
-_-
-=-
H.,,tan ya
MEASUREMENT OF TAPERS BY MEANS OF BALLS AND ROLLERS
C (centre
distance of rollers)
(d _ + D__//,
2 (BE
tan
In practice, C,
rrc
41
+ EL)
a\
\
(3)
d and H would be known,
so
we require to transpose for
D.
This gives that
-=
H tan Ta2
is
Then
and
dimensioned as
tan
or
cos
(4)
/:
27
/
(Fig. 29(A)).
COS^r
2
in
D
= -=-
z
2
a =
a
cosy
D = C+ 2#tan
and
If the taper
vTTT
D then becomes
H
D - C+-
/fv/T+72
*
(5)
Fig.
29
(6).
In practice, for the measurement of tapers in this way,
it is helpful to have
a fixture of some kind which will support the taper and provide supporting
and gauging arrangements for the rollers.
42
Example
17.
of rollers 12
shown
as
A taper of
in 10
in Fig. 30. If the reading
culate (a) the reading for the
on a
on the diameter is 80 mm long. Two pairs

it, and the spacing of the rollers is
mm dia. are used to check
circle 14
bottom
over the top rollers

rollers, (b)
is
105 mm, cal-
the diameter of the taper
mm from the top.
Fig. 30.
mm
If the top rollers are situated at 58

from the face on which the
taper and bottom rollers are resting, the roller centres will be 52
as
mm
shown
Centre distance of top rollers

formula to find h we have
h
= ^[where
=
52
~?j
i *n
2-60
105
5-2
For calculating the diameter
+ 12
C-
93,
H=
8,
d=
12,
52 and
93
mm and applying the
10]
roller will
99-8
be
mm
of AB we have from
H
and
12
mm
Hence the reading over the bottom

93
10
dV L
4- I 2
(5)
above that
CHECKING A TAPER HOLE BY MEANS OF BALLS
43
So that
D ~
=
93
93-8
12VT+100
To
10
12-012
81 -788
mm
Checking a taper hole by means of balls
For
this
it is
necessary to use two balls of different diameters which will

touching its sides. The ball sizes should be chosen to give
rest in the hole,
(c), and this may be measured by employing

a depth gauge from the top face of the hole to the top of the lower bah\
and a height or depth gauge to the top of the upper one.
a reasonable centre distance
Fig. 31
Generally, the dimensions R,
r,
and h
in Fig. 31
would be known, and
we require to derive formulae for finding a and D.

E is the point where the ball contacts with the side
is
of the hole and
BC
parallel to the side of the taper.
Then
in triangle
ABC:
AB
so that
cy
C =
AC
AC
AB
r (since
CE =
r),
sin
which enables us to
and B
90,
find the angle
j
=
.a
Sin fr
(6)
a of the
taper.
44
If the taper
dimensioned as
is
on the diameter, then from
in /
Fig. 29 (b),
R -
and from above,
sin^2
^TTT
vTTT
vJTT =
2
Square both
2(R
- rY
sides:
4{R
from which
4(i?
and
'
r)
- J c2 ~(R -
c2
r)
c*
,/
- Vc2 ~ (R ~
2{R - r)
r) 2
(7)
To obtain an expression for the top diameter

consider triangles AEF and
of the hole
we must
FGH
and
==
2(AF + GH)
= 2ÂE
= 26?
For a taper of
sec
and
becomes
Example
in
j=
sec
sec
j + FG tan y J [since E = G =
y+
Atan
90]
(8)
f)
on the diameter
*
+ F and
tan
?V ' +
|=
/2
+ Al
[Fig. 29 (6)]
(9)
18. In a check on a taper hole, using the symbols and method

given in Fig. 31, the following results were obtained:
CHECKING A TAPER HOLE BY MEANS OF BALLS
R =
15 mm, r
mm,
12-5
37-4
mm and h
7-3
45
mm.
Calculate the total angle of taper and the top diameter.
Here we have from above,
that sin
15
~
This gives
y=
3 50'
and a
12-5
y=
= 00668
37-4
7 40'.
D = 2(rscc^ +
/itan^J
sec^= 10022
tan
D =
j=
2(15
00670
x 10022 + 73 x 00670) =
3 1-04
mm
Exercises 2e
1.
Calculate the diameter
and the included angle of the taper
for the case
shown in
Fig. 32.
Fig. 33
Fig. 32
2.
(See
For the gauge shown

Example 22, p. 52.)
in Fig.
33 calculate the centre height
H between the two balls.
46
3. Calculate,
are
all
4.
20
shown
for the set-up
in Fig. 34, the
dimensions
A and
B.
(The
rollers
mm dia.)
For the example shown
the centre distance
of the
Total.
1
in
in Fig.
rollers.
35,
Find
make up an
H when D
expression connecting
with
77 mm.
Taper
20
'777777777777?77777777)(7777777777777777777
58
-A
<p
Two 20 Rollers
Fig. 34
5.
hole
an expression
fit
of diameter
in
terms of
Fig. 35
has two equal plugs, B, which just
for the
diameter
d,
into the spaces left (Fig. 36).
Find d when
D=
80 mm.
Fig. 36
6.
In Fig. 37 the three radii blend together.
Calculate the angle a.
fit
into
it.
of two more plugs C, which
Fig. 37
Obtain
will just
WIRE MEASUREMENT OF SCREW THREADS
47
Wire measurement of screw threads

For the fundamental accurate measurement of a screw thread such as
is necessary in turning taps and screw gauges, the method employing 3
wires is a very useful one. The wires are arranged as shown in Fig. 38 (a).
We will work out a general case, and in Fig. 38 (b) is shown a wire,
radius r, resting in a sharp pointed thread of angle a, pitch/? and effective
mean) diameter E The wire size is not important, providing the

three are the same diameter, touch at the flat portion of the thread, and
are large enough to project above the thread for gauging. The best results
(or
Fig. 38
(a)
(*)
the wires touch the thread at the effective

diameter, and for this reason the wires should be near to the following
are obtained, however,
if
diameters:
For ISO Metric and Unified d = 0-577 p

d = 0-564 p
For Whitworth
In Fig. 38
(b),
AD
AB
cosec
y =
cosec
=-
H DE cot y = f cot 7
CD =
h
\H = 4
AD - CD =
cot
cosec
j - j cot
-x-
48
and distance over wires (W)
= DE +
2h
= de +
2 r cosec
= DE +
2r(\
= DE +
d\l
2r
we
will
2r
+cosec^-|cot|
+ cosec
Having established
thread,
f ~ f cot y) +
2)~J cot f
wnere d =
this general formula,
determine
its
dia.
of wires)
which may be applied to any

most common
special adaptation for the
thread forms.
(a)
ISO
metric and unified (Fig. 39)
DE = D -
Here
a =
cosec
y=
Z)
= D -
2(0-325/>)
60
coty =
1-732
+ d (1 +
cosec
0-65p
W{over wires)
COt
-y J
= D -0-65p + 43)- | (1-732)

= D + 3d - 1-516/j
-p
<
6l
'^fr-^Vv
6
'
Fig. 39
ISO metric and
unified
Fig.
40
Whitworth
CHECKING THE THREAD ANGLE OF A SCREW
(b)
49
Whitworth (Fig. 40).
Here the depth of thread
a =
Also since
= DE +
fF(over wires)
=
=
Example
19.
Z)
^=
d(l
0-64/?
55
cosec-y
cot
DE = D -
so that
is 0-64/7,
2-1657
1-921
cosec
0-64/?
3-1657rf
-y]
y cot -y
</(3-1657)
L 1921
l-60/>
Determine the measurement over wires
for the following
cases:
(a)
Af30 x
(b)
(a)
M30 x
ISO metric
3-5
in dia.
10
t.p.i.
using wires 2
ISO metric using
3.5
30, d=
.-.
W=
=
(b)
in dia.
10
t.p.i.
in dia.
2mm wires.
W=D
D=
mm dia.
Whitworth using wires 0-062
+ 3d -
1-516/?
2 and/)
3-5
30+
30-694
1-516
3-5
mm
Whitworth using 0-062 wires

+ 3-1657rf- 1-60/7
W= D
D=
\,d
W=
=
= 01
x 0-062 -
0-062 and/)
1
3-1657
1-60
0-1
1-036 in.
Checking the thread angle of a screw

By taking measurements over two sets of wires of different diameters
a check on the thread angle may be made. The underlying theory of this
is similar to that given on page 43 for the measurement of taper holes
by means of two
balls.
50
Miscellaneous problems in measurement
Examples
in
gauging and measurement are so
many and
varied that
it is
impossible to establish set rules for application to every problem. If the
fundamental rules of geometry and trigonometry are known thoroughly

nearly always possible to apply some of them to the solution of the
problem. The following miscellaneous examples will serve to indicate
it is
methods of dealing with problems of a
possible
similar type.
Example 20. Two 25 mm circles centres D and B, touch a 100 mm circle,

and their centres subtend an angle of 50 at its centre. Find the diameter of
a circle which will touch the other three. The problem is shown at Fig. 41
and we require to obtain the diameter of circle C
Fig. 41
If
and B are joined and
AC =
50
r;
CB =
triangle
12-5
r,
ABC
AB =
Applying the cosine rule for triangle
is
considered,
62-5 and
we
have:
A = 25 (r = radofC)
ABC
CB 2 = AC 2 + AB 2 - 2AC.AB
cos A"
Substituting the values from above gives us

(12-5
a-)
(50
r)
(62-5)
2(50
r)(62.5)(0-9063)
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS IN MEASUREMENT
51
Multiplying out the brackets gives:

156-3
eliminate r
25r
= 2500 +
from both
25r
lOOr
sides
lOOr
and
+ 3906 - 5664 - 11329r
collect terms
2500
38-29r
=
=
585-7
13-29 r
+ 3906 - 5664 -
15-29
38-29
giving a circle of 2
15-29
mm
= 30-58mmdia
From a piece of round material 40 mm radius, a piece 50 mm
Example
21.
radius
cut as
is
156-3
585-7
shown
in Fig. 42.
Find the distance x
Fig. 42
AC
AB =
If
and
59,
also
BC
are joined as
shown
in the figure,
AC = 40 and BC = 50
AC = AB + BC - 2AB.BC
2
cos D
B
cos
then in triangle ABC:
(cosine rule)
5-9 + 5 -4 2
,.
= AB + ^BC -AC =
(working
2 AB.BC
2x5-9x5
2
43-81
0-7425
59
A = 423'
B
If
CD is 1
r to
AB, then
DB = CB
cos B = 50 cos 423'

= 50 x 0-7425 = 37- 125 mm
x = AB - DB = 59 - 37-125 =
21 -875
mm
in
cm)
52
Example
22.
A profile gauge is as shown by ABCD in Fig. 43. Two plugs
are placed in the gauge and dimension h
required as a check.
is
Fig. 43
HN
is
be able to determine
h.
it.
HM are drawn parallel to AB and PG in per-
EF and
In the diagram,
pendicular to
a horizonatl
CK
In triangle
JCG:
line,
26 x tan 32
JCG =
and
if
we can
16-25
find
GN we shall
mm
^ = 61, JG = 12-5 and JC = JG cot 61 =

12-5 cot 61
= 6-93mm
ALB: LB = ALtan24 = 26 tan 24 = 11.57mm

In triangle JGF: JF = JG tan 24 = 12-5 tan 24 = 5-56 mm
FC = JC - JF = 6-93 - 5-56 = 1.37mm
BF = LK - (LB + FC + CK) = 51 - (11-57 + 1-37 + 16-25) = 21-81 mm
In triangle
GP = BF
PM =
cos 24
21-81 cos 24
GH
cos
/\
GM
= -p^Y
HGM
Grl
/\
/\
Now HGN = PGN and since
PGN =
12-01
1Zr
W1
20-5
HG
HGN
cos
Distance h
12-5
mm
12-01
20-5
mm
mm
/\
0-5858 and
HGM = 548'
/\
+24 =
90
20-01
HGM
.HGN =
GN
GM = 20-01
rad of small plug so that

= sum of plug radii
114
114
54
8'
59 52'
= 20-5 cos 59 52' = 20-5 x 0-5020 =

= [JG + GN + rad of small plug] - 26
= 12-5 + 10-29 + 8-26
= 4-79 mm
10-29
mm
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS IN MEASUREMENT
Example
23.
For the turned part shown
may
so that the diameter at the throat
in Fig. 44, calculate the radius (/?)
be
20mm
shown.
as
Fig.
The
radius
53
44
blends into the 20 angular portion, and into the 20
mm
radius, spherical end.
We have to construct and solve an equation to give us R.

DC is drawn perpendicular to AB, and DF is drawn to the point where
R blends into the 20 angular portion so that FDE = 20 GFE is parallel
.
to
AB.
Then we have
GF = GH
that
GF + FE
+ CB = AB = 51 mm.
= (AH - AG) cot 20 = (AH - CE)
cot 20
= [AH - (CD - DE)] cot 20

= [19 - {(/? + 10) - R cos 20}] cot 20
= [19 - R - 10 + 0-9397/?] cot 20
= [9 -0-0603/?] cot 20
= 24-73 -0-166/?
FE = /? sin 20 = 0342/?
CB = VDB 2 - DC 2 = V(R +
20)
Hence equating (GF + FE + CB)

24-73
and
this
0-166/?
0-342/?
to
+ V(R +
(/?
AB =
20)
10)
51
(/?
10)
reduces to
V(R +
Square both
20)
(/?
10)
26-27
0-176/?
sides:
(/?
20)
(/?
10)
(26-27
0-176/?) 2
51
cot 20 c
54
i.e.
by squaring out the brackets
R 2 + 40R +
- R 2 - 20R -
400
100
Collecting and re-arranging on the i?H side:

0-03 IR 2 - 29-25.R + 390-1
This
is
690-1
25R + 0-03LR 2
=*
a quadratic equation in R, and can be solved by the formula
method.
R=
29-25
V29-25 2 - 4 x
0-031
390-1
2 x 0-031
From which R = 930

The smaller
Hence
root,
or 13-55
R=
13-55
is
R =
obviously the one

13-55
we
require
mm
Exercises 2f
1.
Calculate the diameter over wires for the following screw threads:
M20 x
M36 x
(a)
(b)
(c)
2.
ISO metric over 0-577/>mm wires

ISO metric over 0-577pmm wires
X lOt.p.i. Whitworth over 0-564/? wires
fin
2-5
screw thread has the form and angle shown
in Fig. 45. Calculate the reading
mm plugs placed in opposite threads.
over 8
n pitch
J.
7&4
\Lj2
Fig. 45
3.
wedge
wedge
is level,
rests
between two radiused jaws as shown
in Fig. 46.
When the top
of the
calculate the distance H.
4. Solve the previous problem,
when
the radius on the right-hand side jaw
is
mm.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBELMS
5. In
Example
3,
if
the
wedge has an included angle of
angle of 10, calculate the distance

6.
H to
its
40,
IN
and
MEASUREMENT
is tilted
through an
higher corner.
Calculate the distance from the centre of the circle (O) to the centre of the 20
plug placed in the
slot
shown
55
mm
in Fig. 47.
Fig. 48
7. Fig. 48 shows the profile of a die form.

width d at the narrowest portion.
From
the information given, calculate the
Fig. 49
8.
From
the information given in Fig. 49 calculate the width
W of the profile shown.
Calculations for cutting,

turning and boring
Speed and feed range
The reader
will,
no doubt, be acquainted with the meaning of speed and
feed in connection with turning and boring operations.
The driving arrangements of machine tools usually make provision

number of speeds and feeds, so that a suitable one may be chosen
for the work in hand. The reader will probably be curious as to how these
for a
are determined. In the case of spindle speeds, the highest and lowest
speeds in the range are generally related to the extremes of size for which
the machine is designed. For example: a lathe might be designed to take a
rr.nge of
work varying from
10
cutting speed of 22 m/min, this
N=
XT
mm to 250 mm diameter.
would
1000 x 22 x 7
77j
22 x 10
1000 x 22
n x T7
10
as being suitable for the
10mm
Allowing for a
give for the top speed:
_
700
rev/min
diameter work.
For the lowest speed:
N=
XT
These
will
1000 x 22
X 250
1000 x 22 x 7
22 x 250
28 rev/min
and if we assume there

must be chosen and
the intermediate speeds being so calculated that the whole
be the highest and lowest
in the range,
are eight speeds altogether, six intermediate speeds

fitted in,
some regular order.

One method of arranging the speeds would be to make them in straight
line form, in which each speed would be the same amount greater than the
series
is
in
one below it. In this case, as there are

would be:
8 speeds
and 7
interval
Top speed bottom speed _ 700

7
28
_
-
672
_
-
_,
*&
intervals,
each
SPEED AND FEED RANGE
and the speeds would

1st
57
be:
28 rev/mm, 2nd 28
3rd 124
96
+ 96 =
124 rev/min
220 rev/min
and so on.
700 -
If these
and the
4
5
6
Speed Number
Fig. 50
were plotted on a graph, the result would be as shown in Fig.

is known as an Arithmetic Progression.
50,
series
In practice, speeds arranged in this
way
are not suitable, as the steps
between the speeds at the lower end (28 rev/min, 124 rev/min, 220 rev/min)
are too great, whilst at the upper end of the range (700, 604, 508 rev/min,
etc.) a larger interval value could be tolerated without inconvenience.
To overcome these objections and provide a convenient range of
speeds, they are generally arranged in Geometric Progression. When
arranged in this way, instead of each speed being a constant amount
greater than the one below it, the speed is a constant multiple of the one
below it. The calculation for determining speeds arranged in geometric
progression is as follows:
Considering the case we have taken, where the extremes are 28 and
700 rev/min with 8 speeds.
The 2nd speed
will
be a constant amount multiplied by the
1 st,
3rd will be the same constant multiplied by the 2nd, and so on.
Let this constant be denoted by K.
Then
1st
speed
2nd speed
3rd speed
4th speed
= 28
= 28 X K = 28AT
= 28*: x K = 2SK 2
= 2SK 2 x K = 2SK
and so on to the 8th speed, which we can see
will
be 2%K\
and the
CALCULATIONS FOR CUTTING, TURNING AND BORING
58
Now the
8th speed
is
700 rev/min, so that
2SK = 700
1
ZD
K
Hence we have
--
v/25
st
speed
28
No
1-584
25
Log.
7)1-397 9(0-1997)
28 rev/min
2nd speed = 28 x 1-584 = 44 rev/min

3rd speed
The speeds arranged

51,
and
their
in
44 x 1-584
70 rev/min, and so on.
geometric pregression are shown plotted in Fig.

straight-line arrangement is shown in
comparison with the
the table below.
The reader will observe
that the geometric arrangement
bottom of the range and wider ones

more useful under application.
gives closer intervals at the
top which
is
Speed
Arithmetic
Geometric
Progression
Progression
rev/min
rev/min
28
28
124
44
220
70
316
111
412
176
508
279
604
442
700
700
700-
4
5
6
Speed Number
at the
Fig. 51
We
might put a geometric progression
in general
follows:
Let
A = 1st term
A 2 = 2nd term
x
A n = nth term
K = constant multiplier
n = number of terms
symbolic form as
SPEED AND FEED RANGE
=
=
=
=
1 st term
2nd term
3rd term
nth term
(i.e. if n
A2 = A K
A = A K = A,K 2
A n = A K"
= 8, then the index of K is 8 - 1 = 7).
Hence
A n =A,Kn ~
if
*- = d* and
1
In an example, A,
would enable
Example
if
59
= J45
An and n would be given and the expression above
K to be
found and the whole
series calculated.
Calculate a suitable range of six speeds for a drilling machine,
the size range of the machine
a cutting speed of 22 m/min
is
is
to be from 2-5
to be given.
mm to 10 mm drills and
Show a speed table with suitable
each speed.
drill size for
We have that N =
IQO0S
-3 where jV
S =
d =
For the top speed
(2-5
1000 X 22
*X2.5 =
Drill diameter.
1000 x 22 x 7
22 x 2-5
0Qnn
= 2800rev/min
.xlO =
fa
1000 x 22 x 7
22 x 10
_
= 70
rev/mm
.
72800
=Jf =a/^ = >/4

No.
4
Log.
5)0.6021(0-1204
Antilog 0-1204
We may now calculate
1-319
the range of speeds as follows:
= 700 rev/min
2nd speed = 700 x 1-319 = 924 rev/min
3rd speed = 924 x 1-319 = 1220 rev/min
1st
drill)
1000 x 22
AT (the multiplier)
Cutting speed (m/min).
mm drill)
Lowest speed (10 mm

Nl
Spindle speed (rev/min).
speed
K.
60
4th speed
5th speed
6th speed
=
=
=
1220
1610
x
x
= 1610rev/min
= 2120rev/min
= 2800rev/min
1-319
1-319
2120 x 1-319
The relationship between the speeds and the drill sizes they will accommodate may now be calculated:
mm
Nearest 0-25
1st
700rev/min suitable for 10
speed,
mm drill
10mm
700
924rev/min suitable for 10 x q~j
2nd speed,
3rd speed, 1220rev/min suitable for 10 x

4th speed, 1610rev/min suitable for 10 X
Spindle Speed (rev/min)

Suitable
drill
diameter (mm)
4-25
mm
700
700
2120
mm drill
is
mm
1610
6th speed, 2800rev/min suitable for 2-5
diameter table
5-75
700
drill
mm
1220
5th speed, 2120rev/min suitable for 10
The speed and
7-5
mm
2- 5 mm
3-25
shown below.
700
924
1220
1610
2120
2800
100
7-5
5-75
4-25
3-25
2-5
Feeds
The
factors governing the choice of feed-range limits is rather beyond

our scope, but when the limits of the range have been fixed, together
with the number of intermediates in the range, the steps usually follow
the rules for geometric progression in the same way as the speeds.
1.
lathe
is
Exercises 3a
work varying from 25 mm
operating on a range of
to
250mm diameter.
Allowing for a cutting speed of 22m/min, calculate the highest and lowest speeds
necessary. If there are 8 speeds in the complete range, find the range of speeds if they
are in geometric progression. Make out a table showing the most suitable diameter to
be turned on each speed.
2.
drill
has 4 speeds and
Calculate the four speeds
if
speed table. Cutting speed
drills
a range of holes from 2
mm
they are in geometric progression, and
16-5m/min.
to 6
make
mm
drill
diameter.
diameter
CUTTING TOOL LIFE
For Ques.
3.
60 plot a graph showing spindle speeds
p.
61
and speed number
vertical,
horizontal.
On
4.
400mm
stroke single-pulley,
turns of the driving pulley required to
were found to be as
all-geared
shaping machine the number of
make one complete double
stroke of the
ram
follows:
1st
speed, 27 turns
2nd speed, 16 turns
a
*u
Assuming
the
ratio
3rd speed,
8 turns
4th speed,
4 turns
Cutting time
-=
^.
Return time
to
be
1-25
and to remain constant, estimate a

'
suitable pulley speed to give an average cutting speed of
and on the longest stroke.

With this pulley speed,
5.
The
find the
most suitable stroke
highest spindle speed for a small lathe
llm/min
for
in the lowest gear
each of the other speeds.
1500 rev/min. In order to obtain a

holes in brass, a drill head is mounted
is
some 3 mm
on the carriage, and driven in the opposite direction to the spindle. At what speed
must the drilling spindle be driven to give a cutting speed of 66 m/min?
suitable cutting speed for drilling
Cutting tool
As
life
its work it becomes blunted, and a time ultimately

must be taken out and re-sharpened. The life of the tool
between the times of re-grinding is influenced by the severity of its
treatment whilst it is cutting. Depending upon circumstances, there is a
best economic tool life for every tool; if the cutting duty is made such as
a cutting tool does
arrives
when
it
to allow the tool to last longer than the best economic time, then it is
cutting below an efficient rate and is doing less work then it might. On
the other hand,

it
to
if its
become blunted
pense and
lost
performance is raised to a level such as to cause

in less than the economic time, then undue ex-
time are being incurred in the additional sharpening and
re-setting necessary.
The problem of tool life and of cutting generally is rather complicated

and indeterminate, since there are so many variable factors involved.
From
experimental data, however, cutting speed and tool

found to conform roughly to the following rule:
VT =
where
C,
V = Cutting speed in metres per minute

T ~ Corresponding life in minutes
C = A constant depending on cutting conditions
life
have been
62
to \ for roughing cuts in steel
12
>
for light cuts in steel
J_
10
for
roughing cuts
The above values of n

tool shape, use of cutting
in steel
~ :j ^ ;,
carbide
tools.
are only approximate and are influenced by
compound,
us to estimate probable tool
Example
for roughing cuts in cast iron
life
as
The above relationship enables

shown in the following examples:
etc.
When operating with roughing cuts on
mild steel at 20m/min

of 3 hours between re-grinds. Estimate the life of
this tool on similar cuts at a speed of 30m/min.
In the VT" = C expression for this case we will take n = .
The first step is to calculate the value of the constant C.
We have that when V = 20, T = 180 min and n = \.
2.
a certain tool gave a
life
C=
Hence
20 x 1801
Taking logs
No.
T
LogC=log20+
,
log 180
180
180r
8~
20
1-5829
log
8)2-2553
^02819
1-3010
1-5829
Antilog 1-5829
Hence we may
write:
38-27
C.
VT* = 38-27
We now require T when
V=
307^
30
38-27
Tk = 2*Z =
T=
T=
=
(1-2757)
1.2757
8
antilog 0-8456
7-008, say 7 min.
No.
Log
1-2757
0-1057
8_
0-8456
TOOL CUTTING ANGLES
Example
grinds
probable
ing,
3.
A tool cutting at 20m/min
when
and
life
fo
hour between reWhat will be its

cuts? [Taken = for rough-
gave a
life
of
operating on roughing cuts with mild
when engaged on light
finishing
63
steel.
for finishing cuts.]
Here we have
for roughing:
= C
1-5233 = 33-38
20 x 60i
C =
antilog
No.
log
60
8)l-7782(
60i
0-2223
20
1-3010
1-5233
Applying to the finishing conditions

20 x
n- ^
3
T =
n=
(1-669)
33-38
1-669
10
No.
log
1-669
0-2225
(1-669)
T=
antilog 2-225
10
2-225
167-9, say 168 min.
Tool cutting angles
The
principal angles
these are
shown
on a cutting tool are
its
rakes and clearances, and
in Fig. 52.
Side Rake
Front (Top)
Rake
Front
Clearance
Side
Clearance
Fig. 52
The choice of suitable

cut,
cutting angles depends upon the material being

and the reader should look up particulars in books dealing with
64
Workshop Technology.
We might consider here the effect on the cutting
angles of various tool settings.
When
a tool
is
cutting a circular bar of material
a radial line drawn from the centre of the

in Fig. 53(a) the tool
it is
cutting relative to the line
is
operating relative to
work to the
cutting point.
OA.
Thus
If the tool point
is
of the work the line OA is horizontal and the cutting

angles operating are the true values put on the tool.
If, however, the tool point is placed above or below the centre, the
cutting angles will be modified since the line OA is not now horizontal.
is
level with the centre
Top Rake
Top Rake (r)
i_
^Clearance
Clearance(c)
Fig. 53(a).
Fig. 53(6).
In Fig. 53 (b) the tool point is
The
line
we have
that sin
The top rake

the total angle
tool
is
shown a distance h above the work centre.
OA is now tilted up an angle a, and if R is the radius of the work

a =
-=-
angle of cutting will be increased by the angle a, and since
/5
has not changed the clearance will be reduced by a. If the
put very high, the clearance will be so reduced that
altogether and the tool will rub instead of cut. If the tool
is
it
will vanish
placed below
the centre the effects are opposite, the rake being decreased and the
clearance increased.
We might calculate the effect on the cutting angles of
a numerical example.
mm
4. A bar of material 60
diameter is being turned with a tool
having 20 top rake and 6 front clearance. Calculate (a) the cutting
Example
angles
tool
when
the tool
is
2-5
must be above centre
mm
above centre, and
for the clearance to
(b) the
become
amount the
zero.
TOOL CUTTING ANGLES
The
conditions are as
(a) sin
^^^J^
From which a =
shown
65
at Fig. 53 (b).
0-0833.
4 47'.
The rake is increased and the clearance decreased by this amount.

Thus the rake becomes 20 + 4 47' = 24 47' and the clearance becomes 6 - 4 47' = 1 13'.
(b) If the clearance
sin
a =
to vanish, then angle
^7j-and since sin 6
0-1045
is
a must be
6.
0-1045
*j-
= 30 x 01045
= 3-14mm
Exercise 3b
had a life between regrinds of 2 hours when

20m/min. If the relationship between life and speed is given by VT = C, calculate C, and estimate the tool life at a speed of 15m/min.
2. For the tool in Question 1, plot a graph of tool life-cutting speed over a range of
speeds from 30m/min to 15m/min.
3. For a certain tool it was found that the relationship between speed and tool life was
given by VFi = 50. Estimate the cutting speed to give a time of 2 hours between re1.
certain tool
when
cutting cast iron
cutting at
grinding.
4. If the relationship for high-speed steel tools
tools
VT = Q, and
5
assuming that
at
is
VT* = C and
for tungsten carbide
a speed of 25m/min the tool
life
was
3 hours in
each case, compare their cutting lives at 35m/min.

5. For a certain tool it was found that the relationship between cutting speed (K)and
tool life (T) was as follows:
T in
V and
T when V =
25m/min.
and a clearance of 7 Calculate the modified
below centre on a bar 44 mm diameter.
values of these angles when the tool is cutting 3
7. When turning a bar 50 mm diameter, how much above centre may a tool with a
clearance of 6 be set before the clearance vanishes? When the tool is in this position, what
is the effective value of the top rake, if the rake on the tool is 15?
8. A boring tool 10mm deep is required to bore out holes to 40mm diameter. If the
body of the tool is horizontal, how much clearance will be necessary if the bottom corner
Express
6.
terms of
find
cutting tool has a top rake of 20
mm
of the tool
is
to clear?
66
9. If the clearance face

in Fig. 54, calculate
of the tool in Question 8
the angles
a and
is
made
with two angles as shown
for the tool to clear the hole.
/5
Fig. 54
10.
The
tool
50
mm
is
12mm
diameter boring bar
is
concentric with a 72
mm hole which
is
being bored.
square and passes through the centre of the bar. Calculate the tool angles
necessary so that the cutting rake shall be 10, and the clearance 6.
Taper turning
When a tapered
face
is
or formed surface
is
being turned the accuracy of the sur-
influenced by the position of the tool point relative to the centre
of the work. The conditions in the case of taper work are shown in
Fig. 55 (a) If the tool is set on the centre, and its movement controlled so
.
as to turn the correct taper,

line
AB,
it
starts at
A, and when
it
has travelled the
the correct taper has been produced.
End View
Fig. 55
If,
now, instead of being on the centre, the tool
centre and starts at C,
same
it
circle as B, the length
CD
is
a distance h below
CD, and if D is on the

is greater than AB. The tool being set to
will travel
along the line
*-
TAPER TURNING
move
67
AB will therefore not reach the point D, and conA and C are on the same circle, the top diameter of the taper
the distance
sequently
if
than it should be. The reader will probably appreciate the

if he considers the extreme case of the tool being at E and
travelling parallel to AB. In such a case, if the tool could cut in this position, it would not turn a true taper, but would produce a tapered shape
be
will
less
point better
faintly
hollow in form.
In order to follow the problem mathematically we will show an enlarged
diagram (Fig. 55
The
(6)).
tool starts at
and moves out the distance CF, equal to AB.
turns the end of the bar to radius

it
will only attain
OF = R
Let the work be
If it
OB = R
instead of reaching the radius
r,
long as shown in Fig. 55 (a).
True taper = -*
Actual taper obtained
An attempt to reduce R
'
to an expression in terms of the other quantities
awkward terms, and cases will be best evaluated from the

information available Such an example is illustrated as follows:
involves rather
Example
move
the
5.
In turning a taper of
in 6
on the diameter, the
the correct angle relative to the work, but
work
is
32
mm diameter at the small end,
is
4mm
tool
is
set to
below centre. If
calculate the actual taper
obtained.
we assume the work to be 60 mm

be 32 + 10 = 42 and we shall have
Referring to Fig. 55 (b),

the large diameter will
if
16
long, then
mm
R = 21mm
h
The
tool, starting at
where
OC =
4mm
16 mm, will
move out
CF = 21mm.
We require the distance OF.

OF = FG + OG =
2
But
FC =
.-.
(FC + CG) 2 +
and
OG
OF =
2
(5
OG
+ CG) 2 + 4 2
to
F where
68
CG = CO - OG
2
But
CG =
Hence
v/240~ =
16 2
42
240
15-49
OF =
2
(5 + 1549) + 4
= 2049 + 4 = 435-8
OF = \/43T8~= 20-88
2
The top diameter of the taper will therefore be 2 x 20-88

of 42mm.
Since the bottom diameter
is
Actual taper
H
This gives a taper of
32
mm and length 60 mm
41-76
60
32
= 41-76 instead
= 9^6
60
in 6-15.
Form tools
For turning forms from the cross-slides of turret and automatic lathes and
sometimes from centre lathes as well, a tool is used which gives the
correct form on the work. If the tool is set on centre as shown in Fig. 56,
it must have the correct form in plane OAB. Since, however, the tool
must have clearance as shown, lengths such as BC, taken perpendicular
to the front clearance face will be less than lengths such as AB taken
on the horizontal, and the form of the tool on a plane parallel to BC will
be different from its form on AB When the tool is being made, the shaping
and other machining operations are carried out parallel to the clearance
face, so that for the purpose of making the tool it may be necessary to
determine its form when taken on a plane such as BC, perpendicular to
.
the front clearance face.
^Clearance
Fig. 56
FORM TOOLS
69
We shall best illustrate the method of determining the modified form of

the tool in planes perpendicular to the front clearance face by working one
or two examples:
Example
6.
tool
is
shown in Fig. 57 (a) on its top

determine and sketch the form on
to have the form
horizontal face. If the clearance
is
10,
a plane perpendicular to the front clearance face.
15
10
72
15
7-;i
10
^
/
i.
V
r
55 -
55
11
(a)
e)
IF2>
Fig. 57
In Fig. 57 (a) horizontal dimensions will not be affected, but vertical
dimensions will be shortened in the ratio of
/\
ABC
is
equal to the clearance angle,
cos 10
gp =
AB
=
BC
-j-tt
in Fig. 56,
and since
cos of clearance angle
0-9848
Hence the 11-2 in dimensions become 11-2 x 0-9848 = 11-03

the 45 angle will become a triangle as shown in Fig. 57 (b).
tan
A = -^- =
1-0154.
From which
A=
mm and
45 26'
11-03
Hence the
revised sketch of the tool profile taken along the clearance
shown in Fig. 57 (c).

the form of the tool incorporates circular shapes the problem
rather more involved, since the effect of shortening the depth
face will be as
When
becomes
but not the width converts the circular form into a portion of an
ellipse.
70
Example 1 Calculate and sketch the form of the

.
tool
shown
in Fig. 58 (a)
when taken perpendicular to the front clearance of 12j

As before, the vertical dimensions are shortened in the
clearance angle cosine,
We thus have
cos 12|
i.e.
x 0-9763 =
x 0-9763 =
12-8
8
ratio
of the
0-9763.
mm
mm
12-50
7-81
and for the 15 mm radius,
X 0-9763 = 14.64mm
15
The base of the 20 angle is shortened to 0-9763 of its original length,

if we divide the tangent of 20 by 0-9763 we shall have the tangent
so that
of the modified angle

tan 20
Q976 3
0-364
0-3728
tan of modified angle
The sketch of the modified
12-5
116
88
30
profile
2-8 8
shown
tan 20 27'
at Fig. 58 (b)
^C20
is
iM
(a)
75
12-5 11-6
30
_8_-8
Elliptical
Form
Fig. 58
The finishing of the elliptical form given to the circular portion is apt to
be troublesome, but such a shape can be produced on a grinding wheel
by trimming it with a radius forming attachment set off centre. This is
shown
in Fig. 58 (c),
and
if
the radius truing attachment
is set
with the
FORM TOOLS WITH "TOP RAKE"
71
CDE will trim the wheel to a semicircle,

15 mm rad., in that plane. Since AB is less than CD, the true form of the
wheel on a radial plane such as ABO will be elliptical, because the width
diamond
rotating in plane
it
of the wheel at B = width at D. The semi-minor axis of the elliptical

= 30 mm.
form will be AB = FD, and the major axis will be 2 x 15
wheel
to the
the
imparted
by
one
the
plane
is
radial
on
a
the
profile
As
work we can, by forming the wheel in this way, obtain the required
elliptical shape for the tool in question and we require to determine h
mm
order that when CD = 15 mm, FD will be 14-64 mm.

Let us assume a grinding whell of 200mm radius, and consider the
problem from the aspect of two intersecting chords of a circle.
in
FD.DH = CD.DG
Then
But
FD =
1464,
Hence
and
DH
= 400 -
14-64
DG =
(14-64) (385-36)
= 15.DG
14- 64 x 385-36
, mm
= 376-1
CG =
3761 +
h2
42
15
= 3911
^- =
391-1
= R - CE =
2
15
rr
CE = CG =
But
from which h
= 38536 and CD =
195-55
200 2
195-55 2
1760
mm
Hence by trimming the wheel to a
15
mm radius in a plane 42 mm off-
centre, the required elliptical form will be produced.
Form
rake"
put on the cutting face of a form tool the cutting effect of
the tool is rather curious, because for the purpose of obtaining an accurate
relative reproduction of the tool form on the work, the tool, at the finish
of the cut, must have its top face lying on a radial line. This is shown at
tools with "top
If back slope
Fig. 59 (a),
is
where the tool is shown at the completion of its cut, and its
on the radial line OA. The reader will notice that at this
top face lies
position the effective top rake
tangent BC, which
When
(b),
and
is
is
this tool starts its cut,

it
will
zero, since the tool
perpendicular to
be seen that
if
is
cutting relative to
OA.
however, the conditions are as shown
the back slope
a on the
tool
is
at
made large
72
enough, the tool
will start cutting
with an effective top rake
of/3
= a - S.
As the
tool feeds in, this rake will gradually get less until, as we have seen
above, there is zero rake at the final position. The reader will notice that
a tool of this type must be set below the centre by the amount h, where
h
- =
The
a and
smallest radius being turned.
calculation for the modified form to
a tool should be
that the angle
In Fig. 59
The
sin
made
(c),
on
is
which the front face of such
similar to that we have already dealt with, except
a must be taken
tool finishes
are put
is
into account.
the back-slope angle and c the clearance.
its
parallel to
cut relative to face
AB, but the depths of the form
AD (i.e. along CB).
Hence a length AB on the top of the tool will correspond to CB, perpendicular to the clearance face.
In triangle
ABC: C =
90 and
CB = AB
Hence depths
in the
A^Sb = a +
cos (a
c).
form must be shortened
in the ratio
of cos (a
+ c).
CIRCULAR FORM TOOLS
Fig. 60
Circular
Form
73
Tool.
Circular form tools
On some types of automatic lathes forming is done from the cross-slide by

circular form tool, a sketch of which is shown at Fig. 60.
These tools have the advantage that the form may be turned on their
rim and they may be used all round the rim by continual re-sharpenings.
Cutting clearance is obtained by making the cutting edge AB some
distance h below the centre, and the tool is applied to the work as shown
at Fig. 61 The clearance angle a is then the angle CAO and
means of a
sin
a =
AO Tool radius
and h = r sin a
(r)
Fig. 61
74
Gashing the tool in this way results in a variation between the form
it and the form it imparts to the work, because a radial depth
DB on the tool will turn a depth AB on the work. Widths on the form are
unaffected, and corrections for depths may be calculated as follows,
where d = a depth on the tool and / = corresponding depth on work.
turned on
From
the property of intersecting chords of a circle
DB.BF = ABBE.
d; BF = 2r - d; AB - /
=
BE AE / = 2r cos a I
d(2r - d) = l{2r cos a - I)
DB =
But
and
Hence
which reduces to a quadratic equation
d2 in
which
The
all
2rd
in
l(2r cos
the quantities except
are
as follows:
a -
I)
known.
following example will illustrate the application of this.
8. A circular form tool, 100 mm diameter, is to be made to

produce the form shown in Fig. 62 (a). If the gashing is to give a cutting
clearance of 10, determine the form to be turned on its periphery.
Example
m
7-5r^
(b)
425Fig. 62
Here r
--=
To
50
mm and a
50 sin 10
= 10, so that
50 x 0-1736 = 8-68
turn the correct diameters
mm.
on the work, the
steps
on the face
of the tool must be:

32-5
17-5
,32-5 = __
=
7-5 mm, and
12-5
,.
10
mm
Applying the equation above to these two cases, we have
AB
CIRCULAR FORM TOOLS
(0
7-5, r
50, cos
d2 from which d
()
10, r
7-38
50,
9-82
10
0-9848
7.5(100.0-9848
7-5)
10)
mm
d1 from which d
a = cos
lOOtf
75
and cos a
lOOrf
0-9848
10(100.0-9848
mm
The angle on the tool to give an included angle of 1 20 on the work must
now be
corrected
32-5
Its
width
is
12-5
tan 30
and
10 tan 30
5-774
mm
corrected depth from (ii) above is 9-82.

5-774
Hence noy = tan of its angle 0-5882 from which the angle
its
is
found
to be 30 28'.
The turned
profile of the tool
is
shown
at Fig.
62
(b).
Exercises 3c
1.
lathe centre
is
being ground up by a 70
mm
diameter grinding wheel fixed to a
on the compound slide. If the centre of the wheel is set 10mm below
of the lathe centre, and the compound slide fed at 30, find the angle to which
tool-post grinder
the axis
the centre will be ground.

2.
What
lathe
is
a taper of! in 6 when the tool is on the centre.

ofwork 120 mm long and 60 mm top diameter when
set correctly for turning
taper will be produced on apiece
is 5 mm below (jentre?
form tool is straight, and set at an angle of 15 with the axis of the work (i.e. to
form an included angle of 30 on the work) If the tool is set to the above angle, but 5
below centre, calculate the actual angle produced on ajob 50 mm top diameter and 40 mm long
the tool
3.
mm
-&.
?7Z7
Fig. 63
4. A form tool having 8 clearance and 15 back slope is required to turn the diameters
shown at Fig. 63. Calculate (a) the depth AB on the clearance face of the tool, (b) the
amount the tool should be below centre, (c) the top cutting rake at the commencement of
cutting. (Top diameter ofwork = 10mm).
76
5. Calculate the tailstock set-over for turning a taper
What
long.
mm
mm in the length
of 8 included, on a job 115
variation in taper will be produced by a variation of 2-5
of the work?
depths and the angle on a form tool
Tool has no top rake and 10 clearance.
6. Calculate the
Fig. 64.
for
producing the form shown
in
Fig. 64
7.
At
Fig. 65
is
shown a thread form which
is
to be finished
by the form tool indicated.
Calculate the angle, depth and bottom land as measured from the clearance face of a
tool having
no top rake and 15 clearance.
5-24
Fig. 65
8.
circular
form tool
55mm
diameter
is
the form indicated at Fig. 63. Calculate the
depth
AB
on the
gashed to give 10 clearance, and is to turn

off-centre for the gashing and the
amount
tool.
9. Calculate the
to give the profile
depths and angle to be turned on a circular form tool
shown
at Fig. 66, if the tool
is
60mm diameter
gashed to give 12 clearance.
APPROXIMATE CHANGE WHEELS FOR ODD THREADS
375^
77
\8-76
Fig. 66
10. In cutting the thread

is
to be
made 2%
on a core
of the lathe
is set
the thread
cut in the usual way. Calculate:
(a)
(b)
(c)
is
mould, the pitch of the thread

To do this, the tailstock
set parallel to the work, and then
for a die-casting
longer than standard to allow for contraction.

over, the lathe taper attachment
is
The actual pitch required if the nominal thread is 2mm pitch.

The tailstock set-over if the core is 150 mm long between centres.
The angle to which the taper attachment must be set.
Calculating approximate change wheels for odd threads
Sometimes a case may arise where an odd thread must be cut, the exact
pitch of which cannot be obtained with the standard machine changewheels. Also, if a lathe is not supplied with the special 127T wheel, and a
metric pitch is required, some alternative way of getting a suitable pitch
becomes necessary.
The method of continued fractions will often provide a very near ratio
to that required, and enable a pitch to be cut which is near enough for the
purpose.
In Appendix VII
be seen, that the convergents of a continued

one approaching closer
to the true value of the original ratio. If, therefore, we have a complicated
ratio, the exact value of which cannot be obtained on the machine, it
is quite possible that by converting to a continued fraction and finding
the convergents, one of these convergents will be a ratio that can be
used, and its value will probably be close enough for the purpose. The
method will be best illustrated by examples.
it
will
fraction are a series of fractions, each succeeding
78
Example
with a 5
9.
Find the nearest pitch to
mm
from 20T to 120T

^,
The
2- 18
mm that may be cut on a lathe
leadscrew, and give suitable change wheels from a set ranging

in steps of 5T.
Drivers
-p-^
ratio of gears:
6
will
be
2-18 mm
5 mm
E
109
,
irkn
^~r, and since 109
.
is
250
prime number, the exact ratio could not be obtained without a gear of
Driven
this size.
Converting
this to a
continued fraction and finding the convergents we
have:
The continued
109)250(2
218
fraction
is:
2+1
32)109(3
96
2+1
13)32(2
26_
6)13(2
11
1)6(6
and the convergents

If
we take
are: 1st
\,
2nd =
the 4th convergent (#)
f,
3rd
we may
&
5th = $.
&, 4th =
obtain a gear ratio as
follows:
x
6 x
_
n
37 ~
To
6-5
_
~
20 x 85 Drivers
60 x 65 Driven
we must multiply the ratio $ by the

= ff, which when converted to a
is less
than 0-03% in error on the required
find the actual pitch obtained
pitch of the leadscrew,
decimal gives
pitch of
2-
Example
a 6
8-5
t.p.i.
18
2-
i.e.
$ X
1795 mm. This
mm.
Find the nearest pitch obtainable to 2\ mm, on a lathe with

leadscrew and a set of wheels as in the last example.
10.
2Jmm
The pitch of the leadscrew is in and the ratio required

Converting the inches to millimeters (lin
2\
'25-4
24
*
254
9x6
4x254
nn
25-4 mm)
27
270
50-8
508
POWER REQUIRED FOR CUTTING
The continued
fraction
79
is
270)508(1
270
238)270(1
1
1
7+1
2+1
238
32)238(7
224
&; 4th
14)32(2
28
4)14(3
11
2)4(2
and the convergents:

6th
Ulll
1st
2nd =
};
3rd
#; 5th
ft;
2io
508
The 4th convergent
is
the last one which can be
made into a ratio and
gives:
17
32
=
~
2 x 8-5
4x8
The actual pitch obtained

0001 1 mm short.
will
Power required for cutting

Turning and Boring. When metal
in turning
and boring, the tool
is
20 x 85 Drivers
40 x 80 Driven
be
is
25-4
2-2489 mm, being
being cut with a single-point tool as
subjected to pressure in three directions
work pressure
across the lathe, (3) horizontal feeding pressure along the lathe.
The first of these is of greatest importance from the aspect of the
at right angles: (1) vertical chip pressure, (2) horizontal
power absorbed. The other two, although absorbing some power, are of
small effect when compared with the vertical pressure and are generally
neglected.
From numerous experiments that have been made it has been established that the cutting force on a single point tool is connected in an
expression of the form
F = Cd afb
where F = force; d = depth of cut;/ = feed, and C
a and b depend on the metal being cut and other factors.
a constant.
80
practical purposes the expression
For most
F = Kdf= K(Cut area)
is
If
S~
gives results
good enough.
a constant depending on the metal being cut.

cutting speed in metres per minute, the work done per minute
F x S
Watts.
will be F x S, and the power
Power =
Hence
Approximate values
for
60 qqQ
K are as
Kilowatts
follows:
Metal
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel
being
100-150
150-200
200-300
300-400
cut
Brinell
Brinell
Brinell
Brinell
1200
1600
2400
3000
f^T
Brass
Bronze
2\
*~
900
1250
1750
700
K
(N/mm2 )
[From the form of the expression, the reader will observe that K is the
on the tool per square millimetre of cut area.]
When the power required to do the cutting has been calculated, the
total power to run the cut and overcome friction in the machine may be
found by adding on about 30%.
force
Example
1 1
mm
Calculate the power being absorbed in running a cut 3

diameter turning
1-5 mm, on a mild steel bar 50
mm
dêp with a feed of

at
140rev/min.
.
Cutting speed
If we take the constant
n X 50 x 140
22 x 50 x 140
7 x 1000
1000
K as
1200
1200 x
D
Power =
Adding 30%
198 +
1-98
3 x 1-5 X 22
= 198kW
60000
for frictional losses in the
Xi|=
1-98
= 22m/min
0-594
machine we have
2-574 say,
25 kW to run the machine
POWER FOR DRILLING
Power
for drilling
When
drill is
cutting
81
has to overcome th e resistance offered by the

is necessary to turn it. This effort is called
it
metal and
the Turning Moment or Torque on the drill The units for torque are those
unit. The
of a force multiplied by a length and the most usual is the
turning effect of a force, or a pair of forces, acting at a certain radius,
is found by multiplying the force by the radius, or for two forces the
a twisting effort
Nm
turning effect
is
the
sum of the product of each
force by
its
radius.
Thus
torque of lONm to turn it, the torque

would be equivalent to equal and opposite forces of 250 N each operating
radius. [T = 250 x 0-02 + 250 X 0-02 = lONml
at 20
in Fig. 67, if the drill required a
mm
SON
Resistance at
each corner
Fig. 67
In addition to the torque, a
drill
requires an axial force to feed
through the work, but in power calculations

When the torque is known, the work done
the number of turns made and by In
Thus
if
T=
torque in
Nm and N =
the work done per minute
found by multiplying it by
is
speed in rev/min,
In NT
Nm
2nNT
kw
and the power =
,
it
this is generally neglected.
^^
82
The torque required to operate a drill depends upon various factors,

but for the purpose of being able to obtain an approximate calculation for
it we will omit all but the drill diameter, the feed and the material being
The relation between the torque, the diameter and the feed has
been found experimentally to be that torque varies as/ 75/) 8
Using this, we may say that
drilled.
"
1'
Torque (T) = Cf- 15D hS newton metres
C=
where
/=
D =
When
a constant depending on the material

drill
feed
(mm/ rev)
diameter of drill (mm).
power can be calculated
the torque has been found, the
as
shown
above.
The
A
following table gives approximate values for the constant (C).
.,,
Material being drilled
Example
steel at
12.
Soft
Cast
Steel
brass
iron
(mild)
tool steel
0-11
0-084
007
0-36
0-4
Calculate the power required to
250rev/min and a feed or
0-5
Taking the constant,
C,
from the table

7
as 0-36
0.36/- 75 Z) 1
mm
we have
Nm
/ =0-5
and taking logarithms.

T = jog 0-36 + 0-75_log
log
D=
20
T=
0-36
0-5
1-8
(0-5)- 75 (20) 18
log 20
= j-5563 + 0.75(1-6990) + 1.8(1-3010)

= 1-5563 + 0-75(-0-3010) + 1-8(1-3010)
= -0-4437 - 0-2258 + 2-3418 = 1-6723
T = antilog 1-6723 = 47 Nm
is
250rev/min
27r.250.47
60 000
hole in mild
a 20
Find also the volume of
drill
mm/ rev.
.,
metal removed per unit of energy.
Since the speed
Carbon
Alu-
minium
_ 1ZJKW
~
POWER FOR TURNING AND DRILLING
83
Volume of metal removed per minute
(Area of hole) (Feed) (Speed)
=j x
Energy consumption
20 2 x 0-5 x 250
mow =
39 275
mm
31-9mm3 /watt
minute.
= 0-53mm 3 /joule
Exercises 3d
1.
Calculate the nearest change wheels for cutting a sparking-plug thread (l|-mm pitch)
lathe with a 4 t.p.i. leadscrew and a set of wheels ranging from 20T to 120T in steps
of 5T. For the ratio you select, find the actual pitch of thread obtained.
leadscrew. Taking
2. A worm having a lead of Timm is to be cut on a lathe with a 5
on a
mm
express the ratio required as a continued fraction, and find the nearest
convergent that can be used with a set of wheels specified for the last example. What was
as 3-1416,
the actual error in the lead obtained for the worm?

3. A shaft revolves at 15 rev/min and requires a thread cutting on
it which will cause

a nut to move along the shaft at 66-5mm/min, when it turns at the above speed. Find the
leadlead of the thread required and calculate the nearest that can be cut to it on a 5
screw with change wheels specified for Question 1. What is the actual speed of the nut
mm
with the thread you obtain?
mm
cut in cast iron

4. Estimate (a) the power input to a lathe when it is taking a 6
in feed at 20m/min. (b) The volume of metal removed per unit of
with 0-75
energy. Take the overall efficiency of the machine as 70%.
in steel of
depth at a feed of 0-8
5. A lathe is just able to run a cut of 5
diameter bar. Estimate what cut could be taken
120 Brinell, at 150 rev/min on a 50
mm
mm
mm
mm
on 25 mm bars of 250 Brinell material, at 240 rev/min and the same feed as before.
[Take values of K from the table on p. 80.]
6. Taking the value of K from the table on page 80, estimate what cut could betaken
on a lathe turning bronze b ars at 0-6 mm feed and 20 m/min, if 5 kW were available, and 30%
of the power were lost in friction.
7. For the lathe in Question 4, estimate the power cost per 8-hour day, with power at
2p per kWh and the efficiency of the motor is 80%.
8. Calculate the
speed
is
energy absorbed per cubic millimetre removed per minute.
(b) the
9.
drill
mm
diameter holes in mild steel, at a feed

drill 20
300 rev/min, calculate (a) the power absorbed in cutting,
torque required to
of 0-25 mm/ rev. If the
25
mm
drill is drilling
aluminium at HOm/min. Calculate its speed. If the feed is

and the input power if frictional losses are equivalent to
0-3 mm/rev, calculate the torque,
30% of the
10.
cutting power.
For the
drill in
Question
If the electrical efficiency

electrical
is
8,
calculate the drilling time for 100 holes, each 40
80%, calculate the cost to
data as in Question
drill
7.
By using a continued fraction calculate the nearest set of change wheels

thread specified in Example 10(a) Exercises 3 c, leadscrew 5 mm pitch.
11.
mm deep.
these 100 holes using the same

to cut the
Calculations for gears and

gear cutting
Formatiion of the involute tooth
For various
and theoretical reasons, the tooth shape most
practical
commonly used
for gearing
is
the involute. Before we
commence our con-
sideration of various problems connected with involute teeth,

as well to
examine the involute curve
will
be
form and then unwound,
at
it
itself.
Involute
If a
cord
is
wrapped
tightly
round a
circular
the same time being kept tight, the end of the cord will trace out an
involute. This
is
shown
the cord that has been
at the
top of Fig. 68, where
unwound and
CB
is
the portion of
AC is the involute. Another method
Involute
Straight-
edge
Involute
Fig. 68
of tracing an involute is to roll a line (e.g. a straight-edge) on a circle

the end of the line will trace out an involute. The size of circle will,
of course, influence the shape of the involute, but there are certain
when
properties which are
common
to
all
involutes.
Those properties which
are interesting from the aspect qf the involute as a tooth form, are as
follows:
INVOLUTE TOOTH FORM
(1)
A tangent to the involute is always perpendicular to a tangent from
the same point on the involute to the circle from which

Fig. 68 the cord
involute at
(2)
85
is
CB
is
tangential to the circle at B,
it is
formed. In
and a tangent to the
perpendicular to CB.
The length of the cord CB
is
equal to the length of the arc AB.
Tooth form
O, and 2 are the centres of a pinion and gear of which the pitch circles are
shown tangential at P, which is called the pitch point
AB is a line through P perpendicular to line C^Cv CD also passes
through P and is included at the angle
to AB. CD is called the line
of action and $ the pressure angle. The name "line of action" is given
to CD because it is on, and along that line, that the pressure between
.
if>
The angle nowadays is virtually always 20, but

was more common, being related to half the inclined
angle of the Acme thread form With the changeover of the pressure angle
from 14 to 20 the clearance between the top of the tooth of one gear
and the base of its mating tooth form has been increased from 5% of the
the teeth takes place.
at
one time
(j>
14
( = 0-157 of the module), to 0-25 of the module. The cutting

depth for gears of 20 pressure angle is thus 2-25 times the module. To
circular pitch
Fig. 69
Formation of Involute Tooth.
CALCULATIONS FOR GEARS AND GEAR CUTTING
86
is drawn tangential to CD called the base

The portion of the tooth between this circle and the top (EF) takes
obtain the tooth shape a circle

circle.
the form of an involute to this circle; the portion of the tooth below this
circle (FG) is radial (i.e. on a line joining the end of the involute to the
gear centre). This is all shown in Fig. 69, where for the sake of clearness
the construction has only been carried out on the lower gear. The con-
struction also only shows one side of a tooth; the other side is merely the
same shape reversed, and spaced away, a distance equal to the tooth
thickness.
The involute rack

The rack is a gear of
straight line
(AB, Fig.
infinite
70).
diameter so that
base circle of
^
to the line of action
its
pitch circle will be a
infinite
diameter tangential
CD
will
Fig. 70
be a straight
line coinciding with
CD. The
involute to this will be the straight line EP, and the radial continuation
will
be PF. Hence the side of the rack tooth is straight, and inclined at
The complete tooth will have a total angle equal to
the pressure angle.
twice the pressure angle (Fig. 70).

In the following considerations of gear elements the following symbols
will
be used for the quantities stated:
No.ofteethingear
... Tor
Diametral pitch
Circular pitch
Diameter of pitch circle

Radius of pitch circle
Pressure angle
Module
Addendum of tooth
Dendendum
Dord
R or r
The recommended manner of quoting

of the units employed,
as a module. In which case,
irrespective
to
it
pitch circle diameter
or
is
(ji
Add.
Ded.
the size of a gear tooth form,
to quote the
addendum and
= module x number of teeth
D = mT
refer
THE TOOTH VERNIER
87
The module
is therefore the reciprocal of the diametral pitch, irrespective

of whether measurements are made in millimetres or inches. All the
formulae which follow can be used for diametral pitch, by substituting
for
m. Until the use of the metric module becomes the preferred usage
in describing gear tooth sizes, the reader
The diametral
ral pitch series.
pitch
is
may find gears listed in a diametnumber of teeth per
simply the
unit of pitch circle diameter, and consequently
it is
necessary to be par-
ticularly careful in stating that unit, e.g.
diametral pitch of 8
or diametral pitch of 0-2
In any case, conversion to a module
ship that the
module
is
(mm series).
simply effected from the relation-
equal to the addendum; furthermore
circular pitch p
The tooth
is
(inch series)
= n x module m
vernier
The gear-tooth
vernier
thickness of a tooth.
It
is an instrument for measuring the pitch line

has two scales and must be set for the width (w)
of the tooth, and the depth (h) from the top of the tooth, at which w occurs
(Fig. 71).
Fig. 71
The angle subtended by a half tooth
at the centre
Fig. 71).
90
,360
= iof^=^=.
of the gear (AOB)
in
CALCULATION FOR GEARS AND GEAR CUTTING
88
m> = w = AO
AB
y *ri
90
~y =
sin
z>
sin
90
-=
number of teeth
a
and
D = module x
D = 2R = mT
mT
Rn = -j-
Hence
mT
-^
A
and
90
T
w = wisin-=r
To
find
fc
Add.
90
= -z- sm -=
OC -
OB.
=^ + m
90
W7,
90
OB = R cos -=- = -=- cos -~.
A
and
TT
90
i? sin -=-
we have that h = CB =
OC = R +
But
Z>
mT
Hence /* = -y- +
r
mT
90
=- cos -^ = m
/w
mrf,, ....
-^-|
1
!
T-[
90l
TJ
CQ8
cos -^
\.
(2)
1
Calculate the gear tooth vernier settings to measure a gear
of 33 T, 2-5 metric module
Example
w =
._
90
= 2-5
mT^ sm-jr
,,
=
=
82-5 sin 243'
2-5
=
=
2-5
90
X 33 sin^82-5
X 0-0474
mm
3-91
mT..
+ -2~(1 2 5
'
2-545
90,
cos yr)
33
(1
cos243')
41.25(0-0011)
mm
Constant chord method

to the method just outlined is that the measurements w
and h depend on the number of teeth (T) in the gear, and for each dif-
One drawback
ferent gear a fresh calculation has to be
made. The following method

all gears of the same
avoids this and gives a constant pair of readings for

pitch and pressure angle.
CONSTANT CHORD METHOD
89
Fig. 72
In Fig. 72
is
shown a gear tooth meshing symmetrically with a
rack.
O is the pitch point, and as we have seen above, the gear tooth will contact
with the straight-sided rack tooth at the points
line of action.
Then
B and D,
lying
on the
DB = w will thus be constant for all teeth of the same pitch and
pressure angle.
Since
EOA is the pitch line
of the rack
nm
EA = j circular pitch = \p = -y-
and
In triangle
and
OAB:
in triangle
OA = !EA =
A
A
B = 90 and O =
:. OB = OA cos
OCB: C =
90 and
.\CB= OB
Hence CB =
OA cos
iji
cos
ijt
i/j,
B = ^
cos
OA
DB = 2CB = w =
and
<f>
ij).
cos 2
i/j
Hence
OC = OA
and h =
nm
j cos
(j>
sin
iff
sin
= m\f~
1
(3)
(/)
But
(/t
iff
7tm
-j- cos 2
h = Add. - OC = m - OC.
OG = OB sin ip and OB - OA
cos
nm
r- cos 2
cos
iff.
-j- cos ^ sin ^

7t
-j
It will be seen that expressions (3) and

(m) and pressure angle (^) do not alter.
cos $ sin
(4)
,1
ty
remain constant
(4)
if module
90
Example
for a
2.
Calculate the constant chord and the depth at which it occurs,

20 pressure angle.
30T gear of 6mm module,

Here we have
sin 20
cos 20
= x- cos
h>
m(l
6(1
-j
6 X 3-142
20
cos
ij)
=
=
0-342
0-9397
mm
x 0-7476 = 4-49 mm
(0-9397)
8-32
sin f)
0-7854 x 0-9397
0-342)
Plug method of checking for pitch diameter and divide of teeth

vernier gives us a check on the size of the individual tooth,
but does not give a measure of either the pitch diameter or the accuracy
of the division of the teeth.
The tooth
Fig. 73
Fig. 73
shows a rack tooth symmetrically
in
mesh with a gear tooth
space, the curved sides of the gear teeth touching the straight rack tooth
at the points
we
and B on the
lines of action.
O is the pitch point. If now

its
outline, a
O and radius OB would in the rack tooth and touch

at A and B (since OA and OB are perpendicular to the side of the rack
circle
it
consider the rack tooth as an empty space bounded by
with centre at
fit
tooth). Since the rack touches the gear at these points, the
(shown dotted)
will rest against the gear teeth at points
have
on the pitch
its
centre
In triangle
OBD: OB =
circle.
radius of plug required.
above
circle
A and B and will
CHECKING FOR PITCH DIAMETER AND DIVIDE OF TEETH
OD
circular pitch
B =
91
Tim
O =
90
OB = OD
cos
if/
ijf.
7im
-j- cos
(jf
nm
Dia of plug = 20B = -y- cos

This
is
(5)
iji
the diameter of a plug which will rest in the tooth space and have
centre on the pitch circle. Notice that the plug size remains the same
its
same pitch and pressure angle.

With such plugs placed in diametrically opposite tooth
for all gears having the
spaces, it is a
simple matter to verify the gear pitch diameter. The accuracy of the
spacing over any number of teeth may be found as shown in chordal
calculations.
Example
3.
Calculate for a
36T gear of 5 mm module and 20 pressure

two plugs placed in opposite spaces,
angle, (a) plug size (b) distance over

(c)
distance over two plugs spaced 10 teeth apart.
(a)
Dia of plug =
Tim
-^ cos
^S7T
= ~-
cos 20
=
=
Pitch dia of gear
mT =
x 36
7-854
7-38
x 0-9397
mm
- 180mm
(b) Distance across plugs in opposite spaces
mm
(c)
= 180 + 7-38 = 187-38

Distance across plugs spaced 10 teeth apart (Fig. 74).
Fig. 74
92
'lf{\
Angle subtended by 10 teeth
AB = OA
sin 50
Centre distance of plugs

Distance over plugs = 137-88
2
10
-~y-
100 In triangle
90 x 0-766
x AB =
7-38
2 x 68-94
145-26
OAB:
68-94
137- 88
mm
mm
Base pitch
The base
pitch
is
the circular pitch of the teeth measured on the base
circle. It is useful for
checking the angle between adjacent teeth and for
checking a tooth against "drunkenness."
Fig. 75
AB (Fig. 75) represents a portion of the base circle of a gear, and

and EF the sides of two teeth, and then the length FD is the base
pitch. But if any lines such as CE and HG are drawn tangential to the
base circle cutting the involutes at the points shown, then
If
CD
EC = GH = FD
If there are
T teeth
in the gear,
FD
If
ij)
is
then
FD =
2ttR b
iTlRt
the pressure angle, then from Fig. 69, page 85,

= rad. of base circle (R B ) = P0 2 cos =
2
H0
and
ij>
cos
tjt.
BASE PITCH
FD =
Hence
2nR
n
But,
base pitch
TtD
~y~ = ~f =
Hence
This
is
7tm
base pitch
93
D= \
m)
(
(since -=
= nm
cos
(6)
<ji
the distance between the curved portions of any two adjacent
teeth and can be measured either with a height gauge or
on an enlarged
projected image of the teeth.
Exercises 4a
Determine the diameter of a plug which will rest in the tooth space of a 4mm module
20 rack, and touch the teeth at the pitch line. Calculate (a) the distance over two such
1.
The depth from the top of the plug
plugs spaced 5 teeth apart, (b)
to the top of the
teeth.
2. Calculate the
(a)
3.
gear tooth caliper settings for measuring the following gears:
6mm module;
37T,
A 5 mm
(b) 40T 20mm circular pitch.

module involute rack tooth is measured
at its pitch line
and found to be
mm
wide. If the tooth spacing and angle are correct, what error has been
in the cutting of the teeth? (Pressure angle = 20.)
7-99
4.
30T replacement gear of
available for cutting the teeth

is
on
is
mm
one of
module
is
made
required, and the nearest cutter
5 diametral pitch, (inch series). If the blank
turned to the correct module dimensions, and the cutter sunk in to the depth marked
it, what will be the error in the tooth?
Determine the "constant chord" dimensions for the following gears:

mm module, 20 pressure angle; (b) 25
circular pitch, 20 pressure angle.
6. Calculate the diameter of plug which will lie in the tooth space of a 5
module
gear with its centre on the pitch circle. If the gear has 50T, find (a) distance over two such
5.
mm
(a) 8
mm
plugs spaced in opposite spaces, (b) distance over two plugs spaced 12 spaces apart
(u
= 20).
Two
29T gear 20mm circular pitch, and

stood up resting on them. Calculate the distance from the face upon which
these plugs are resting, to the top of a similar plug placed in the tooth space at the top
of the gear. [Press, angle = 20, and plug diameter is that which rests with its centre
7.
the gear
plugs are placed in adjoining spaces of a
is
on the pitch circle.]

8. Determine the base pitch of the following
(b)
mm circular pitch,
30T, 25
9.
Two
teeth of a
ij>
*=
30T gear of
gears: (a)
1-25
mm
of the following measurements:

(a)
base pitch,
(b)
depth of tooth space,

chordal thickness of tooth at pitch line,
height from root of tooth to pitch line.
(d)
mm
module,
ij>
20;
module, 20 pressure angle are projected to

the length on the projected image
a magnification of 50. Calculate, to the nearest 0-5
(c)
30T
20.
mm
94
Stub teeth
For some purposes,
particularly
when
gears are subject to shock and
vibration, the tooth of standard proportions
is
apt to be
weak and liable
to break. In such cases stub teeth are often used.
For this type of tooth the size is indicated by a fraction. The numerator
of the fraction expresses the module to which the circumferential proportions of the tooth conform, and the denominator determines the
radial proportions of the tooth. Thus a stub tooth means one in which
module, and the
the pitch diameter is worked out on a basis of 5
tooth height on the proportions of 4
mm
mm module. Since 5 mm module gives
mm module, the result is a short stubby tooth,

are generally cut with a pressure angle of
teeth
name.
Stub
hence the
20, and the following are the pitches most commonly used:
a larger normal tooth than 4
4' 5' 6'
The same method
is
10
8
12-5
10
'
and
15
12-5
used when quoting stub tooth
sizes in diametral
pitches, but in this case the ratio produces a "proper vulgar fraction",
i.e.
with the numerator smaller than the denominator. Hence, if a stub

is denoted by a fraction in which the numerator is smaller than the
tooth
denominator, the reader should appreciate that the sizes quoted refer to
diametral pitches and not modules, and it will be necessary to state
whether the diametral pitch is "millimetre series" or "inch series".
Example
f
4. Calculate the principal
dimensions for a 45T gear having a
stub tooth.
Here: the pitch diameter will be
heights
on
Pitch dia
Addendum = m
Top dia of gear
Cutting depth
Backlash
worked out on 6 mm module and the
5mm module.
= mT = 6 X
= 5 mm
= 270 + 2(5)
= 280 mm
= 2-25 X 5
= ll-25mm
45
= 270mm
in gearing
were cut theoretically correct and assembled at the

correct centre distance, a tooth on one gear would just fit hard into the
tooth space of the other, because the pitch line width of the tooth and
If a pair of gears
MEASUREMENT OF BACKLASH
95
space would be equal. For freedom of action the above conditions would
be unsuitable, and it is usual to allow a little play between the thickness
of the tooth and the width of the space into which it fits. This play is
called "backlash," and it is the backlash which allows one gear to be
turned a fraction before the drive is taken up by the mating gear.
The amount of backlash to be allowed depends on the tooth size, and
the following table gives an indication of suitable allowances:
Module (mm)
Backlash
[in
10
2-5
1-5
0-4
04
0-4
0-3
0-2
015
015
01
0-1
mm
clearance between
face of mating teeth]
Measurement of backlash
suitable methods of measuring backlash are (a) by means of feeler
gauges between the teeth, (b) by measuring the distance that the centres
of the gears may be moved nearer together from the standard distance
Two
before the teeth are in hard contact.
The first of the above methods is straightforward and needs no mathematical manipulation. For the second method it will be helpful for us to
obtain an expression giving the backlash in terms of the amount the gears
are capable of being moved together.
Fig. 76
In Fig. 76, ab is half the backlash and P is the pitch point.

If we consider the portion cb of the tooth as being a straight
moved
line,
rightangled at b, ac is the amount the gear centers

together, ab = \ backlash and angle acb = t/i.
triangle abc
is
then
may be
96
Let
and
B=
backlash
D=
amount the gear centres can be moved together =
lab
=
ac
Then
sin
ib
sin
ij)
ac-
B_
D =
B = 2D
sin
(b
D =
or
and
2 sin
(Ji
Helical (spiral) gears
The type of gear we have dealt with so

in
which the teeth are
and
straight
far
has been the spur gear,
i.e.
one
parallel with the axis of the gear. In
on a helix. These gears

skew gears.
A sketch of a portion of a helical gear is shown in Fig. 77, in which it will
be noticed that the teeth slope at an angle a (the helix (spiral) angle) to the
axis of the gear, and in the gear shown, the teeth are cut RH helix. Teeth
helical gears the teeth are not straight, but are cut
are also called spiral gears, screw gears and
may, of course, be
RH
or LH.
Referring again to the figure,
may
it
will
be seen that the pitch of the teeth
either be taken round the rim of the gear, or it may be taken perpendi-
cular to the teeth. In the
first
case
it is
called the circumferential pitch
second case it is known as normal pitch (p). Circular pitch

ip c ),
is still considered as being taken along the surface formed by the pitch
circle. The circular pitches p n and p c are shown in Fig. 77, and as will be
seen, the relation between them is the same as the relation between the
and
sides
in the
A
AC and AB of triangle ABC. In this triangle C =
angle a
90 and
A=
A
helix
Hence
Pc
=
AB
cos a,
p n = Pc cos a
i.e.
or
pc
rc
Pn
r
cosct
= rn
pn
(7)
sec
if a section is taken through the teeth on a plane conhave the true shape of the tooth as it is cut. Hence the
normal pitch (p n ), which is the one measured parallel to AC, is the pitch
which governs the cutter to be used to cut the gear Referring again to Fig
It will
taining
be seen that
AC, we
shall
HELICAL (SPIRAL) GEARS
[Measured
97
orn
[Pitch Circle]
\
Fig. 77.
77, the pitch p c , multiplied
by the number of teeth, gives the pitch circumwhich does not
ference. This pitch, then, governs the size of the gear,
depend on the number of teeth. The larger the

will
be the ratio
helix angle
<r,
the greater
and the larger the gear for a given number of teeth.

Pn
As
and p c we may, just as in the case of spur

module form The normal module (m n ) is the
one which governs the true shape of the tooth, and since cutters are most
well as circular pitch p
gears, express the pitch in the
commonly specified in terms of the module, this is important to us from

the point of view of cutting the gear. The relation between /w n and/> is the
same
as for spur gears.
i.e.
Pn
= *n
(8)
For a spur gear we have D = mT

For a helical gear, since the circular pitch
Pc
= Pn
COS<7
then
mT
andD =
cos a
mc =
m
cos a
cos a
(9)
98
Addendum
of the tooth
(10)
and the cutting depth (working depth + clearance)

==
In
modern
addendum +
clearance
m+
clearance.
practice, using a 20 pressure angle, the cutting depth has
standardised at (working depth
0-25
been
addendum)
==225/m
(11)
Helix (spiral) lead and angle

teeth of a helical gear are cut on a helix, which is merely a screw thread
with a very large lead. The reader will, no doubt, be aware that a screw
thread can be developed into a triangle, and the only differences between
the development of a gear-tooth helix and that of a screw thread are: (a)
The
the helix angle of a thread is the complement of that for a wheel tooth (Fig.
78(a) [complement of an angle = 90 - the angle] (b) the development is
;
' Helix
^^"
Fig. 78
Development of
Helix.
based on the assumption that the helix makes one complete turn round the
cylinder upon which it is cut. In a screw thread this is true, but the tooth
of a gear only completes a small proportion of a complete turn. [The
student may imagine a helical gear to be a short length of a very coarse
CUTTER FOR HELICAL GEARS
thread having as
many
"starts" as there are teeth in the gear.]
99
On
the
assumption noted under (b) above, the development of a helical gear

tooth is shown in Fig. 78(6). From the diagram we have the following
relationships
tan a
nD
= -pL
Pitch circum
=
-j
Lead
_
nD
nmT sec a
=
L =
or lead
.,,-.
(12)
tan a
tan a
Cutter for helical gears
When
cutting spur gears with a form cutter
cutter
is
on the milling machine, the

marked with the range of teeth for which it is suitable. For
example, to cut a 30T gear, we should use a No 4 cutter, which is suitable
for a range of 26T to 34T. Due to the twist on the teeth of a helical gear this
must be modified, and the size of cutter is given by
.
No. of teeth (T)
(cos a) 3
Example
5.
The
pitch diameter of a helical wheel
120 mm, the helix angle
is
30 and
is
to be approximately
to be cut with a cutter of 4
it is
module. Find the particulars of the nearest gear to
this.
We have that the normal module = 4 mm and a =

Hence, from
cos 30
T=
and
=
The nearest
to this
is
dia.
Cutting depth
v
From
4
30 x 0-866
26x4
^r- =
cos 30
cost?
Top
120 cos 30
25-98
267
Dn = mT
and
30.
4T
120
(9)
2-25m
mom a fur
(12) Lead of helix =
9-00
7lD
^r-
tan 30
1oni
120-1
0-866
2 Add
120-1
104
=
=
120-1
128-1
mm
2(4)
mm
mm
= 3-142x120-1
=
ttt^
0-577
'
,..
654 mm.
mm
100
Thus the nearest gear has the following particulars: 26T. Pitch
mm, Helix angle 30, Lead of helix, 654mm.
dia.
1201
96
The
cutter for this gear
would be
,_
40,
i.e.
the same cutter as
(U-oOOJ
would be used
Example
40T
for a
4mm module,
Two parallel shafts at
6.
120
spur gear.
mm centres are to be connected by
a pair of helical gears to give a speed ratio of
wheels
mine
is
The helix angle of the
1:2.
to be approximately 20 If the normal

.
module
is
2-5 mm, deter-
suitable wheels.
Since the shafts are parallel, the helix angles of the two wheels will
be the
sarnie,
RH
but one will be
and the other
helix,
Centre distance =120

Ratio of speeds = ratio of pitch radii
r = i x 120 = 40 and R = f X 120
D=
Hence
f
from
160 and
d=
80, also
= D cos a =
Dn = mT T
m
cos a
(9)
m=
160
Since the ratio
is
to be
2: 1
let
LH
=1:2
= 80
2-5
0-9397
X
=
=-=
60-13
2-5
us try 60T and 30T, and find a
new
value for a.
Then
for the
D
T=
wheel from
cos a
cos a
m
mT
=
2-5
~
=
hence a
To
X 60
160
150
160
0-9375
2022'
obtain the leads of the helices of the wheels
we have
for the
wheel:
Pitch cir cum
and from
(19)
=
Lead =
160tt
502-7
502-7
tan 2Qo22
For the pinion Lead =
Oo
mm
^^ = 1354mm
502-7
'y =
half of lead of wheel
677
mm
HELICAL GEARS
The
101
particulars of the gears are thus as follows:
Wheel No. of teeth

Pitch dia
Add =
2- 5
Pinion.
60
160
mm
Top
mm
dia = 165
Cutting depth = 2-25
=
Helix angle
LH
Helix lead
helix.
354m
(093W
677
30
.,
cutter as
helix
mm
Cutter +t0 USe=
60
cutter as for
dia
mm
2022'.
Cuttertouse =
5-625
RH
Helix lead
_
= 80 mm
= 85 mm
Cutting depth = 5-625 mm
Helix angle = 2022'.
Pitch dia
mm
Top
No. of teeth = 30
T053tSJ>
for 36T spur
wheel.
73T spur
wheel.
at
The reader will observe that the solution to these problems is arrived
by a compromise after a system of trial and error. With wheels of this
type such a procedure
is nearly always necessary before a practical set

of working conditions can be arrived at. Generally, the conditions allow
one or more of the gear elements to be varied to suit the problem.
Exercises 4b
Calculate the pitch diameter, top diameter and cutting depth for a
1.
J
42T gear having
stub teeth.
Find the gear-tooth caliper settings for checking the tooth of a 32T,
2.
stub-tooth
gear.
A pair of gears are required to connect two shafts at 160 mm centres. Ifthe speed ratio
3.
and the gears are to have stub teeth, find their leading particulars.
27T and 63T gears of 4mm module, 20 pressure angle.
the backlash allowance is 0-2 mm, what should be the centre distance between the two
required
4.
If
gears
is 3:5,
pair of gears consists of
when
the teeth are hard in contact?
of gears consists of the following: 30T driving 48T driving 48T driving 7 5T.
module and the backlash allowance on all the teeth is 0-1 5 mm. If all
the backlash is taken up in one direction, through what angle must the 30T gear be turned
before the drive is taken up by the 75T wheel?
normal module,
6. Calculate the following particulars for a 52T spiral gear of 4
20 spiral angle: (a) pitch diameter, (b) top diameter, (c) cutting depth, (d) lead of spiral,
5.
The
train
teeth are 4
mm
mm
(e) suitable cutter to use.
7.
A helical gear is to have a helix angle of30(RH), and the normal module is 4 mm. The
pitch diameter must be as near as possible to 125 mm. Calculate (a) the
(b) the pitch,
and top diameters,
(c)
number of teeth,
the lead of the helix, (d) the correct cutter to use.
102
8.
75mm.
spiral gear
diameter., lead
9.
a gear
has 25 teeth, a helix angle of 45, and an approximate pitch diameter of
Calculate the nearest normal metric module. Find also the pitch diameter, top
of spiral and cutting depth.
two parallel shafts 100 mm apart, with

Working on a normal module of 2-5mm, and an approximate helix angle
pair of spiral gears are required to connect
rat io
of 3
2.
of 20, determine particulars of a suitable pair of wheels.
Worm gearing
A worn
drive
is
often used to connect two non-interesting shafts which
are at right-angles
and a
fair
distance apart.
The worm is the equivalent
-Lead(L)
Start
Af?7
Start
N92
Starts
N. s
2&3
Lead 'Angle
Fig. 79
(/{.)
Diagram of 3-Start Worm.
of a screw thread, the shape of a section of the thread on a plane through

same as a rack tooth in the involute system
the axis of the worm, being the
action between a worm and wormwheel is equivalent to that of the

wheel as a gear; rolling along the worm as a rack. As the worm is usually
produced by turning, or by a milling process similar to turning, the pitch
The
Fig. 80
Worm Thread Form
for 14 Pressure
Angle.
WORM WHEEL
103
most commonly used is the circular pitch (p) Fig 79 shows the pitch, lead
and lead angle for a worm, and Fig. 80 gives the proportions for the thread
on a section through the axis for a tooth of 14| pressure angle.
The relationships between the pitch, lead and lead angle are the same as
.
for a
screw thread.
Lead (L) = (Axial pitch)(No. of starts) = pn

Lead
L
tan A =
n (Pitch dia)
nd
worm is quite an arbitrary dimension, and a

be cut to any pitch diameter suitable to accommodate it to
centre distance at which it is to engage with the wheel. In general, the pitch
diameter should not be less than four times the pitch.
The
pitch diameter of a
worm may
Worms with
large lead angles
The efficiency of a worm
mum at about 45
drive increases with the lead angle up to a maxi-
In view of this, multi-start worms with large lead angles
are to be preferred. Unfortunately, with such

ficulties
20
the
it
worms, interference
dif-
occur in cutting and operation, and when the lead angle exceeds
is
usual to increase the pressure angle
(i.e.
the included angle of
worm thread is increased). The pressure angle may be taken up to 20
and in very quick start worms is sometimes

For pressure angles other than 14 the tooth proportions must
be re-calculated on the basis of the new angle and will not be the same as
those shown on Fig. 80. Also, when the lead angle exceeds 15; it is more
advantageous to base the tooth proportions on the normal pitch. For the
case of the tooth shown in Fig. 80 these are modified as follows:
(40 incl. angle of thread),
made
30
iji
= (axial pitch)(cos of lead angle)

=
p cos X (as (7) above)
pn
Then
Addendum of thread = 0-318/
= 0-6866/?,,
Depth of thread
Width of finishing tool at bottom = 0-3 \p n
Normal
pitch
Worm wheel
For the best
the form
as
shown
worm-wheel rim should be of

For light duty and moderate speeds, wheels
give satisfactory results. Teeth with curved bot-
results the cross-section of the
shown
in Fig. 81 (a).
at 81 (b) will
104
Worm Cen tre
mm
Wheel Axis
Fig. 81
(CL)
toms should be cut with a hob or a fly cutter; that at 81 (c) is really a helical
gear and may be cut as such. The shape of the teeth of worm wheels is the
same as for involute gears of the same pressure angle.
Worm wheel
dimensions
be based on the circular pitch and for large worm lead angles
the tooth proportions will be in terms of the normal pitch. In reading the
following, Fig. 81 (a) should be referred to:
These
will
Pitch dia (D)
Pitch circum.
IE
71
Throat dia
Centre distance (C)
Pitch dia
Throat rad (R t )
Whole
Width
dia
(w) approx
2 add
Pitch rad wheel
_D
~
- D +
0-63/)
pitch rad
worm
d
2
= C - \ throat dia
= 2(C- OA)
= 2[C-*,cos(i0)]
= 2BC
= 2 (Top rad of worm)
= (d + 0-636/?) sin (i/J)
[sin
(/J)]
In cases where tooth proportions are based on normal pitch, then in

expressions (19) and (23) above, p n should be used instead of/?.
SPEED RATIO WITH
Speed
ratio with
worm
WORM GEARING
105
gearing
T teeth, and the worm is single threaded (1 start), then

the worm will turn T times for 1 turn of the wheel. A 2-start worm will turn
T
yr times per revolution of the wheel, and so on. Hence for T teeth
If the
wheel has
in the
wheel and n
starts
Speed
on the worm:
ratio
= Rev
of
worm
Rev of wheel
Determine the dimensions of a worm and wheel to operate

at 120 mm centres and give a ratio of 16 1. Circular pitch 10 mm, pressure angle 14, wheel face angle 75.
For 10 mm pitch the minimum dia. of the worm should be 4 x 10 mm
= 40 mm. This leaves 120 20 = 100
as the radius of the wheel. Dia
of wheel = 200 mm. Circum = 200tt = 628-4 mm.
Example
mm
At
If
10mm
circular pitch this gives 63 teeth.
we make
161
the
worm 64T and
Pitch dia
wormwheel =
71
and pitch rad
=
=
Throat rad =
Whole dia =
=
Pitch rad worm =
=
and pitch dia =
Top dia worm =
Throat dia
We may now find the

w =
==
worm, we
use a 4-start
shall obtain the
ratio required.
(d
25-97
+ 0-636
203-7
mm
71
203-7
~ =
101-85
mm
+ 0-636/)
+ 0-636(10) = 21006 mm
- K2 10-06) = 1497 mm
203-7
203-7
120
2tl20
2 [120
14-97 cos 37]

14-97
x 0-7949 = 216-24 mm
rad wheel
- 10185 = 18-15
2 x 18-15 = 36-30 mm
36-30 + 0-636/? = 36-30 + 6-36 =
centre distance
120
approx. width of the wheel
sin 37
42-66 sin 37
42-66
42-66
(h>)
0-6088
mm (say 26 mm)
tan of worm lead angle
-r-
Ttd
=
7i
=
^t^k
36-30
X = 19 20'
Whole depth of tooth = 0-6866/> = 6.87 mm
Width of threading tool at end = 0-31/? = 3- 10 mm
0-3508
mm
106
This gives us all the data necessary for the worm and wheel.
As an exercise, the reader should make a full-size drawing of the pair.
Helical (spiral) gears to mesh with
worms
Sometimes, as a compromise, and to avoid the delay and expense of

ordering a new wormwheel, an ordinary straight-faced helical wheel
is cut to replace a wormwheel. The main problem is to find, out of stock,
a suitable cutter to give a satisfactory match-up.
If stocks of circular, diametral and module pitch cutters are available,
it is often possible to arrive at a workable solution. Let us see what could
have been done to match a helical wheel to the worm in Example 7 above:
Normal
circular pitch of wormwheel
=
=
Normal module =
10 cos 1920'
10(0-9436)
9-436
9-436
mm
3-003
71
mm
This is very near a 3

module and a
probably cut a satisfactory gear.
mm
module
cutter
would
Bevel gears
Bevel gears are used to connect two shafts whose axes meet, and which
are in the same plane. We saw in connection with spur gears that the
motion of two gears was equivalent to that of two thin cylinders or discs
of the discs being the same as the pitch
diameters of the gears. In the case of bevel gearing the fundamental
conception of the motion is that of two cones rolling together.
rolling together, the diameters
Fig. 82
BEVEL GEAR CALCULATIONS
In Fig. 82,
at
O.
COD
107
OA and OB represent the axes of two shafts intersecting

DOE are the two elemental cones, having OA and OB
and
as their axes.
The cones touch along the
line
OD, and
if
one
will drive the other. In practice, the gears only consist
is turned it
of a narrow
frustrum of the cones and are shown thickened. Metal is added at the
back, as shown, to strengthen up the teeth in that region.
The two elemental cones are called the pitch cones and become the
imaginary pitch surfaces of the gears. The angle 6 P is the pitch angle of the
pinion,
W that of the wheel and I
number of teeth
diameters CD and DE.
cut in the gears, the
the pitch
Hence
Note
if
is
the shaft angle.
in
each gear
rev/min of wheel and
6P
that
N=
DE
CD
+ W
will
When
teeth are
be proportional to
rev/min of pinion
sin
sine,
=Z
Bevel gear calculations
/\
In Fig. 83:
AOB =
AC =
/\
DOA
is
the pitch angle.
pitch dia
= a
(/)).
is
the addendum angle
is
the dedendum angle
S\
AOF =
/5
/\
EOB =
+ a
is
the face angle
/\
FOB = p = 6 is the
C is the cone distance.
ji
is
root angle
the tip distance.
/is the face width and
may be made about =
-~
D, L and C are given capital or small letters according to whether

they refer to the wheel or to the pinion. The angles are generally given
a suffix p or w to differentiate them, [p for pinion and w for wheel.]
The back
AO, and
DAF
face
is always made perpendicular to the pitch surface
the size and shape of the teeth as developed round that face
correspond to the proportions for the pitch of the teeth
in the
gear
108
Add m
Fig. 83
(e.g. if
the gear had teeth of 5
mm module,
then the teeth at the surface
DF (as shown developed round line CH) would be the correct size for that
pitch). In travelling down the tooth from face DF towards O, every line
on the tooth converges to O
From
Fig. 83:
-=- --
C=
and
Add
pr- =
tan a
tan
sin 6
Ded _
C ~
Whole diameter
AD
But
C=
,
8.
speed ratio
Two
is
2 sin 6
-^ (where
m=
j
x
module)
i
l-25m
(over corners
= Add =
Whole
Examples
-^.
DE) =
pitch dia
+ 2AD
dia
= D + 2m
cos
be geared together by bevels. The

and the pinion pitch diameter is to be 120mm.
shafts at 90 are to
to be 3:2
Determine the dimensions of 5 mm bevels.

Since the ratio is 3:2 and d = 120mm
D =
120
cos 6
= 180mm
T=
36 and
24
109
Fig. 84
Signifying the pitch angles by 6 W
6p
33 41' and B
w
Then tan
Add = m =
mm
(Fig 8 3).
.
Ded
and
=% = \
90
1-25/n
OA =
33 41'
6-25
V90 2 + 60 2 =
5
tan of add angle
108- 10
0-0463
0-0578
108-1
6-25
tan ded angle
56 19'
mm
mm
a =
/$
2 39'
3 18'
108-1
Face
Face
Root
Root
Whole
Whole
= 56 19' + 239' = 58 58'

= 3341' + 2 39' = 36 20'
angle wheel P w = 56 19' - 3 18' = 53 1'
angle pinion Pp = 33 41' - 3 18' = 30 23'
angle wheel
dia (wheel)
dia (pinion)
<j>
= D + 2m cos W = 180 +
= d + 2m cos P = 120 +
Face width
/=
<t>
angle pinion
(if
made
}C)
'2 sin
120
20
6 x 0-5155
0-5155
sketch of these wheels
is
shown
10(0-5155)
10(0-8056)
at Fig.
=
84
38-80
mm
= 185- 16 mm
= 128-06 mm
110
Shafts not inclined at 90
When
the shafts are inclined at angles other than 90 the calculation for
is slightly more difficult. The following example
method of evaluating such cases.
the pitch angles

indicate a
Example
9.
will
Determine the dimensions of 4 module bevels to connect two

The pitch diameter of the pinion is to be 80 mm and the
shafts at 70.
ratio 4: 5.
From
the information given
we have
d = 80 mm
D =
80 X
| = 100mm
4
Z,
In triangles
Also
Hence
70
OAC and OAB (Fig.

7T-T-
OA
50
OA
sin 6 W
Sin
and
85),
-~-r-
OA
AC =
sin 6 P
50 and
AB =
sin (70
40
^=sin(70<
(1)
K)
(2)
3*39'
Fig. 85
Divide
(2)
by
sin (70 c
40
=
^
50
(1)
>
1 1
K)
sin u
sui
9w
W
-- ms
cos
70 ens
ow
cos ft
sin
70 sin
ft
W (see Appendix VI)
sin e w
0-9397 cos o w
0-342 sin
sin o w
sin
0-937
tan
-0-342
0-937
^5 +
= f^4r- from which e w =

tan W
0-342
and
70
- Ow =
70
30 22'
39 22'
AB
nA
OA
=
sin 30 38'
30 38'
0^095 =
1QAQ
7848mm
Add = module = 4 mm
Ded = 4 x 1-25 = 5 mm
4
tan add angle
=
^-^
/o-4o
0-05107
a =
2 55'
tan ded angle
^^ =
0-0638
/J
3 39'
Face angle wheel W = 39

Face angle pinion p = 30
22'
38'
+
+
2 55'
2 55'
=
=
42
17'
33 33'.
Whole dia wheel = D + 2m cos W = 100+8 cos 39 33' = 106- 18 mm

Whole dia pinion = D + 2m cos P = 80 + 8 cos 30 38' = 86-88 mm
The main dimensions are shown on Fig. 85.
Exercises 4c
1.
Calculate the top diameter, root diameter and helix angle for a 2-start
10mm
pitch and
2. If the
worm
in
Question
the centre distance, and

3.
A worm
starts
in
is
worm
of
40mm pitch diameter.

60mm
full
a wheel, and the gear ratio
1 drives
pitch diameter, and
order that the lead angle
is
17 to
1,
calculate
worm wheel.
particulars for the
20mm
circular pitch. Find the
may be approximately
30,
and
number of
state the actual
lead angle. Calculate the normal thickness of the thread on the pitch line.
4.
A worm
drive operates at 150
a circular pitch of
and wheel
5.
Two
10mm
mm
worm
and a
centres and the ratio required
about
50mm
is
15 to
1.
Taking
pitch diameter, find a suitable
worm
for the drive.
shafts at 90
are to be connected by equal bevel wheels. Determine the
dimensions of one of these
if
the module
is
2-5
mm, and
the pitch diameter
60mm.
CA LCULATION FOR GEARS AND GEAR CUTTING
12
6.
Two
shafts at 90 are to
be connected by bevels to give a ratio of 3:2. If the pitch

130
and the module is 5 mm, determine the
is
mm
diameter of the smaller bevel
dimensions of the wheels.

7.
bevel gear has 20 teeth of
4mm
module and a pitch angle of 45. Determine
the top diameter and included angle of a taper pin, which will rest in a tooth space
with
its
its
centre on the pitch cone,
its
large end level with the back face of the gear,
curved surface making contact with the tooth sides for

8.
Two
shafts, inclined at 120, are to
whole length.
(ij>
and
20).
be connected by bevel wheels to give a ratio

is 90mm and the teeth are 5mm module.
of 4:3. The pitch diameter of the smaller gear
Determine particulars of the gears.
its
Milling
milling
and the
machine
Milling Cutters
For the purpose of considering the calculations necessary
in
connection
with milling cutters, we may divide them into three general types: (a) those
with fluted teeth, (b) machine relieved,
these are
shown
(c)
inserted teeth. Sketches of
in Fig. 86.
Blade
Cutter
(c) Inserted
(b)Machine Relieved
Cutter
(a) fluted Cutter
Fig. 86
Number
of teeth
Milling cutters and milling conditions vary so widely that

to set hard
in
and
fast rules for
determining the
it is
difficult
number of teeth to be put
a cutter.
For
fluted
and relieved cutters the rule N

= No. of
reasonably proportioned tooth [N
2-75
teeth,
VD - 5-8 gives a
D = Diameter of
cutter]
The formula N =
-pr
8 gives a fairly coarse tooth for cutters over 60
diameter.
Take a 100 mm
AT
cutter, the first
2.75\/lOO
formula
5-8
22 teeth
whilst the second expression gives
N = }W
gives:
16teeth-
mm
114
MILLING AND THE MILLING MACHINE
For an inserted-blade-face mill it is better to assess the number of teeth

on the assumption of their being spaced a suitable distance apart on the
periphery of the cutter. Thus if we take a 200mm face mill and assume
the blades to be spaced 30
No of blades =
Rake on
mm apart, we have
Circumference of cutter
30
200;*
30
= approx20
cutter teeth
If a cutter has its teeth milled with their faces radial,
cutter axis as
shown
in Fig. 87(a), the teeth
and parallel to the

have neither top nor side rake
however, the end view of the tooth is as shown in Fig. 87(6) the front
is the angle a, since the tooth cuts relative to a radial line OA from
the centre to its tip. Side rake is put on the tooth by milling it on a helix
as shown at Fig. 87(c). The side rake is then equal to the helix angle /3.
When teeth are of this form the relation between the hand of the helix and
the direction of rotation of the cutter is important, in order that the end
thrust introduced may be accommodated efficiently.
If,
rake
(CL)
No Top Rake
No Side Rake
(c) Side
The
calculation of the helix angle
is
Rake
Fig. 87.
discussed in the section on spiral
milling.
Top rake can be put on
the teeth by milling
it
shown in Fig.
on the centre line it is
off-set as
88. Instead of the front of the tooth being milled
RAKE ON CUTTER TEETH

cut off centre by distance x.
angle required
Rakes up to
we
Then ifR =
see that
sin
radius of cutter and
a and x = R
10 are advantageous, but
sin
115
the rake
above that angle they may cause
the cutter to chatter.
Blank
being Fluted
Fig. 88
Example
Calculate the amount of offset to give 10 of rake on the tooth
mm diameter.
of a cutter 80
In this case
R =
40 and since
x = 40
The
Fig. 89
sin 10
=
=
sin 10
0-1736
40 x 0-1736
6-944 (say 7 mm)
case for an inserted-blade cutter
is
shown
in Fig. 89,
where ifR =
radius over blades, then
x =
sin
as before.
Angle of fluting cutter
For milling the flutes in cutters the problem arises of determining the
a of the fluting cutter to give the required depth (d) of the flute
angle
(Fig. 90).
'
116
Fig.
In the following analysis any land on the tooth
assumed
as a sharp edge. Also, the point
is
is
90
neglected,
assumed
A being
as a sharp corner,
any radius on the cutter, B is the point at which the

and AB would intersect.
The variation due to the first assumption tends to cancel out variations
due to the second.
AD is drawn perpendicular to CBO, then
so that
if
there
cutter edges
AD
and since
Now
But
is
CB
/\
AO sin AOC
= AD sin -rr- [where N
=
in cutter]
AO = rad of cutter, R,
AD = R sin 360
#
tan
AD
AD
=
DB ~ CB - CD "
AD
d - CD
CD = CO - DO = R - AO
_
_
R R
cos
R
Hence
= No. of teeth
tan
360
fi-
= RJ.
II
1
360
sin
a=
</-*(.
cos
cos**)
360
R
"
sin
J1
"
~ d-
360
cos
360
360\
fi-
AT
CD
CUTTER CLEARANCE
Example
6
2.
117
Calculate the angle of fluting cutter required to mill 16 teeth,
mm deep in a cutter 80 mm diameter.

Here R = 40, N = 16 and d = 6
R
tan
360
sin
a =
360
360
16
22^
40 sin 22^
6
-40(1
15-31
3-044
From which a
The
cos 22i)
15-31
5-18
2-956
796'
nearest cutter to use
would probably then be an 80
cutter.
Clearance
The cutting clearance is put on the teeth at the time they are sharpened.
The cutting edges may be ground either on the periphery of a disc wheel
as shown at Fig. 91(a) or on the face of a cup wheel as at (b).
When
the teeth are ground on the periphery of a disc wheel as at
the centre of the cutter
is
set
(a),
below the centre of the wheel and the radial
Grinding
Wheel
Fig. 91
118
edge to the cutter centre is horizontal. The clearance
line joining the tooth
angle obtained
is
shown
and
as C,
in triangle
OBA:
AB =
SmC
OB
OB = radius of wheel (R)
AB = offset (h c
.
But
and
Hence
-^-
hc
=R
sin
sin
Using the face of a cup wheel as at (b), the position of the cutter centre
wheel is immaterial, but the tooth is set below the cutter
centre by the distance h t and in triangle OED:
relative to the
ED =
ED =
t^ft
OD
and
h,
t ;
sin
OD =
_
rad of cutter
ht
C or =
sin
r sin
(/)
mm
Example
spiral
3. Calculate the settings for grinding the teeth of an 80
Using the periphery of a 200mm disc wheel and (b) using the face
of a cup wheel. (Clearance required = 6.)
mill, (a)
The
first
condition
and
hc
=R
R =
:.h c
is
as
shown
at Fig. 91(a)
sin 6
rad of wheel
100 sin 6
= 100mm
100 x 0-1045
Using the cup wheel we have as

ht
r sin 6
10-45
mm
in Fig. 91 (b)
40 x 0-1045
= 4-18mm
Effect of the helical tooth on the clearance
When
the tooth of the cutter
above cutter
In Fig. 92
AK
axis), so that
/$
setting
is
is
is
is
helical (spiral) the calculation for the
modified as follows:
perpendicular to the end of the cutter (parallel to
its
the helix angle of the tooth. The clearance face is AC and
/\
BAC = Ca is the clearance angle referred to the end of the cutter, or to a

plane perpendicular to the cutter axis.
EFFECT OF THE HELICAL TOOTH ON THE CLEARANCE
19
Fig. 92
DG is parallel to AB and DF to AC, so that FDG = Ca as before.

DL is horizontal and perpendicular to the tooth face AD, and DE is also
perpendicular to
G and H
AD, but E is a point on the bottom of the clearance face.

F and E respectively.
are vertically above
y\
Hence
EDH
dicular to
The
its
is
the clearance on the tooth referred to a plane perpenCall this normal clearance (C).
front.
axial clearance
(Ca )
normal clearance (C)

is
is
is
that put
on by the grinding wheel, whilst the
the one effective
when
the cutter
is
in action. It
necessary, therefore, to grind such an axial clearance as will give us the
we require a relation
between Ca and Cn This may be obtained by considering triangles EHD,
and FGD, which are right-angled at H, H and G respectively.
required normal clearance, and for this purpose
.
HDG
But
tan C
= FG ~ EH
DG DG
DH
DG
cos
Hence from above: tan
/J
C,
and
DG
(since
DH
cos/J
EH
EH
EH
DG
DH_=DH
cos
fl
'
COS/}
EH = FG)
120
But
Hence
tan
Ca =
tan C cos
Thus when we know the value required

and the helix angle
/},
we can
Cn
tan
/$
for the
normal clearance (C)
find the axial clearance angle
Ca
for the
grinding setting.
Example
and the
Example the normal clearance required was 6
4. If in the last
cutter
had a
helix angle of 30, calculate the axial clearance
for setting.
We have that tan Ca =
tan
=
=
Ca =
Ca =
fl
tan
From which
Cn
cos
/$
and tan Cn = 0-1051

30 and cos
= 0-866
0-1051
0-866
0-091
5 12'
For small helix angles the correction is not important, but it should
be carried out on cutters with steep angles.
With the machine relieved cutter the clearance is put on at the time
the tooth is form relieved and the tooth is sharpened by grinding its front
with a saucer-shaped wheel. When this is carried out care should be
exercised to ensure that if the front of the tooth was originally radial (on
the centre), this position
is
preserved for
it.
If this is
not done, the effect
on the formed profile will be similar to that we discussed when considering

the circular form tools on page 73, and the accuracy of the cutter form
will
be
lost.
Exercises 5a
1.
Calculate the following for an 80

(a)
mm
diameter fluted cutter:

a suitable number of teeth to give a coarse pitch,
(b) the off-set of the

(c)
tooth front necessary to give 10 of front cutting rake,

the setting for grinding the teeth on a cup wheel, to give 7 of clearance.
2. 300mm face mill is to be fitted with blades

thick. Estimate a suitable number
of blades, and calculate the off-set of the blade necessary to effect 12 of top cutting rake.
6mm
mm
3. The flutes of a 25
end mill are cut LH helix 500mm lead. Assuming the flutes to
be 4
deep, calculate the helix angle, based on the mean diameter of the flutes. If the
end teeth follow this angle, is the rake on them positive or negative?
mm
4.
If
spiral cutter is
60mm
an apparent clearance of 8
diameter and the teeth are cut on a helix of

is
ground on these
flutes,
what
is
300mm lead.
the true clearance?
SPEEDS
5. Calculate the nearest angle
with 12
6.
flutes,
6mm
What depth
AND FEEDS FOR MILLING CUTTERS
of cutter to use for fluting a 60
mm
121
diameter cutter
deep.
of flute will be obtained by cutting 18 teeth in a 80
mm cutter with an
80 fluting cutter?
Speeds and feeds for milling cutters

cutting speed for milling is found in the same way as for turning and
= diameter of cutter, and N rev/min its speed,
drilling, so that if Q
The
mm
Cutting speed (m/min)
TtDN
10005
= T006 andAr = ^zJ,
..
Cutting speeds should be as high as possible consistent with an economic cutter life before it needs re-grinding, and the speeds given for
turning form a reasonable basis upon which to set the speed of a milling
cutter.
The
rate at
which the work feeds beneath a milling cutter
is
sometimes
expressed in millimetres per minute and sometimes in millimetres per

revolution of the cutter. Neither of these methods gives a reliable indication of the cutter performance since both ignore the
the cutter.
The most
equitable
method of
number of teeth in
assessing milling feeds
is
in
millimetres per tooth, since this gives an indication of the work each tooth
is
doing.
From
the feed per tooth, feed per revolution can be found by
number of teeth, and a further multiplication by the

rev/min gives feed per minute. The following table gives an indication of
the feed per tooth possible with various types of milling cutters:
multiplying by the
Table giving feeds for H.S.S. cutters.
Cutter
Spiral (slab) mill (up to 30 helix angle of tooth)

Spiral mill (30-60 helix angle)
Face
End
Saw
mill
and
shell
end
mill
mill
Slotting cutter
Form
cutters
Example
5. Calculate a suitable speed and feed for a 80

with 18 teeth to take roughing cuts on mild steel.
Feed per Tooth
mm
01
005
to 0-25
0-1
to 0-5
0-1
to 0-25
005
005
005
to 0-1
mm
to 0-2
to
01
to 0-2
spiral mill
122
For roughing cuts we may take a moderately slow speed with a heavy
feed.
mm per tooth.
Assume
a speed of
1000 x 22 x 7
__
10005
=
NA = -nD~
= 87 5rev / min
80x22
of 0-2 mm per tooth gives 0-2 x 18 = 3-6 mm
20m/min and a
feed of 0-2
'
feed
3-6
87-5
315
per rev.
mm/min.
Power absorbed in milling

The conditions in milling are so variable that it is possible to attempt only
a very rough computation of power requirements. From experimental
work it has been found that the power requirements for milling are
approximately as given in the table below. The figures should betaken
only as a rough guide since the power varies with the amount of cut, the
cutter, the cutting lubricant and other factors. However, even if the
reader's, results are
not
all
they might be, the working out will provide
useful mathematical practice.
ENERGY REQUIRED FOR MILLING*

Values given are Joules per cubic millimetre removed
Material being Cut
J/mm
*For face
Cast
1-9-
milling the
power may be taken
^ ^ ^
Hard
Mild
4-0 to 7-0
2-7
1-60
Alumin-
mm
0-90
as f to \ of that given in table.
Using the values given in the table, the energy being absorbed is found
by multiplying the tabulated energy by the volume of metal being removed per minute. This is found by multiplying the depth of cut, the
width of cut and the feed length.
Thus
if
d = depth of cut; w = width of
and
/=
and
Volume = d.w.f.,
Power = energy per second
To
cut,
feed
(watts)
allow for frictional losses in the machine add approximately
30%
THE DIVIDING HEAD
Example
6.
120mm
of
spiral milling cutter
per min over a cast-iron block
power required
mm deep with a feed
80mm
wide. Estimate the
to drive the machine.
Here the
= 4 mm
= 80 mm
feed = 120mm/min = 2mm/s
removed per second = 4 x 80 + 2 = 640
depth of cut (d)

width of cut (w)
Volume of metal
From
taking a cut 4
is
123
the table
we have l-9J/mm
mm
for cast iron.
.-. Power for cutting = 1-9 x 640J/s =

1216W = l-216kW
Adding 30% for machine losses we have
1-216
= l-S8kW
jjjjj
Exercises 5b
mm
diameter spiral cutter has 18 teeth. Calculate the speed in rev/min and
the feed in mm/min for this cutter to be operating at a cutting speed of 22m/min and
1.
100
a feed of 0- 1 5
2. If
mm per tooth per rev.
a cutter in Question 1 was operating on a job
80mm
wide, with a cut 4
mm deep,
volume of metal removed per minute, and estimate the power input to the
the material being cut is cast iron and frictional losses are equivalent to
calculate the
machine
if
30% of the
cutting power.
machine is equipped with a 4kW motor, estimate the deepest cut that
be taken on hard steel, when the work is 100 mm wide and the feed = 150 mm
per min. (Take cutting power as 75% of motor rating.)
diameter and has 28 teeth. If this is operating at a
4. A face milling cutter is 300
cutting speed of 33m/ min, and a feed of 0.2mm per tooth, how long will it take to travel over
3. If a milling
may
safely
mm
a cut 400
mm long?
be milled either with a 80 mm spiral mill, or with a 150 mm face

and the cutting speed to be employed is 22m per min. If
the feed for the spiral mill is 0-2 mm per tooth and for the face mill 0-25 mm per tooth,
which is the most economical method of working?
6. A 25mm end mill with 8 teeth is milling a slot 10mm deep at a feed of0-025mm
per tooth, and a speed of 600 rev/min. If the material being cut is brass, estimate the
long.
power input (assume 30% loss) and the time and power cost for milling a slot 300
5.
mill.
certain job can
Each
cutter has 16 teeth
mm
Take power
at
2p per B.O.T. Unit [1000 watt hours]
The dividing head

The dividing head, which
with the milling machine
is
Fig. 93 is used
purpose of obtaining divisions of the
shown diagrammatically'in
for the
124
MULING AND THE MILLING MACHINE
40
T.
Worm
wheel
End for
attachmem
of work
Taper
hole
Single start
worm
Plunger for locking
index plate
Crank
Fig. 93
circle. It consists essentially of the spindle to which is attached a 40-tooth

wormwheel. Meshing with this is a single-threaded worm, to the spindle
of which is attached the indexing crank. Adjacent to the indexing crank
the index plate containing several series of equally spaced holes

arranged in circles on its face. A pin in the indexing crank can be adjusted
is
so that
its
radius coincides with any of the hole circles, and an adjustable
sector enables any proportion of the index plate circumference to be
divided
off.
Since the gear ratio in the head
is
40-1, 40 turns of the crank cause the
it) to make 1 turn, or 1 turn of the

crank rotates the spindle ^th of a turn. The object of the index plate
with its holes is to subdivide further the turn of the crank, and the greater
the range of hole circles available the greater will be the number of
divisions possible without resource to special indexing methods.
The Brown and Sharpe dividing head is provided with three indexing
plates having hole circles as follows:
Plate No. 1:
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 holes.
spindle (and the
Plate
Plate
No.
No.
work attached
to
2:
21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33 holes.
3:
37, 39, 41, 43, 47,
49 holes.
The standard Cincinnati dividing plate is of larger diameter than those

used on the Brown and Sharpe head and is reversible. It is provided
with the following hole
On one side: 24, 25,

On the reverse side:
circles:
28, 30, 34, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43 holes.
46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54, 57, 58, 59, 62, 66 holes.
SIMPLE INDEXING
125
all divisions up to 60 to be obtained in addition to

even numbers, and numbers divisible by 5, up to 120.
In addition to this standard plate, special ones can be obtained when
divisions beyond its range have to be indexed.
This plate enables
all
Simple indexing
The majority of divisions required can be obtained without difficulty
by indexing in one of the sets of hole circles supplied. Straightforward
working
in this
way
is
usually termed simple indexing.
Since 40 turns of the crank cause
turn of the work,
if
n equal divisions in the work each division will be -th of

n
ference and the turns required of the crank will be
reader to remember which

that
will
when more than 40

have to rotate
Example
7.
less
40
we
circum-
its
It will
help the
way up this fraction should be if he remembers

on the work the crank
divisions are required
than one complete turn.
Calculate suitable indexing for the following numbers of
divisions: (a) 6, (b) 10, (c) 15, (d) 22, (e) 28, (J) 37, (g) 48, (h) 62.
(a) 6 divisions.
Indexing
6 whole turns
f = 6 = 6f = 6# or 6JJ
14 holes in a 21 circle
or 16 holes in a 24 circle
or any combination giving
(b)
10 divisions.
(c)
15 divisions
Indexing
fg
2 whole turns
of a turn
4 complete turns
= $ =
Indexing
(d)
2f&
2f
of a turn [see
(a)
above]
22 divisions.
Indexing
ljf
lft
whole turn + 27 holes
in
lfi or Iff
a 33 circle
(e)
require
28 divisions.
Indexing
ff
ltf
whole turn + 9 holes
If
= 1
or
l|f
a 21 circle
in
126
if) 37 divisions.
= $ = 1
Indexing
=
(g)
whole turn +
48 divisions.
Indexing
lllUCAUlg
=
(h)
iQ
48
i
6
il
lg
20
24
15 holes in an 18 circle or 20 holes in a 24 circle
62 divisions.
Indexing
= 40
Compound
When
holes in a 62 circle or 20 holes in a 3 1 circle
indexing
is required which is beyond the capacity of the available

method of compound indexing may be used.
The index plate is usually locked and prevented from turning by means
of a plunger fitting in one of the circles of holes. The principle of compound indexing is to obtain the required division in two stages.
(1) By a movement with the crank in the usual way.
(2) By adding or subtracting a further movement by rotating the index
a division
hole circles, a
plate and controlled by the plate locking plunger.

Suppose the crank is indexed 5 holes in a 20-hole circle and then the
index plate, together with the crank, is indexed a further hole with the
locking plunger registering in a 15-hole circle.
If both movements have been made in the same direction the total
indexing will have been
to
rV
= & + & = m on
the
worm.
had been turned opposite to the crank we should have had

li
11
J
L
_ J_
6020
15
60
60
If the plate
'
By compounding suitable hole circles

number of additional divisions.
in this
way it is possible to obtain
a large
If n
is
the
number of
divisions required
on the work, then
the indexing required and the fractions representing the two

to be used
must give
n
40
either
when added
40
is
movements
or subtracted. Also the
denominators of the two fractions must be numbers equal to available

hole circles in the plate. Suitable hole circles must generally be determined by a method of trial and error and the following examples will
illustrate the
method.
COMPOUND INDEXING
Example
127
Determine suitable compound indexing for the following divi-
sions: (a) 77, (b) 91.
(a)
11 divisions.
The indexing required is $ and we require two suitable fractions which

give this when added or subtracted.
The method of trial and error may be assisted by the following working.
Put down the 77 above a
line,
77
40
the 40 below
11
it,
and
factorise
them.
2x2x2x5
The numbers representing hole circles are now required to be written

below the 40 and factorised. Their difference, also factorised, must be
written above the line. The numbers must be so chosen that all the factors
above the line must cancel out with numbers below. [The reader should
notice that since only one plate can be used, the numbers must be those of
two hole circles on the same plate.]
Choosing 21 and 33 as the numbers, we have 21 = 7 x 3; 33 = 3 x 11
and the difference 12 = 2 x 2 x 3.
Putting these numbers with their factors down we find that all the
numbers above the line will cancel thus
77
12
= 44 X 7= 2- x 2- x
3-
40=2-x2-x2x5
21
33
=
=
1-
x 3x 44
Hence 2 1 and 33 circles will be suitable and we require to find

number of holes to be indexed. Let these be a and b.
pective
tu
Then
(7
Putting on a
21
X 3)
40
77
33
(3
11)
(11
common denominator
11a
lb =
x 40
7x3x11
i.e.
11a
lb =
120
7)
the res-
128
By trial and error we find that if a = 9, and b = 3; 99 + 21 =

Hence the indexing required is 9 holes in a 21 circle added to
in a 33 circle (i.e. both movements in the same direction).
(Jb)
120.
3 holes
91 divisions:
Testing for suitable hole circles as before

91
10
40
39
49
= 44 X ^
= 4 x 2= 2 x 2 x
= 44 x 3
= 7 x 2
2-
we
have:
5-
49 as suitable sizes and

a
39
(13
Putting on a
(7X7)
3)
13
49a 39b
By
trial
and
(13
7)
common denominator
49a 39b
i.e.
40
91
49
x 7 x
40 X 21
7
840.
error:
If
Hence 6 holes
in
6 and b
49 X 6
294
= 14:
+ 39 x 14
+ 456 = 840.
a 39 circle added to 14 holes in 49 circle will be the
indexing required.
Differential indexing
an automatic method of carrying out compound indexing.

dividing head is shown in Fig. 94, from which it
will be seen that the index plate is unlocked, and is geared back to the
spindle. As the spindle is rotated via the crank and worm, the gear train
This
is
really
The arrangement of the
causes the index plate to turn backwards or forwards, and the net result
is
the same as
compound
if
the index plate were released and rotated by hand as in
indexing.
Differential indexing is more straightforward and is capable of dealing

with a wider range of divisions than compound indexing. The problem is
DIFFERENTIAL INDEXING
129
Index p/ate
'unlocked
Gear fixed to
index p/ate
Worm shaft
turned by crank
Gear fixed to
bevel wheel
Bevel wheels and

gears A+Bgive
J/7 ratio
Driver
Gear stud fixei

to head spindle
Showing Arrangement of Gearing
Fig. 94
to calculate the indexing
and the gear
for Differential Indexing.
ratio necessary to obtain
any given
number of divisions on the work, and we will explain the method by working out a few examples:
Example
9. Calculate the differential
indexing to give 107 divisions on
the work.
The indexing required

this indexing
times,
i.e.
turns of the crank per division, and when

is
has been done 107 times the crank has turned
X 107 = 40
the
work has turned
Since no 107 circle

indexing to the exact
ToV
If
we
i\
is
complete
circle as
available, let us take
it
should.
an approximately near
^ required.
approximately (by approx cancellation by
take 107 moves of 8 holes in a 21 circle

107
x 8_
~~
21
turns of the crank
416
21
40^
we
obtain
5)
130
But we have seen that the crank must make 40 turns only, during the
we must therefore subtract jf of a turn. This is done
by gearing up the plate, so that whilst the spindle makes 1 turn, the plate
107 indexings, and
makes -If turn in the opposite direction to the crank.

Hence with an indexing of 8 holes in a 21 circle, the gear
.
,,
Drivers
-=-^
spindle
to plate:
^
^
ratio
from
16
^rr
Driven
21
For the Brown and Sharpe dividing head, the gears supplied are as
follows:
24(2), 28, 32, 40, 44, 48, 56, 64, 72, 86
We may
make up
and 100
teeth.
a train for the above ratio from this set as follows:

16
32 Drivers
8 X 2 _ 64
X
27 ~ 7~x~3 ~ 56
48 Driven
In the above case the gears must be arranged so that the index plate
revolves opposite to the crank.
Example
10. Calculate the differential
indexing for 127 divisions.
Exact indexing
and roughly cancelling by
Now
127
-$;
8 gives -^ as the approximation.
moves of 5 holes
in a 16 circle gives 127
&=W=
39f^ turns
of the crank.
But
this is
Hence
same
in
40-39{ = re short of what it should be.

turn of the spindle the index plate must
make ^ turn in the
direction as the crank.
Gear
Drivers
ratio: t=-^
Driven
5
=
= tz
16
5
o
8x2
*>
With this ratio and an indexing of 5 holes in a

would be obtained.
40
24
= Ta
x 7q
64
48
16 circle, the 127 divisions
Angular indexing
Very often, instead of a number of equal
divisions,
an angle must be
indexed
Since
turn ofthe crank rotates the spindle^ turn, the angle at the
centre equivalent to one turn of the crank
360
is
-^- =
9 so that
work
ANGULAR INDEXING
rx,
= Angle
Turns of crank to give any angle
Example
131
required
~
11. Calculate the indexing for the following angles: (a) 41, (b)
15 30', (c) 29 20'.

(a) 41.
in
a 54
15 30'.
(b)
=^=
Indexing
4| turn of crank, say 4
whole turns and 30 holes
circle.
Indexing
!|
1*|
whole turn and
ift
3 holes in
an 18
circle
or 39 holes in an 54 circle
id)
29
Indexing
20'.
th.
iL
= 3^ = 3
complete turns and
Exercises 5c
1.
Calculate suitable indexing to obtain the following divisions on the Brown and Sharpe
head:
(a) 12, (b) 15, (c) 22, (d) 34, {e) 41,
2. Calculate suitable indexing

(a) 13, (b) 17, (c) 25,
3.
(/")
50, (#) 62, (h) 76 divisions.
on the Cincinnati head
36, (e) 45, (/) 54, (g) 65, (A)
(</)
for the following:
82 divisions.
Find suitable indexing for the following angles on the Brown and Sharpe head:
(a) 15, (b) 26, (c) 33 id) 52 30', (e) 63 40'.
4.
Determine appropriate indexing
(a) 1630', (b) 2745', (c) 31 20',

5.
50
mm
is 1
1-25
shaft,
are radial,
it
with a cutter 6
for the following angles
(^
74
15', (e)
on the Cincinnati head:
136 30'.
diameter,
is
to have a groove milled along
mm
at
the top and
wide
mm wide, after which the shaft
it.
The
sides of the
groove
6mm at the bottom. The centre is to be cut
is
to be indexed round and set over for milling
the slot sides with the same cutter setting. Calculate the indexing and set over.
6.
Determine suitable compound indexing
(a) 51, (b) 63, (c) 87, (d)
7.
The crank of a
for the following, using B.
&
S. plates:
189 divisions.
dividing head
is
indexed
indexed in the opposite direction holes in ac
N holes
circle.
in a C circle, and then the plate is

Find an expression for the number of
divisions obtained.
8.
Determine suitable indexing and gears
for obtaining the following
by
differential
indexing:
(a) 97, (b) 53, (c) 101, (d) 131 divisions.
,..,.,..
The index plate of a dividing head
.
9.
is
j (rotation
circle,
[Use B.
.
&
S. plates
.
,,
and
,
gears.]
.
geared to the spindle in the ratio
turns of spindle
opposite to crank) If the crank is now indexed 3 complete turns,

.
through what angle has the spindle been rotated?
15 holes in a 20
132
10.
A round
plate requires four notches, A, B,
angles between
AB, BC,
CD
and
DA
and D, indexing
in
it
spaced so that the
are in the ratio 2:3:4:5. Using the
same hole circle
throughout, determine the indexing required.
Use of continued
fractions for angular indexing
When
is
an angle
seconds,
required whose value involves obscure minutes and
unlikely that an exact indexing for
it will be possible. It is
by turning the ratio into a continued fraction, to
obtain an indexing which is very near to the exact one. The method is
illustrated by the following examples:
it is
possible, however,
Example
12. Calculate the nearest indexing
and the actual angle obtained
for the following:

(a) 14 38', (6) 21 19' 35"
(a)
|f|
The indexing
will
be
= 1^
g
Converting the fraction to minutes gives lffjj = l^fg.

to a continued fraction and find its convergents.
169)270(1
169
101)169(1
101
68)101(1
68
33)68(2
66
2)33(16
32
1)2(2
The
fraction
is
+1
1
16
We now convert
ANGULAR INDEXING
USE OF CONTINUED FRACTIONS FOR
The convergents
1st
f;
2nd
are as follows:
3rd
The 4th convergent

i
133
is
f;
4th
f;
5th
the last one
we
= $;
6th
are able to
69
\
270
make use of and
15
10 flr
16 Ul 24-
Hence the indexing
is
complete turn and
10 holes in
a 16 circle or 15
holes in a 24 circle.
The
actual angle obtained will be
9
(b)
If
The indexing
14f
14 37*' (an error of -*')
in this case will
verting the fraction to seconds
be
21 19' 35"
s
= 2%$ =
We now convert the 4& to a continued
3 19' 35'
479
2^T296"
fraction
479)1296(2
958
338)479(1
338
141)338(2
282
56)141(2
112
29)56(1
29
27)29(1
27
2)27(13
26
02(2
The
fraction
is
2+ J
1
2+
1+J
1
13
and con-
134
and
6th
Ulll
convergents are 1st =

a- 7th
8th ^^~
/III ia- OU1
!296-
its
46
625
\\
2nd =
\\
3rd
f;
4th
^; 5th
$;
If a 46-hole circle
is
available the 6th convergent
may be used and the
indexing will be 2 whole turns +17 holes in a 46 circle, giving an angle of

9 x 2# = 21f = 21 19'33" (an error of -2").
cannot be used, then the 5th convergent must be

be 2 whole turns +10 holes in a 27 circle.
If a 46-hole circle
dexed and
this will
This will give an angle of 9
x2ff=
21}
21 20' (an error of
in-
25").
Spiral milling
For some reason unknown, the operation of milling a helix on a cylindrical

come to be known as spiral milling. Actually a spiral is
a fiat curve shaped like a clock spring. However, so long as we know the
process and its principles, it matters little by what name we call it.
piece of work has
Index plate
unlocked^*.
Driven
Shaft
marked 'C 'J
In Fig. 94 1>J
r
Idler
F.g. 95
End View of Dividing Head Geared
to
Leadscrew
for Spiral Milling.
SPIRAL MILLING
When
the machine
is
set
up
for spiral milling the
worm
135
spindle of the
geared to the leadscrew of the machine table, so that

when the leadscrew is turned the worm is turned also. This rotates the
dividing head spindle, so that the longitudinal movement of the table is
dividing head
is
accompanied by a rotation of the work.

shown in Fig. 95.
A sketch of the machine set up is
The first calculation necessary for spiral milling is the gear ratio between the leadscrew and the dividing head worm-shaft to give the required
lead of helix.
In order to do this we must first ascertain the "lead of the machine."
The reader will recollect that the lead of a screw is the distance the screw
advances along the cylinder whilst it makes one complete turn round it
(Fig 78a) The lead of the machine is the lead of the helix it would cut if the
.
table leadscrew
were connected to the dividing head
worm by
gear
ratio.
When
this
is
the case
we know that to
rotate the dividing
head spindle
(and the work) through 1 revolution requires 40 turns of the worm. If the
gear ratio to the table leadscrew is f the leadscrew will have made 40 turns
also, and the table will have advanced 40 (pitch of leadscrew). This
distance will be the lead of the machine. On the majority of milling
machines having metric leadscrews the pitch is 5 mm, hence the lead of
(on machines manufactured to inch dimensions
is 200
the leadscrew pitch is 0-25 in, hence the lead of these machines is 10
mm
these machines
inches).
When the lead

any lead
is
of the machine
is
known, the gear
ratio to cut a helix of
given by the proportion:
Ratio
The hand of the
Lead of machine
Lead of helix to be cut
Drivers
Driven
helix (whether
RH or LH) is controlled by the presence
or otherwise of an idler gear in the train.
Example
13. Calculate suitable trains
ing leads
256mm
on a machine with a
lead, (c)
set of gears given
480mm,
on
As the leadscrew
200 mm.
is
(d)
of gears to cut helices of the follow-
mm
720mm
leadscrew: (a) 120

lead. [Select
mm
lead, (b)
from the B.
&
S.
p. 130.]
mm pitch the lead of the machine will be 5
x 40 =
136
(a)
120
mm
Drivers
Ratio j^t
The
train
= ff =
256mm
and
_ 200 _
~ 256 ~
Drivers
100 x 2
64 x 4
100 x 24
64 x 48
lead
Drivers
Driven
(d) 720
as follows:
64 Drivers
X 8 _ 40
~ 4 X 6 ~ 32 X 48 Driven
5
Driven
480mm
by a 40 T driving a 24 T.
lead.
.
(c)
this is given
may be compounded
40
24
(b)
|fi
200
480
_
~
40
48
_5_
10
40
32
X
48
64
mm lead
Ratio
_200_5_40_40
~
~ X
7 20
80
72
32
64
Helix angle
Before the helix can be cut
it is
necessary to set the cutter to the angle
fol-
lowed by the path of the curve. If this were not done a great deal of interference would take place and the shape of the groove would be nothing
like the shape of the cutter working to produce it. Even with the cutter
set into the helix angle some interference generally takes place and the
shape of the groove varies from the profile of the cutter.
The helix angle is the angle a on Fig. 78 (b), and if the helix is developed
out into a triangle as shown, we see that
circumference of cylinder
lead of helix
When the helix angle has been determined, the cutter head or the
machine table must be swung round so that the plane of the cutter lies at
this angle, relative to the work. Care should be exercised to swing in the
correct direction for
RH
or
LH
helix.
When grooves of appreciable depth are being cut, the circumference of

the cylinder passing through the bottoms of the grooves will be much less
than that of the cylinder in which they are being cut. This means that if
is based on the outside diameter of
the work, the inclination of the cutter will be correct at the top, but not
the calculation for the helix angle
at the
bottom of the grooves. The reverse
will
be the case
if the
bottom
HELIX ANGLE
diameter of the grooves
is
137
used when finding the cylinder circumference
above expression.
in doubt about which diameter to take for the calculation the
reader is advised to take the mean between top and bottom of grooves.
It may be that for grooves of certain shapes the top, or the bottom, might
form the more suitable basis for the calculation, but only trial and experience can decide on the best compromise.
in the
When
Example 14. Calculate the gears and setting for milling LH spiral flutes in
a reamer 40mm diameter. Lead of helix = 800mm. Machine leadscrew
5mm pitch.
Reamer
flutes
8mm deep.
Lead of machine = 40 x
Gear
To
head:
ratio, table to
r-
Driven
calculate the helix angle
of the
40
flutes, i.e.
= ^r^ =
800
200
mm
t=o
4
2
t
2
x ZT
7o
48
64
we will take the diameter at the mean depth
32 mm.
Circum of cylinder = 327rmm

32;r
Circum
n
,-- - = ^r =
= 0-1257
tan a =
^f
leadr
800
25
1
From which a =
As
the helix
7 10'
LH the table of the machine must be swung with its LH
is
end away from the operator.
Example
5.
A spiral gear has a pitch diameter of 80 mm and a spiral angle
of 30. Calculate the gears for milling the teeth in
it.
In this case we have to determine the lead of the helix in order to be able
to solve the problem.
The
pitch circum
Also tan a
.-.
Gear
ratio,
lead
80 n = 25 1-3
circum
mm
lead
circum
tan a
j-
=
-j-
251-3
251-3
~7^0-5774
tan 30 =rrznHA
i.
leadscrew to dividing head
200
-tttj
A~
435-2
1000
yyfz
mm
125
972
138
As
this is
an awkward fraction
we
will
convert
it
to a continued frac-
tion
125)272(2
250
22)125(5
110
15)22(1
11
7)15(2
]4
1)7(7
7
The convergents
are given by
\
1
1
and
their values are:
1st
fc
2nd = A; 3rd = &; 4th #; 5th = #
Taking the 3rd convergent and finding a suitable gear ratio we have
Drivers
Driven
The
13
65
_
I ~
J_
30
65
40
40
^ x 200 mm
mm instead of the required 435-2 mm
actual lead obtained will be
Cam
30
milliing
433-3
on the dividing head
By employing a universal milling machine fitted with a swivelling vertical

head, constant- rise cams may be cut on blanks held in the dividing head.
The set-up is shown in Fig. 96, and the dividing head is geared to the table
lead screw in the same way as for spiral milling.
The principle of the operation is that as the table moves to the right the
axis of the
spindle.
rotates,
end
mill
approaches nearer to the axis of the dividing head
same time, the dividing head is geared so that its spindle

the combination of the rotation and of the cutter approaching
If,
at the
CAM MILLING ON THE
DIVIDING
HEAD
139
head
swung over
^Vertical
Shaft
marked
in Fig.
94
Gear connection
similar to that
for spiral milling
(Fig.9S)
Table
lead screw
Fig. 96
Set-up for
Cam
Milling.
to be cut on the blank held in the head.

The rate at which the end mill approaches the dividing head axis is controlled by the angle a, and the reader will observe that if this is made zero
(dividing head spindle horizontal), then, instead of a cam, a circular disc
nearer to the centre, causes a
cam
was long enough to do it. (It will be

cutting proceeds, the blank gradually moves down the
would be cut provided the end

observed that as
mill
end mill so that a fairly long cutter is necessary.)

(As an alternative to the arrangement shown, the end mill axis may be
located below the cam axis. Then the table must move to the left and the
cam will move up the end mill as cutting proceeds.)
140
The expressions
for calculating
any particular case may be derived
as follows:
Let a == angle of inclination (Fig. 96)

(Note that both cutter and dividing heads must be inclined
=--
Gear
=-
pitch of table leadscrew
ratio
-=p
at a)
between leadscrew and dividing head
worm
lead of
/ ==
cam
to be milled
(Radial drop in profile in
Then, for
turn
revolution)
turn of the table leadscrew, the dividing head
worm will
R times and the dividing head spindle, because of the 40-1 reduction,
D
will turn
2^ times
Hence, since
in
turn of
its
leadscrew the table advances
pmm we
have:
R_
Turns of work
Movement of table
40
40/)
From which
Turns of work
For
-r~-
(movement of table)
turn of the work:

1
-Tpj
(movement of table)
movement of table = J- (for

K
and
turn of work)
Now
has
because of the inclination of the head and work, when the table
moved the distance cb (Fig. 97) the centre of the end mill has approach-
ed the centre of the work by the length ac.
[^-Movement
of Tafa/e->-|
Fig. 97
CAM MILLING ON THE
Hence
if
work, ac
cb represents the horizontal table
will represent the lead
ac
-r
sin
a or
cb
of
cam
cut
movement
Table movement
Hence
movement
for
and from the
I
t-.
table
DIVIDING
sin
sin
HEAD
141
turn of the
triangle:
If we substitute this in the expression for the table movement
above we
have:
= =/-,
Table movement
40p
^
R =
and
lip
mm,
as
is
i.e.:
sin
sin
-=r-
usually the case, the expression reduces to
200
R =
sin
R and a and in using it a value

one of them will have to be assumed before the other may be calculated. If a first trial gives unsatisfactory conditions, then one of the values
may be changed to bring the other to reasonable dimensions.
This expression controls the variables
for
Example 16. Calculate a suitable setting for milling a cam, the profile of
which falls 12 mm in 100 of its angle. Leadscrew of machine has a pitch of
5mm.
Here p =
12
-tqtt
5 mm,
and if the cam profile falls 1 2 mm in 100
its
lead will be
= 43-2mm
Let us assume that
R =
-,,
Then
40o
sin
=i
3
Drivers
be suitable.
a =
Hence a gear ratio -=r~-
200
sin
43-2
x 43-2
0-648
This gives
sin
40 24'
= y3 and an angular setting of a = 40 24' will
142
Exercises 5d
1.
Calculate the nearest indexing for the following angles, using the standard Cincinnati
plate,
and determine the actual angle obtained
for the indexing used:
(a) 10 36' 30", (b) 41 24'20", (c) 75 45'30"

2.
Determine the nearest indexing to divide an angle of 76

on B. & S. plates.
30' into 7 parts.
Use hole
circles available
mm
3. A plate is rectangular, 123

x 79 mm, with a hole in its centre. Ifthis is on a mandril
between dividing head centres, find the nearest indexing to rotate it through the angle contained by joining the end corners to the centre. [Angle contained by short side required.]
In the following exercises use the B. & S. gears (p. 130) and take the Lead of Machine as
200 mm.
4. Calculate suitable gear ratios to cut the following leads
168 mm, (b) 288 mm,

5.
(c)
450 mm,
(d)
on a B.
&
S.
machine:
(a)
640 mm.
A gear has a pitch diameter of 100mm and the lead of the spiral is 420mm. Determine
a suitable gear ratio and find the helix angle for setting.
6. Calculate the gear ratio
on a worm of
7.
it
100mm
spiral milling cutter
which make approx
and angular
setting for milling a 4-start thread of35
mm pitch,
pitch diameter.
80mm
is
of their lead
diameter and
in the length
120mm
long. Flutes are to be milled on
of the cutter. Calculate suitable gears
and angular setting for milling the flutes.

8. Slots h aving a lead angle of 30 are to be milled in a cylinder 45 mm diameter. Determine
the gear ratio.
In the following examples take the table leadscrew pitch as 5mm.
in 50 of revolution, and determine a
cam which rises 10
mm
9. Calculate the lead of a
and gear ratio for cutting it.

10. A cam which revolves at 2 rev/min has to move the roller in contact with it at a rate of
50mm/min. Determine its lead, and find a suitable gear ratio and setting to mill its profile.
11. A cam is heart-shaped with uniform rise. The radius to the point of the heart is 60 mm,
and to the corner where the curved portions meet the radius is 30 mm. Determine the lead and
suitable setting
find a suitable gear ratio
and
setting to mill
it.
The calculation of solid angles

Angular milling and shaping jobs often occur where a solid angle has to be
calculated, the value of the angle depending upon the angles between
other surfaces on the same work. Examples of such cases are likely to be
varied, but the following worked cases may convey to the reader how any
other example might be approached.
Example 17. Calculate the true angle between the sloping faces of the
block shown in Fig. 98.
If we project a section
through the angle, the section plane being taken
at 90 to the sloping corner,
bottom
oJ
the diagram.
we shall obtain the triangle ABD shown at the
The
true angle
we
require will then be
ADB.
THE CALCULATION OF SOLID ANGLES
143
Fig. 98
Now
and since triangle
DE = CE cos 30
ABC is right angled at C and has 45
In triangle
AE =
ADE (sectional view): ^^
5
From which
/\
/\
tan
ADE
^N
tan
ADE =
ADE =
49
7'
4-33
1-155
/\
/\
which we require
Example
A andB
CE = AB = 5.
DE=5cos30 =4-33 mm
Hence
ADB
angles at
is
twice
18. Calculate the angle
ADE =
2 x 49
7'
98 14'
between the base and the sloping face of
shown in Fig. 99.

The block is shown by full and plain dotted lines. Chain dotted lines are
the block
constructional only, for the purpose of explanation.

If
AB
is
FC
is
AG and BE, and BC perpendicular to BE

on the base), then the angle we require is angle ABC.
to EB, and BD to FE
perpendicular to
(BC being a
line
parallel
144
Fig. 99
Then
BDC:
in triangle
10
BD = FE =
/\
BDC =
AC
But-o^
BC = BD
45 so that
/\
==
tan of ABC and
10
tan 60
sin 45
AC
tan
10
ABC =
(a)
(b)
(c)
19. Calculate for the tool
The
The
The
x 0-7071 = 4-083
2-453
4-083
ABC =
Example
5-774
10
/\
.\
5-774
1-732
67 49
shown
in Fig. 100.
true angle between the cutting edge
AB
and the
line
inclination of the top cutting face, perpendicular to
AC
AB
true angle between the top cutting face and the front clear-
ance face.
Lines
FE on the
dicular to the edge
cutting face
and
EG on the clearance face are perpen-
AB.
on the cutting face and is perpendicular to AC

and EK are vertical lines and angles FHG and EKG = 90
In Fig. 100 (b), EM and FS are horizontal, LM vertical and EL
FA
FH
is
pendicular to
(a)
If
AC.
True angle between
we
call this
EM
Now ^rr- =
EL
angle a,
AB
and
AC
EL
then -ry- =
cos 25 and
EL =
tan
EM
^rcos 25
is
per-
Fig. 100
AL =
Also
EM
and
Projected
EM
AM
AL
and
Projected length
AL
AM
tan 30
EM
tan 30
EM
Hence
EL
tana =
AL
cos 25
EM
EM
cos 25
tan 30
EM
tan 30
Hence
tan 30
0-5774
cos 25
0-9063
a =
0-6371
32 30
of top face perpendicular to edge

This will be the inclination of line FE
(b) Inclination
AB
145
146
Now since points A,
E and L
F,
FAL = FEA =
are
all in
the same plane, and
AFE = EAL = a = 32 30'

FE = FA cos a and FA = OR = PQ = ^
90;
cos 25
cos 25
Hence
FF
FE
The
21
==
c^25^
a = ~^Si2P
21 cos 32 30'
C0S
vertical distance of F
==
= 21x0-8434
0-9063
,__.
19
54mm
below E = ES
Distance of F below
A-
Distance of E below
PR - LM
= PQ tan 25 - EL sin 25 =21 tan 25 - EL sin 25
== 21 x 0-4663 - EL sin 25 = 9-79 - EL sin 25
EL = EA sin a and EA = FE tan a
=
But
EL = FE tan a
.'.
Hence EL sin
a = 32 30'
25
= FE tan a
=
PR - LM =
The
AB =
sin 25
which, since
FE =
x 0-6371 x 0-05373 x 0-4226 =
19-54
9-79
sin
sin
2-83
6-96
19-54,
and
2-83
ES.
inclination of the top cutting face in a plane perpendicular to
Angle EFS
/\
FS
=
H
FE
and
sin
EFS =
y\
EFS =
From which
6.06
-^19-54
0-3563
20 52'
True angle between top face and front clearance
(c)
This will be
FES 90
face.
20 52'
90
28 52'
61
8'
Exercises 5e
Determine the angle, when measured perpendicular to the clearance face, of a tool for
cutting acme threads (29 on its top face). Clearance angle on tool = 15.
2. The angle of the vee in the block at Fig. 101 is to measure 60 on the front face as
shown Calculate the angle of the vee when measured along its slope (i.e the angle to which
it would be milled)
1.
Fig. 102
Fig. 101
3.
147
Find the true angle a between the sloping face and the base of the block shown in Fig.
102.
4.
at
square pyramid
is
40mm high
and has a base
30mm
square. Calculate (a) the angle
the apex between two opposite faces, (b) the angle between two adjoining faces as mea-
sured perpendicular to the sloping edge bounding them.

5.
piece of sheet steel
240mm x 120mm
is
bent as in Fig. 103. Determine the base,
height and vertical angle of a triangular piece of material which will
fit
into the angle as
shown dotted.
Fig. 103
6. In Fig.
Fig. 104
104 calculate (a) the angle between the corner
AB
and the top face of the
block, and (b) the angle between the two sloping faces as measured perpendicular to
AB.
Mechanical
principles
Vectorial representation
We
are familiar with the numerical representation of quantities
and with
we have to submit our calculations to obtain the

study of some parts of mechanics it is an advantage
the processes to which

desired result. In the
form of vectors. When

anything has amount and direction it can be represented by a vector, and
a vector is a line, the length of which represents the amount of the quantity
to be able to express certain quantities in the
being represented, and whose direction indicates which way the quantity
is acting. Thus in Fig. 105, ab represent a vector 3j units long directed in an
Fig. 105
upward direction
at
45 to the horizontal; cd represents a vector 5 units
long directed horizontally from
left
to right.
Addition and subtraction of vectors
When we add or subtract numerical quantities we merely add or subtract

the numerical amounts, the result being a numerical
may
sum
or difference,
When
adding or subtracting vector quantities,

however, we have to take into account not only their numerical value but
also their direction. This is achieved if we observe the following rules:
as the case
be.
Adding
To add two
or
more
vectors,
draw the
first in
continue the second one on the end of the
first,
the direction of its arrow,

the third on the end of the
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS
second, and so on.
ning of the
first
The sum of the
vectors
is
149
the vector joining the begin-
to the end of the last in the series.
The arrow on the sum
vector must be in the same general direction as those on the vectors being
added. This will be understood from the vectors shown added in Fig. 106.
Draw ab equal and parallel to vector A on the end b drawee equal and
parallel to B and from c draw cd equal and parallel to C. The sum of A,
;
C is
and
the vector ad, and
its
arrow
is
as
shown.
Fig. 106
The
chief mistake
made
in
adding vectors
is
to add the succeeding
vector to the beginning instead of to the end of the previous one. This can
be avoided if the reader observes the following rule: When adding vectors,
do not remove the pencilfrom the paper until the end ofthe last one is reached.
Subtracting
We know that A -
Bis the same
as
A + ( - B) Hence to subtract a vector

.
another one A we may add BtoA.A minus vector

one with the direction of its arrow reversed.
B from
This
if
represent
The
>
is
is
a positive
<
a vector representing + A, then b
c will
A.
following example will illustrate the subtraction of vectors:
Example
Subtract a vector of 5 units horizontal L to R, from a vector of

at 45 to the NE, and then add a vector of 6 units vertical
4 units directed
downwards.
The vectors
are
shown
at Fig. 107 (a),
-A
and the problem
+ C
is
MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES
150
A=5
C=6'<
+c ,r
Fig. 107
It does not matter in which order we deal with the vectors, providing we
observe the rules for their addition or subtraction.
In this case we have to reverse the arrow of A and then add them all
together. This
is
shown
at (b)
and the
result
is
the vector ad.
To
convince the reader that the result is unaffected by the order in

which the vectors are drawn, the diagram has been re-drawn at (c), where
the vectors have been taken it the order C B A instead of B A C, as at (ft).
The
result is the
same
each case, since eh and ad are equal
for
in length
and direction.
Exercises 6a
[Where an angle is specified, it refers to the angle made with the horizontal or vertical
line drawn to the beginning end of the vector.]
1
Draw
vectors to represent the following: (a) 7 units, vertically upwards; (b) 8-5 units
horizontal
to R;
of vertical;
(c) 3
units
(e) 7-2 units
upwards
to
at 30 to
at 30
L of vertical; (d) 64 units downwards 15 to

(/) 5 units L to R at 45 below
above horizontal;
horizontal.
2.
Add
together the following vectors:
(a) 6 units vertically
upwards, to 4 units horizontal
to R.
(if)
to L, to 7-1 units vertically downwards.

4-5 units downwards, 10 to
of vertical, to 6-5 units vertically downwards.
7-2 units R to L 20 above horiz, to 6-5 units L to R, 45 below horiz.
(<?)
6-3 units vert
(/?)
(<)
8-2 units horizontal
upwards to 6 units horiz L to
R to 6 units R to L, 30 below horiz.
APPLICATIONS OF VECTORS
downwards, to
151
to R, 30
above
No 2, subtract the second vector from the first in (a), (b), (c) and (d).
No 2, (e) and if), subtract the third vector specified from the sum
of the
(/) 5 units horiz
to R, to 5 units vert,
8 units
horiz.
3. In Ex.
4. In Ex.
first
5.
two.
A horizontal
vector, ab, 8-6 units long,
ac and cb, where acb-
and
6.
90. If ac
is
arrow L to R, represents the sum of two vectors,

above the horizontal, find the values of ac
to R, 40
cb.
vertical vector, ab, 10 units long,
vectors (ac
cb).
Vector ac
is
arrow downwards, represents the difference of two
8 units long,
downwards, 30 to
R of the vertical.
Find the
value of vector cb
A vector ab,
15 units long, L to R, 45 above the horizontal, represents the sum of two

and cb. The angle between ac and cb is 30, and ac is upwards, 30 to R of the
vertical. Find the values of ac and cb.
8. When two vectors, ab and be, are added, the result is a horizontal vector 10 units
long, L to R. When be is subtracted from ab the result is an upward vector, 30 to the R of
7.
vectors, ac
the vertical, 10 units long. If the angle between ab and be
is
90, find their values.
Applications of vectors
We
will
now
consider
some of the examples which occur
in practice,
requiring the use of vectors for their solution.
Forces
In order to specify a force completely we must know its amount, its line
of action and its direction. Force may be represented vectorially since the
may represent the amount of the force, the inclination

of the vector may represent its line of action and the arrow head will show
the direction. When problems arise where a number of non-parallel forces
length of the vector
are acting at a point, the solution can be arrived at vectorially, since this
method takes into account the angular effect as well as the magnitude of
A simple example will probably make this clear. Suppose that

being driven into a hole by a force F, applied on an angle as shown
the forces.
a pin
is
in Fig. 108 (a). We know from experience that if F were large enough it
would eventually drive the pin home, although it would not do so as well
as if it were acting vertically. We also know that if F were sloping too far
over towards the horizontal, it would bend the pin We may say, therefore,
that F is equivalent to the combination of a vertical force and a horizontal
one, and Fig. 108(6) shows the forces acting on the pin: Q is the pressure
of the side of the hole and R is the resistance tending to prevent the pin
from entering the hole. By drawing a vector diagram we may find Q and F
.
152
Fig. 108
if we know the amount and direction of F, because we know that F Q +

R. The diagram is shown in Fig. 108(c). The vector for F is drawn parallel
to F and equal to its amount to some scale. Since only 3 forces are acting,
the diagram is a triangle, and this is completed by making one side parallel
to Q and the other parallel to R, Q, being drawn from one end of F and/?
from the other./? represents the driving in effect, and Q and bending effect
ofF.
The reader will observe that here the arrows follow round the diagram,
whereas when we were discussing the addition of vectors they did not.
Here we are dealing with vectors representing a set of forces which are in
balance amongst themselves, whilst before we were finding a vector which
represented the resultant of a number of others. If F were representing the
resultant, or the net effect of Q and R, its arrow would point upwards, but
as it represents a force which balances the other two, then its direction
must be reversed. The only difference between the resultant of a number
of forces and the single force that will balance them is that the balancing
force
is
opposite in direction to the resultant.
Example 2
of
100N
is
A round bar of metal which exerts a vertically downward force

resting in a 90 vee block. Find the load
on the
sides of the
block.
In all problems of this type, a clear conception of the forces acting

should be gained before attempting the vectorial solution. Also, in all
153
100N
Fig. 109
vectorial problems, the data or details
that the vectors
may be drawn
must be drawn out to scale in order
parallel to the quantities they represent.
In this case the weight of the bar (100N) acting vertically downwards is
being balanced by the forces R andR 2 exerted on the bar by the vee block.
As the vee block is symmetrical about the centre line, the forces R andi? 2
will be equal. The bar, of course, exerts equal and opposite forces, R and
t
2,
on the block
(Fig. 109a).
draw a vertical vector to represent

From each end of this draw
vectors parallel to the balancing forces acting. The lengths of these will
represent the magnitude of the forces. This is shown in Fig. 109(b).
In drawing the vector diagram,
first
the weight of the bar acting downwards.
be seen that in the vector triangle abc, since each side of the
vee block slopes at 45, the angles abc are each 45
It will
Hence
Example
be
3.
=
=
=
ab
sin 45
ac
0-707 x
A casting whose weight exerts a downward force of 1000N is
slung by chains as
shown
(b) the least angle
a between
the chains
=R
= 0-707 ab
100 = 70-7 N
/?,
is
in Fig.
10(a).
Find (a) the tension in the chains,
the chains and the casting
not to exceed 1600N.
if
the tension in
154
1000
(*)
Fig. 110
(a) The forces acting at the ring where the chains meet are
(1) lifting
chain pulling upwards, (2) sling chains pulling in their directions. These
forces are shown by the arrows.
The diagram must be
set
out to scale so that vectors
parallel to their forces; this has
been done for Fig.
may be drawn
10(a) to save an addi-
tional diagram.
We may now draw the vector diagram,

ab
and
this is
shown in Fig.
10(b).
the vertical vector for the upward pull of the lifting chain, whilst ac
and be are drawn parallel to the sling chains.
is
Upon measurement, ac and be are found

700N, which is the force in the chains.
(b) If the tension in the chains is
to have a length representing
1600N, the vector diagram
will
be as
shown in Fig. 1 10(c), and by measurement the angle a is found to be 19

The reader will observe that the smaller the value of a, the greater will
be the load on the sling chains.
Exercises 6b
The leadscrew of a lathe is threaded 5 mm lead, and is connected to the spindle by a

gear ratio. The feed shaft is set to give a feed of 1 mm per rev to the
cross-slide. If the nut and
1.
the cross-slide feed (outwards) are engaged at the

ment of the tool point.
same
time, determine the actual
move-
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM
155
2. A fitter holds a chisel at an angle of 40 to the horizontal, and strikes it a 50N blow
with a hammer. Find the force tending to drive the chisel horizontally, and that tending
to drive
3.
it
vertically into the metal.
A bar of steel, which exerts a vertically downward
force of
300N,
rests symmetrically
on a pair Of 90 vee-blocks.
(a) Determine the reaction between the bar and the block at an area of contact
(b) If contact takes place on an area of size 50 mm x 0-08 mm, what is the contact
N/mm ?
60mm diameter,
pressure in
4.
wheel,
rolls
along a
fiat
surface at 0-06 m/s. Determine the actual
speed and direction of a point on its circumference, and level with its centre.
5. A bar of steel 2m long and 31 kgf (304 N) weight, is lifted by a chain attached to
ends.
The
total length of the vee
formed by the chain
is
2-5 m.
Determine the tension
its
in the
chain.
A casting weighing 20 kgf (196 N) is suspended by a chain and is being pulled to one
by another chain attached to it. If, when the first chain is inclined at 30 to the
vertical, the angle between the chains is 105, find the tension in the chains.
7. A casting of weight equivalent to 2000N is raised by driving 4 wedges under it. If
the angle of each wedge is 25 and the weight is equally distributed between them, find
6.
side
wedge out, and the pressure perpendicular to the wedge

between the wedge and casting.]
the force tending to push the

surface. [Neglect friction
Conditions for equilibrium
For a body to be in equilibrium under the action of 3 forces, the forces

acting upon it must satisfy one of the following conditions:
(a) They must be parallel, or
(b) If not parallel they must meet at a point, and their vectors, when
drawn, must form a closed figure.
As we
shall
be dealing with parallel forces
later,
we
will consider case
(b).
It is
not always obvious, upon the examination of a problem, in which

all the forces are acting. Generally the points which they are
direction
being applied can be picked out easily, as can the directions of at least two
of them. When we know that to be in equilibrium, non-parallel forces must

meet at a point, we can generally find this point by using what information
we have, and employ it to help in the solution of the problem.
we might remind the reader of the following:

The weight of a body always acts vertically downwards through its
In this connexion
(a)
(b)
Centre of Gravity, and if the mass is m kilogrammes, the weight can

be taken as 9-81 m newtons.
When friction is neglected the pressure between two bodies acts at
the point of contact and in a direction perpendicular to a tangent
drawn
to the surfaces in contact.
156
Example 4. A bar of metal, mass 15 kg (147N weight), is rested on its end

and leaned against a wall so that it is inclined at an angle of 60 to the floor.
If the friction between the end of the bar and the wall is neglected, find the
force on the floor and against the wall.
The forces acting on the bar are (1) The gravitational pull of its weight,
acting downwards through its centre; (2) the reaction of the wall acting
horizontal (since friction
these
and
is
neglected); (3) the reaction of the floor.
we know the amount, direction and line of action of (
1 ),
Of
the direction
and the point of application of (3).

and (2) are drawn on the diagram they meet at O
[Fig. 1 1 1 (a)] Obviously, if the forces acting must meet at a point, the third
force must pass through O, and since it must also act at the end B of the
bar, its line of action is OB. Having thus determined the directions of all
the forces acting, and knowing that they must form a closed vectorial
figure, we may now draw the vector diagram.
line of action of (2),
If lines representing
(1)
147 NT
Fig. Ill
Draw
ab to represent the weight of the bar, be parallel to OB, and ca
parallel to
From
on wall
AD.
the diagram
(ca)
we find that
reaction of floor (be)
= 153N and load
= 40N.
Example 5. A bell crank lever ABC is pivoted at B and the forces acting at
A and C are as shown in Fig. 1 12(a). Find the force on the pivot B.
FORCES ACTING ON A CUTTING TOOL
If the lines
157
of action of the forces at A and C are continued they meet at
on the
[Fig. 112(6)], so that the third force acting
lever
must pass
through D. Since the lever is supported at B, this force must also pass
through B, so that the forces acting on the lever are as shown by the
arrows.
>A
200N
60
()
120
100Nrr
Fig. 112
The vector diagram of forces is shown

B = ac
= V200 2 + 100
at Fig.
12(c)
and from it we see
that force acting at
= 224N
Forces acting on a cutting tool
We have noticed previously that when a lathe tool is cutting there are three
it. These are shown diagrammatically in
vertical
where
Cis
the
cutting force, Fthe feeding force, and//
1 13(a),
the horizontal pressure of the work. By means of vector diagrams we may
perpendicular forces acting on

Fig.
determine the resultant of these forces.

Since the forces are acting in two planes we must solve the problem in
two stages. Let us find the resultant of F and C first. This is shown by the
vector diagram abc at (b), and R FC represented by ac, is the resultant, acting in the vertical plane containing Fand C. We may now imagine the tool
being acted upon by the forces RFC and //, acting in a plane inclined at to
,
158
Fig. 113
the vertical as
shown
at (a).
Combining these
in a
second vector diagram,
we
obtain the final resultant force on the tool (R) as shown at (c).R lies in a
plane sloping at 6 to the vertical and its line of action is inclined at a to
the line of
is
H A diagrammatic
.
sketch of the forces and their resultants
shown at (d).
The reader will observe that we might solve this problem by calculation
alone, since from Fig. 113(6)
(c)R 2
In
= R
all
and tan a
such cases, however,
F2 + C = R
2
2
,
f
C
and-^ = tan
6;
and from
=^H
it
is
advisable to be able to visualise the
conditions and not to calculate a result blindly from a formula.
Example 6 The forces acting on a lathe tool are

.
H=
400N
[Fig. 113(a)]
C=
1000N, F = 100N and
Find the resultant force on the tool.
THE BALANCING OF WORK ON LATHE FACE-PLATES
As we have discussed the problem diagrammatically, we

problem by calculation.
Referring to Fig. 113(6), (c) and (d).
Rfc = F2 + C =
2
R FC = V700 + 1000 = 1220N

_
.
= F = 700 = n
tan0
a7
TOOO
from which 6 =
R* =
R FC +
*
tan a
resultant
R.
400 2
1220
400
from which a
is
35.
1220 2
R = V1220 +
Hence the
will solve this
700 2 + 1000 2
159
=
=
+ 400 2
= 1285N
3-05
71 51'
a force of 1285N, and the angles a and 6 in Fig.
are 71 51' and 35 repectively.
113(fi0
The balancing of work on lathe face-plates

When a mass is rotating at a certain distance from the centre of rotation
the disturbing effect due to its being out of balance is proportional to the
mass and to its distance from the centre of rotation. Furthermore, the
disturbing effect is always directed from the centre to the masses. Thus if
Fig. 1 14 represents a rotating plate carrying rotating masses m, and m 2 at
radii r and r2 the out-of-balance forces are proportional to m r andm 2 r 2
and are directed from the axis (O), through the mass centres.
l
We
are thus able to deal with such problems vectorially, provided we
draw our vectors equal
in length to the
product mr.
Fig.
14
160
Example
radii
80
7.
mm
rotating plate carries masses of 15 kg and 20 kg placed at

and 100 mm respectively. The angle between the masses is
120.
Find where a 22 kg mass must be placed to balance the system.

The two masses are shown at Fig. 115(a).
Wrfor pl}~**
<t
of Balance
Weight
Fig. 115
The products of their mass and
radii are
X 80
20 x 100
15
The vector diagram
is
now drawn
= 1200
= 2000
with the vector lengths proportional
and 2000, the directions of the vectors being parallel to radii joining the c entre O to each respective weight This is shown at abc in Fig .115
(b) and ca is the vector representing the product mr for the balancing mass.
From the diagram the length of ca is 1700 units, and since for the balance
to 1200
m=
1700
= 77 mm.
22
The position of the balance weight relative to the other two is found by
drawing a line through O parallel to ca This is shown dotted on Fig 1 1 5(a)
Hence to balance the masses given, the 22 kg mass must be fixed at 77
weight
22 kg, r
mm
and 97 from the 15kg mass.

When working out the balancing of irregularly shaped castings, the
point or points must be determined where the mass of the casting is acting
radius,
(the Centre of Gravity). If the metal
centre of gravity
may be determined
is all
concentrated together, the
as a single point, but
if the
casting
lumps of metal concentrated at different positions, a better

method would be to estimate them as separate units of mass.
consists of
161
Exercises 6c
1. The forces acting on a lathe tool are 1200N vertical, 800N along the axis of the work
and 500N outwards, perpendicular to the axis of the work. Find the amount and direction of
the resultant force.

2. If the tool in question 1
is
20mm
action of the resultant force intersect

3.
The
its
deep,
how
far
back from
its
point does the line of
base?
helix angle of the tooth of a spiral milling cutter
cutting force perpendicular to the cutter axis
850N,
is
is
find the
20.
When
the tangential
end thrust and the force
acting perpendicular to the tooth face.

4.
The arms of a
bell
inclined at 45 to the
crank lever are
upwards
and 40mm long. When the long arm is

arm is below the centre line, and with the
of 120N at the end of the long arm is balanced
60mm
vertical, the short
upwards force
by a horizontal force of 180N at the end of the short arm. Find the force acting on the
lever in this position a vertical
lever pivot.
5.
and the
bar of
floor
steel
and
weighing 31 kgf (304 N)
rests
with one end in the corner between a wall
inclined at 30 to the horizontal.
is
It is
held in this position by a rope
attached to the outer end, the rope making an angle of 90 with the bar. Find the tension in
the rope and the force where the bar rests in the corner.
6.
countershaft
is
75 with the top one.
down
side of the
driven by a horizontal belt and the
down
belt
makes an angle of
When the tension in each side of the driving belt is 200N and in each
belt
120N
find the resultant force
on the
shaft.
350 N
rmXJ
r-
\Z50N
Fig. 116
7. Fig.
the
8.
A
A
is
a diagrammatic sketch of a gear drive, and forces of 350 N act on the teeth of
gear as shown. Find the resultant thrust on the bearings of this gear.
toggle press
250N and
9.
16
100mm
the angle
casting
is
mechanism
CA D
2
is
bolted to
is
as
shown
in Fig. 121.
When the horizontal
5, find the vertical force at the
force at
C is
ram.
a lathe face-plate, the total mass being equivalent to
162
200mm
radius and 60kg at 260mm radius. The angle between these is

and position of a 50kg mass which will give balance.
10. For the mechanism shown at Fig. 126, if a load of lOkN acts vertically downwards at E, what is the thrust in link BC?
masses of 50kg
at
120. Find the radius
11.
CI pulley has two out-of-balance bosses on it each 60 mm diameter and

A = 260mm and B = 360mm, and the angle between radii
and B is 110. Find the volume and position of a lead balance weight to be
large
40mm
thick. Their radii are
drawn
to
attached to the pulley at
[Density CI
360mm
7-5g/cm 3 lead
,
radius.
ll-3g/cm 3 ],
Vector diagrams of velocity
may be represented by a vector since it has

amount, line of action and direction. The application of vector velocity
diagrams is very useful when studying the speeds of points in machine
mechanisms, and for that reason it is worthy of consideration.
Before going further into the subject it will be well to impress certain
fundamental points on the reader's mind, as the success or otherwise of
his further study will depend upon his appreciation of them.
Velocity, as well as force,
Fig. 117
(1)
When
an object
is
rotating in a circle
speed and r
is
the radius, then the velocity
applications the rotational speed
is
velocity at any instant
its
upon which
directed perpendicular to the radius
is cor.
it lies.
If co rad/s
is
is
the
For most engineering
usually quoted in rev/min and the
radius in millimetres. For general purposes the most convenient unit for
velocity
is
metres per second, and hence
N=
and
speed in rev/min
= 60000 = 60000
radius in millimetres
2nrN
,,
then
if
7idN
metres/ second
VECTOR DIAGRAMS OF VELOCITY
163
Whatever may be the motion of a rigid rod, the only velocity that
one end may have relative to the other is perpendicular to the rod. (The
"relative" motion of one body to another is the motion the first would
(2)
appear to have to an observer situated
at the
second one.)
Fig. 118
1 18, AB is a rod having any motion whatsoever. To an observer

A, B can only appear to move perpendicular to AB. If it could move
in any direction other than this, it must either approach nearer to A
or recede from it. Both of these are impossible since AB is rigid and of
In Fig.
at
fixed length.
(3)
When a part of a machine is guided in slides it can only move parallel
to the slides.
We will
discuss vector velocity diagrams by working one or
blems, and the reader
is
two pro-
advised to take particular note of the system of
lettering adopted.
Example
8.
ABC is a slider crank mechanism. Find the speed of C for the
position and values given (Fig. 119).
Speed of B =
27irN
60000
x 22 x 60 x 500
7 x 60000
3-142m/s
500
rev/min
Fig.
19
164
From
(1)
the diagram
is
we know
the following:
AB at 3-142m/s per sec,

can only move perpendicular to BC,
can only move horizontal.
moving perpendicular to
(2) Relative to B,
(3) Relative to A,
C
C
306
The
velocity diagram
shown
Fig. 120
at Fig.
120 and the explanation of its
(Arrows are shown on the vectors, but
in practice these are omitted.)
construction
is
is
as follows:
ab represents the velocity of B relative to A (i.e. the velocity B would

appear to have to an observer at A). The relative velocity of C to B is
perpendicular to BC, hence from b a line is drawn perpendicular to BC,
and c must
lie
somewhere on
that line. But relative to A,
C can only move
somewhere on a horizontal line through a.

The point c is therefore given by the intersection of the two lines drawn,
and abc is the velocity diagram. For the given position C is moving
horizontal, hence c must
lie
towards A at a speed of 3-06 m/s, scaled off from ac.

[Note in the lettering of velocity diagrams that ab = velocity of B
relative to A and not of A relative to B as might have been expected.
Similarly for ac, be, etc.]
Example
9. The mechanism of a toggle press is shown in Fig. 121 (a).

Find the speed of the ram for the position shown. The figure is drawn
to scale.
When the frame (the fixed element) appears in more than one place it
should be given the same letter with small figures. In this case A, and
A 2 are Iboth fixed frame points and are lettered accordingly.
The vector
velocity diagram
..
+
ofe
Velocity
D =
B
is
shown
at Fig. 121 (b).
InrN
^^ =
= 0.314m/s
X 22 X 60 X 50
7x60000
VECTOR DIAGRAMS OF VELOCITY
165
-260
Fig. 121
Draw ab perpendicular to A,B to represent the velocity of B relative

From b draw a line perpendicular to BC, and from a draw per-
to A,
pendicular to
From
draw a
(velocity of
C. The intersection of these lines gives the point
line perpendicular to
c.
CD and from a draw a vertical line
D relative to A is fixed as vertically)
The intersection of these
gives point d.
The vector ad represents the relative velocity of D to A (the frame).

This is shown to be downwards and scales off from the diagram to be
0-052 m/s. If the speed and direction of a point on any lever is required, it
can be found immediately from the vector diagram, since lines on the
vector diagram are images of corresponding ones on the mechanism.
for a point E, the distance from C to D, locate the point e,
from c to d, and ae represents the velocity of E.
There are one or two additional points to be explained in connection
with velocity diagrams, and these will be covered by the next example.
Thus
Example 10. The mechanism for a slotted-link shaping machine quickreturn motion is shown drawn to scale in Fig. 122 (a). Determine the
speed of the ram for the position shown.
The crank A,B rotates, and the block B moves up and down in the
slotted lever
2 2,
AD
2
This lever
and through the
link
is
thus
made
DE drives the
to oscillate about
ram of the machine.
its
pivot
MECHANICAL
166
When
P.
mechanism
which the end of one lever slides

moves, the lettering up should be
arranged as shown. B represents the block, and C represents a point on
the lever A 2 D. B is rotating about A, whilst C is rotating about A 2 The
reason for doing this will be seen when we discuss the velocity diagram.
in Or
dealing with a
on another
lever
which
in
itself
vi
D
Velocity off B
x 22 x 80 x 40
x 600oo
.,__
^
5
^
.
Ram
'in
andBJock)
C( Point on Lever
/ajd;
Fig. 122
In Fig. 122 (b) ab represents the velocity of

velocity of
draw a
AD
2
relative to
line parallel to
(or
AD
2
(since relative to A,
to A.
oiac to d such that

their
movements
The
ac
ad
to C)
is
relative to
along the lever
A. Now the
2 D. From b
and from a draw a line perpendicular to

moving perpendicular to A 2 D). The inter-
is
section of these gives the point

velocity of
c.
The
line ac
now
represents the relative
D relative to A will be a continuation

A C because C and D are on the same lever and
A,D
velocity of
2
are proportional to their respective radii. (For this
FORCES ACTING
IN
A MECHANISM
167
purpose C is assumed to be coincident with B, as it is only an imaginary

point introduced for this purpose of the construction.)
When d is thus located, draw a line through it perpendicular to DE,
to represent the velocity of E relative to D and draw a horizontal line
through a to represent the relative velocity of E to A. The intersection
of these gives the point e. From the lettering it will be seen that E is
moving to the right and the scaled length of ae gives its speed to be
0-353 m/s. The speed at which the block B is sliding in lever A 2 D is given
by the length be on the velocity diagram.
Forces acting in a mechanism
mechanism may be used to estimate

when the force at another point is
known. Let us assume that for a mechanism we have the velocity of
two points A and E, and the force acting at A. If vA and vE are the
The vector
velocity diagram for a
the force acting at a certain point
and FA and FE the forces, respectively, then assuming A to

be the energy input point and E the point of output, the input rate of
work at A will be FA vA and if the machine is 100% efficient, this will
equal the output rate FE vE
We can assume an efficiency r] and then we shall have
velocities,
v
or, since
we know FA
_ Output _ FE vE
~ Input ~ FA vA
and
E,
FE _
?(
Fa va)
VE
Example 11. If the torque input to the toggle press in Example 9 is

lOONm and the efficiency of the mechanism is 60%, estimate the pressure
on the ram for the position shown.
Since
100
=
=
of the crank
torque
Here we have
Hence
that vB
(Force)(radius),
and
60
mm
0-06
(Force)(0-06) and the force at the end
100
j^-^
= 1670N
U-Uo
efficiencv
emciency
0-3 14 m/s, vD
FpVp
-
'
From which FD =
0-052 m/s, and
Fd x
0-6 =
uo
im
'
FB =
- 52
x Q314
314
= 6000 N
670
168
Exercises 6d
mechanism similar to Fig. 119 the crank AB is 60mm long
and the connecting-rod BC is 220 mm. Find the speed of C when AB is rotating at
lOOOrev/min and (a) the angle BAC is 45, (b) angle BAC = 120.
2. For the problem in Question 1, find the velocity of the mid-point of BC, when
In a slider-crank engine
1.
angle
ABC =
3. Fig
90.
123 shows a quick return shaping machine drive in which cutting takes place
when C moves
to the
left.
Find
(a)
The
ratio
cuttl "g
timc
return time
if
is
to have a velocity of 0-24 m/s
when
at the
b\ The speed of
in rev/ min
mid-point of its cutting stroke.
Fig. 123
4. In Fig. 124 crank
and forwards.
AB
When AB
is
revolves at 200rev/min and

at 30 to the horizontal as
CD is caused to rock backwards

shown, find the speed of C and
of E, the mid-point of BC.

5. In Fig. 125 A and B are two blocks which slide in slots at right angles. If AB = 240mm
and AC = 80 mm, find the speed and direction of C when angle OBA = 40 and A is
moving downwards at 0-24m/s.
Fig. 125
Fig. 126
6. In Fig. 126
the speed of
crank
AB
E when AB
7. In a toggle press
A C = CD =
2
is
CDE
shown and
is
a solid
bell
crank lever. Find
at 20 to the vertical.
mechanism
160mm. The
A, is 120mm below
When B is rotating at
rotates as
169
similar to Fig. 121,
vertical centre lines are
the centre line of
A,B = 40mm, BC = 240mm,
280mm
apart and the centre line of
60rev/min and angle
CA D
2
is
10, find the
speed of D.
problem if the torque on A,B is 100 Nm, find the load at D if the
overall efficiency is 60%.
moving
9. In the press mechanism shown in Fig. 127, find the speed of E when D is
upwards at 0.02m/s (A,E is horizontal). If in this position the load at D is 4000N,
what force can E exert if the overall efficiency is 50%? [CA,E is a solid lever.]
8. In
the
last
Path of
A,B
= 170
~i^
A2 C = 120
EC
10. In the
slides
= 300
Fig. 128
Whitworth quick-return mechanism sketched

along the lever
CD.
CD
Time of outer
Find
(a)
^>
Fig. 127
A, and
is
pivoted at
stroke,
for E,
the ratio
Time of
2
,
and
in Fig. 128,
rotates about
w.
(b) the
jn-u
ad*
E when A,B
speed of
is
at
inner stroke
45 as shown.
11. In Fig. 129 AB is a door hinged at A. CD is a spring-loaded arm for closing the
door and hinged at C. If B is moving at 0-36 m/s, find the speed at which D is sliding along
the door when the door has opened 45
Fig. 129
170
The moment or turning effect of a force

a force acts on a body, and the effect of the force is considered relative
to some point not on its line of action, the tendency is for the force to
rotate the body about the point. This tendency is called the moment
of the force about the point. Thus in Fig. 130, if the effect of the force
F is considered relative to the point 0, F tends to rotate the body about
O The numerical value of the moment of F about O is found by multiplying F by the perpendicular distance from O to its line of action. Thus the
moment of F about O = Fx. If F were rotated to act in some other direction (e.g. as shown dotted), then its moment would h^F, (perpendicular
If
distance)
To
F,_y.
moment we multiply a force by a distance so

moment is usually newton metres (Nm) (although
such as Nmm may be more convenient to save
calculate turning
that the unit of turning
on occasions a unit
converting and re-converting units of length).
Fig. 131
Fig. 130
When two
equal and opposite forces act on either side of a pivot they

is called a Couple, and the turning moment exerted by a
constitute
what
couple
given by one of the forces multiplied by the perpendicular
is
distance between their lines of action (Fig. 131).
Total
moment of forces P = Fr + Fr
= 2Fr = F(2r)
= F(perp
distance between forces).
A good example of a couple is given by the forces applied to a tap

wrench or die stocks when cutting a thread. The couple applied is equal
to the turning
moment
resistance at the cutting edges of the tap or die.
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM WITH MOMENTS ACTING
171
Moment of a force about a point on its line of action

Since moment = (Force)(distance), if the distance is zero, then the
moment will be zero if the point lies on the line of action of the force.
Thus in Fig. 130 the moment of F about A = F x O = 0.
Conditions for equilibrium with moments acting
The reader
will
have observed that a moment may be directed clockwise
or contra- clockwise.
The condition for a body to be in equilibrium isthat the sum of the clockmoments about any point must be equal to the sum ofthe contra-clockwise
wise
When
moments.
this condition
is
satisfied there will
be no unbalanced
turning effort causing the body to rotate.
m long between the bearings and carries 3

and 6 m from the LH bearing. The downward
force on the pulleys due to the belt drives is 300 N, 250 N and 350 N
respectively. Calculate the load on each bearing (Fig. 132).
Example
12.
shaft
is
pulleys spaced at 2 m, 3
7-5
-7-5m
Fig. 132
Since the loading on the shaft by the pulleys is downwards the forces
exerted on the shaft by the bearings will be upwards. Call these R A
andi? B
We thus
since
it is
have the shaft acted upon by a system of parallel forces, and

in equilibrium, the conditions to be satisfied are:
(1)
Total upward forces
(2)
Clockwise moments
If
we
take
Total downward forces.

Contra-clockwise moments.
moments about
acting there since
it
will
we can neglect
moment about that point.
the bearing A,
have no
the force
172
Hence by moments about

Clockwise moments
Contra-clockwise
A
= 300 x 2 + 250 x 3 + 350 x 6
= 600 + 750 + 2100 = 3450Nm
= R B X 7-5Nm
These must be equal

7-5
Also, since
RB =
3450 and
3450
RB =
460
= downward forces:
300 + 250 + 350 = 900N
*a + *b
=
R A 900 R,
900 - 460 = 440
upward
forces
Example 13. A system of levers is shown in Fig. 133. Calculate what load
hung at
may be balanced by a force of ION at A. [Neglect friction
and the weight of the levers.]
H20 h
T
240
îr?
R\
"10N
J$2-
kip
a
^
Wu
200
Fig. 133
\15
which will be balanced by the force

at A.
Taking moments about B, and working in units of N and mm, we
have
First let us consider the top lever,
in the
connecting link and the
Clockwise
Hence
This
Now
10
x 240 = 2400 and

2400
will pull
ION
down on
20 F and
contra- clockwise
= 20F
F = 120N
the top, and upwards on the bottom lever.
consider the bottom lever and take
Clockwise
Contra-clockwise
moments about C.
= F x 215
= W x 15
EXAMPLES INVOLVING MOMENTS
These must be equal, and since
F=
120
x 215 =
12 * 215
120
W=
The
173
\5W
= 1720N
would be affected by friction, the weight of the

and of the stirrup. If the lever weight is appreciable it can be
allowed for by assuming the weight of each lever to be acting as a downward force approximately at the lever centre. For example, if each lever
weighs ION and the weight is assumed at the lever centre, we have for
actual value of
levers
the top lever:
20 x
F=
10
x 240 +
= 2400 +
F = 175N
10
1100
x 110
= 2500
For the bottom lever
Fx
175
215
x 215
15
= 15W - 10 x 107-5 and since F = 175N

= 15 W- 1075,
= 37 625 + 1075 = 38 700
W
y-Jg-2580N
To obtain an exact calculation, the centre of gravity of the levers could

be found by balancing on a knife-edge. The weight is then taken as
acting through the centre of gravity.
Example 14. If in Example 6, p. 158, the work is 240mm long between
centres, and the cutting tool is 60 mm from the tailstock centre, calculate
the forces acting on the centres.
The forces acting on the work are as follows:
(1) Vertical upwards force of 1000N.
(2) Horizontal force of 400 N directed away from the tool.
Longitudinal dorce of 700

towards the headstock.
in Fig. 134 (a).
Let us consider the vertical force first. This will cause an upward
force on each centre and an equal and opposite downward force on the
work by the centre.
(3)
These are shown
Taking moments about centre A, and working on units of
mm we have
Clockwise
moment =
(vert force at
B)240
and
174
1000N
Headstock
Fig. 134
(a).
Contra-clockwise
moment =1000 x
Hence
B =
Vert force at
A =
same way we have
In the
forces of 300
The 700 N
at
that the
B and 100N
at
longitudinal thrust
180
240 (vert force at B)

Vert force at
(b).
180 000
180 000
180 000
240
1000
750 N
750
400N
force
= 250N
is
balanced by horizontal
A.
is
transmitted through the bar entirely
to A.
We thus have forces acting on the two centres as shown by Fig. 134(b),
and as an additional exercise the reader should combine these vectorially
to find the resultants.
Exercises 6e
1.
bell
crank lever has equal arms of 120
mm at 90. When the lever
is
pivoted with
upwards, a weight of 120N is hung on the end of the horizontal arm.

What force, inclined at 45, must be applied to the end of the upper arm to balance the
one arm
vertically
lever?
2.
480mm
20
mm
long.
hand reamer
The hole
is
is
being operated by hand pressure at each end of a lever
20mm
long and each of the 6 teeth
If the cutting pressure at the teeth is
be applied
3.
bar
at
is
each end of the
240mm
480mm
80N
per
is
is
taking a cut of 0-04
mm
of cut, estimate what force must
wrench.
long between lathe centres.
stock the vertical cutting pressure
mm
When
850N. Find the
the tool
is
vertical force
90mm
from the tailon each centre due
to this.
4.
piece of material
is
held in a lathe chuck and the point at which cutting takes
place overhangs from the centre of the front bearing by 125 mm. If the vertical pressure
due to the cut
is
1200N, and the bearings are 360 mm apart, estimate the force on each
EXAMPLES INVOLVING MOMENTS
[Assume point contact at each bearing and

The bearings of a countershaft are 900mm
bearing.
5.
the top belt
down
belt
175
neglect weight of spindle and chuck.]

apart.
The
horizontal force due to
450N at 240 mm from the LH hanger and the vertical force due to the
400N at 720mm from the LH hanger. Find the load on each bearing.
is
is
120mm
long between the centres of the clamping and supporting points.

from the clamping point, to what tension must it be tightened up in
order to apply a clamping load of 1000 N? What will be the reaction at the support?
7. A casting is being raised by a 720mm crowbar which is supported at 40mm from the
end where it takes the weight. If the casting has a mass of 612 kg (6000 N weight), and
half this is taken by the crowbar, what force must be applied at the end of the bar in order
6.
clamp
If the bolt
is
is
45
mm
to raise the casting?
Blade
P"otl
F/xech
Pivot
40
Work'to
he sheared
8.
Fig. 135
bench shearing machine is shown diagrammatically at Fig. 135. If the shearing

2
is 400N/mm
what force F must be applied to shear a piece of material
strength of steel
10mm x
2-5
mm?
Mechanical
principles
II
Friction
workshop that the calculations

we press two
surfaces together and attempt to slide one over the other, a resistance is
encountered, and this is caused by the friction between the two surfaces.
Let us consider a block pressed on to a surface with a force
as shown
in Fig. 136. Another force is now applied to the block, tending to slide it
Friction plays such an important part in a
connected with
it
are worthy of
some
consideration. If
As soon as this force is applied, frictional resistance

and prevents the body from moving. This resistance is
denoted by /and indicated by the arrows at the surfaces. Depending
upon W, and on the nature of the surfaces, however, there is a limiting
value beyond which / cannot increase, so that if we gradually increase
the force tending to slide the block, a point will be reached at which the
block will just be on the point of sliding. Let the force then be F, and since
from
to right.
left
comes
into action
the block
is
F = /, the frictional resistance. The block

being acted upon by three forces: (1) W downwards, (2) F
just
at this point is
about to
slide
horizontal, (3) the reaction of the other surface (say R).
diagram
is
shown drawn
in Fig.
The vector
136 at abc.
F=f
that when
Fig. 136
friction is neglected the reaction

We mentioned earlier,
between two surfaces is normal to their common tangent or along ab in
Fig. 136. It will now be seen that when friction is allowed for, the reaction
moves round so as to oppose motion, and its line makes an angle with
the normal line to the surfaces.
<j>
CLAMPING FRICTION
This angle ^
is
called the Friction
The
_
~
Angle and
it
will
be noticed that
Frictional force
F_
W~
Pressure between surfaces
ratio
177
-^ is called the Coefficient of Friction and
is
usually denoted
by fi.
*=W
Thus
if
F =
Tp
tan
<j>
and also
/u
tnen
ju
as
would
tan
<j> .
R between the
and is directed in such a
to oppose motion, if he considers where and in which direction it
[The reader
surfaces
way
will appreciate the fact that the reaction
moves round
to
some angular
position,
act in the event of a definite step being raised in front of the block.]
Approximate Values
Nature of surfaces
for the Coefficient of Friction
in contact
,T
(Coefficient).
Cast iron on cast iron (dry)
0-15
on cast iron
(dry)
Steel on brass
(dry)
Cast iron on oak
(dry)
Steel on leather
(dry)
Steel on leather
(greasy)
Oak on oak
(dry)
Leather on oak
(dry)
Ferodo bonded asbestos on steel
0-20
Steel
[Values of /u depend to
speed of
some
extent
0-15
0-49
0-56
0-23
0-40
0-33
0-3- 0-4
upon the pressure between the surfaces and upon the
sliding.]
Clamping of work
Almost all methods of clamping in the shop depend for their hold upon
the frictional resistance between the two surfaces being clamped. This
applies to work clamped to machine tables, in lathe chucks, work held
in vices, and so on.
178
100
40
rffe
10>
.15*
w:
Q
A\
w:
7vft
Work
Fig. 137
W/////////////7///////////////
t<
1
A casting is clamped to a shaping machine table by 4 clamps
arranged as shown in Fig. 137. If the cutting pressure at the tool causes
Example
a thrust of 4500N against the work and if the coefficient of friction

between the work and the table is 0-15, what is the least tension to which
the bolts be tightened in order that the job may not move under the
pressure of the cut.
If the sliding force to be resisted is 4500N and /u =0-15, the surfaces
must be pressed together with a force of
4500N
30
0-15
Each clamp must therefore exert a pressure of

In Fig. 137 the forces exerted by the clamp are
in bolt,
WA and WB =
000N
= 7500N
shown and T = tension
Pressure exerted on work and packing respectively.
W
W
W
We will assume that A and B act at the centre of the length being
clamped as shown. Then from
A to the centre of the bolt will be
40 - 7-5 = 32-5 mm and from B 60mm - 5mm = 55mm.
Taking moments about B and working in units of N and mm, we have
= T X 55
moment = WA (55 +
Clockwise moment
Contra-clock
But
WA
must be 7500N from above,

moments we have
32-5)
87-5
WA
so that putting in this value
and
equating the
Example
2.
arbor and
is
55T =
87-5
T =
87-5
milling cutter
is
X 7500
X 7500 - 12 000N
55
tightened up between the collars on the
driven by the friction between
itself
and the
collars. If the
FRICTION
79
Fig. 138
collars are
20
mm bore and 40 mm outside diameter, calculate the tightenkW is being absorbed
ing force necessary if the cutter is not to slip when 3-3

at
70rev/min [Coeff of
If
T newton
metres
friction
is
0-15.]
the torque to tbe transmitted,
Power = T newton metres/ second =

Power = 3-3 kW = 3300 W,
also
N=
Now
cfw
so that
(o
we have
Ta> Watts
70 rev/min
=
70 x
Z7r
OU
2tt
_ Power =
T=
oi
22
,.
-^- rad/s
J
3300 x 3
22
CAXT
= 450Nm
.
This torque must be transmitted by the friction between the collars and
slip when it takes place, must occur at two faces:
the cutter, and
Hence torque transmitted per
450
= -y= 225Nm
face
This torque will be developed by a tangential frictional force F which we

assume to act at the mean radius of the collars (Fig. 138).
will
Hence
Mean
radius
= 15mm = 00 5m
-=
T =Fr,F =
Now if W =
N =
m
2 5
_
A1 5
g
0-01
15
Force between the collars
F
7p=
W=
p>
l5
- e -
000
15
w
=
100
_
' 15
= A1
000N
000N
180
II
Exercises 7a
1.
The
tailstock of a lathe has a
slides is 0-122.
the
What
amount and
2.
coefficient of friction at the
horizontal force will be required to slide the tailstock? Determine
direction of the least force necessary to slide
it.
A disc 240 mm diameter has a ring of ferodo 240 mm outside diameter and 20 mm wide
riveted to
one
face. This
moment
turning
is
made
to press against and drive another steel disc. If the
to be transmitted
have to be pressed together. [Take

3.
mass of 21.5kg and the
planing machine
force of the cut
is
fi
is
Nm
33
estimate the pressure with which the discs
for ferodo
on
steel as 0-4.]
taking a cut on a casting bolted directly to the table.
7400N and
The
clamped by four clamps. If the coefficient of

friction between the casting and the machine table is 0-15, what force must be exerted on
the work by each clamp to prevent the work from sliding under the force of the cut?
4. A 300mm diameter brake drum is attached to a shaft the driving pulley of which is
200mm diameter. When two leather-faced brake blocks are pressed against opposite sides
of the drum with a force of 200N what force must be applied to the rim of the pulley to
turn the shaft. [Take /u for leather on cast iron as 0-45.]
5. The table of a planing machine with weight equivalent to 5000N is supporting a
casting which exerts a similar force of 2000N. If "the average speed of the table is 0-2 m/s
and for half the time a downward cutting force of 800N is acting, calculate the average
power required to overcome friction at the table slides. [Take fi = 0-08.]
6. A block is clampted between the jaws of a milling-machine vice, the force at the
jaws being 12 000 N. If the cutter operating on this is 80mm diameter and its speed
52-5 rev/ min, calculate the approximate power being absorbed when the work is caused
to slip in the jaws of the vice by the force of the cut. [Take /u at the vice jaws
is
the job
is
as 0-15.1
Machines and
efficiency
a contrivance for receiving energy in some form and con-
mach ine
verting
Most
it
is
into energy of a type
more
suitable for the purpose required.
of the energy available in a machine
energy
(line shafting, rotation
shop is in the form of rotational

of driving motors, etc.). A machine, such as
a shaper, receives some of this rotational energy at

verts part of
it
into the energy contained in the
its pulley, and conbackwards and forwards
movement of the ram and part into the various other movements required
to transverse the tool across the
work.
Each element of a machine may be regarded as a little machine in itself.

For example, in the mechanism for elevating the knee of a milling machine
a torque
is
applied to the handle, and this torque
rotation of a nut or screw. This in
its
is
converted into the
turn raises or lowers the table and
cross-slide on the vertical slides. An electric motor is just as much a

machine as any other, for it takes in electrical energy from the mains and
converts
it
to rotational energy at
its
driving pulley.
MACHINES AND EFFICIENCY
181
For mechanical machines:

the Effort
and
the
The
the force applied at the input end of the machine,
is
Load
is
the resistance
ratio p~.
is
overcome
Distance
output end.
called the Mechanical Advantage of the
moved by Effort
moved by Load
Distance
4-+u~
the ratio
at the
machine and
m the same time, .,,,,

called the Velocity
.
x,
is
Ratio of the machine.

If we called the effort E,
and the load W:

be E (Distance moved) and the output
fF (Distance moved).
The work input

time
The
Efficiency
will
in the
same
of the machine will be -= Input

(Distance moved)
_
E (Distance
W =
But
Mechanical Advantage
moved by W
moved by E
Distance
and
Distance
Hence
moved)
Efficiency
Velocity Ratio
Mechanical Advantage
Velocity Ratio
If the efficiency
same
were
Mechanical Advantage would be the

is always less than 1
so that the Mechanical Advantage is always less
unity, the
as the Velocity Ratio. Actually the efficiency
due to
frictional losses,
than the Velocity Ratio.
Example 3. The knee, cross-slide and table of a milling machine have

a total mass of 600 kg, and it is found that a force of 60 N must be applied
at the end of the 210mm elevating handle to raise the knee.
the handle raises the knee 2 mm.
One turn of
Calculate the Mechanical Advantage, Velocity Ratio and Efficiency

of this mechanism.
Effort (E)
= 60N
Load (WO = mg = 600 x
Mech Advantage =
,.
60
98
9-81
= 5886N
182
Velocity Ratio
II
Distance moved by effort

Distance moved by load
In X 210
660
mm
When
Mech.Adv.
Efficlency
mm
Vel. Ratio
98
660
Example
machine
table can be pushed along by a force
load in
turn
4.
n*Ao
'' 48
M 8/
1^00/
'
disengaged from the operating mechanism a grinding
of40N. With the mechanism engaged, a torque of 0-35Nm at the traversing wheel is required to
move it. One turn of the wheel moves the table a distance of 10mm. Find
the efficiency of the traversing mechanism.
The load on the mechanism = resistance of the table = 40N
work done on the
If 1 turn of the handwheel moves the table 10
mm
= 40N X 10mm = 40N x 0-010m

= 0-4Nm = output
Nm in
Nm
Work done
by a torque of 0-35
= In X 0-35
Efficacy
The
turn
= 2-2Nm =
input
-<g*- = <M82 -.8.2%
inclined plane
We have seen in previous work (Fig. 78a) that a screw thread is an inclined
plane wrapped round a cylinder. In order to study the mechanics of the
screw, therefore, we must give some attention to the inclined plane. We
find that in doing this friction plays
be allowed
an important part and
its
effects
must
for.
Tightening up
When a nut is being tightened up under a load W, the conditions are equiup an inclined plane sloping at the helix
valent to pushing a weight
is the tangential force
angle of the screw. The force F which is pushing
at the
tion.
mean
This
Now
if
is
radius of the screw and
shown
in Figs. 139
there were
no
is
being applied in a horizontal direc-
and 140.
between the block and the plane the
friction
SCREW THREAD AS AN INCLINED PLANE
183
Load on
Nut(W)
Angle of Incline*
Helix Angle of Screw
Effort
(F)
Development of Screw and Nut

Fig. 139
vector diagram for the forces acting on the block would be as abc; ab =
weight of block acting downwards, be = F, the force to pushing it up the
plane and ca = the reaction between the plane and the block. We have
seen, however, that when friction is present, the reaction R is no longer
perpendicular to the surfaces, but is rotated round through the friction
angle
in the direction to oppose motion. Hence the vector for R will
<j>
be rotated round to ad, and the force

plane will become = bd.
F required to push the block up the
Lead of
Thread
j? c
Now
/\
bd
= tan bad =
ab
tan (or
tan(ar
Fig. 140
<j>)
^)
and
F = Wtan(a +
^)
(1)
184
II
A to B, F moves the distance

BC.
Hence the input = work done by F = F.AC
and
the output = work done on W W.BC
In pushing the block from
AC
and
raised to distance
is
The
efficiency
{rj)
output
fF.BC
r ^
F.AC
.
input
But from above:

have
F=
t]
W tan a
-77
W tan (a
w.
tan a
rv
-p tan
F
+
since
L"
(f)
and
if
Wtana
Wtan(a +
we
BC
AC
tan or
substitute this for
F we
0)
tana
tan (a
a = Helix
angle of screw,
<j>
This
is
in
i.e.
tana =
Friction Angle
(2)
(j>)
Lead
Mean circum
= /u
Tan
is an expression for the efficiency of a screw when tightening up and

terms of /u and the helix angle of the screw.
Loosening
When
a nut is being unscrewed it is equivalent to the load Amoving down

the plane. There are two cases to consider: (1) When is greater than a
and the load must be pushed down, and (2) when a is greater than and
</>
a push up the plane
is
necessary to stop
W from sliding down of
its
own
accord.
(1)
greater than
As motion
line
is
now
(Fig. 141).
taking place in the opposite direction, the reaction

side of the normal ac, and the vector
ad swings round to the other
d ]? b
Fig. 141
FRICTION AT VEE THREADS
bF
diagram
is
abd. In this case since
a position to the
left
Force required
at
<j>
185
Fig. 142
is
greater than a,
ad swings lfound to
oiab.
mean
radius to unscrew nut
= F=
=
db
ab tan had
W tan
(</>
a)
(3)
a greater than ^ (Fig. 142).

In this case a force = bd will be required to hold the nut fj-om un-
(2)
screwing.
F=
bd = ab tan(a
f)
= Wtan(a -
</>)
(4)
Vee threads
is the normal load
The above reasoning for screw threads assumes that
on the thread surfaces. Whilst this is true for a square thread [Fig. 143 (a)]
when a vertical load W is applied to a vee thread the force is resolved into
components as shown by the vector diagram abc shown at (b).
(b)
Fig. 143
186
The normal load on
II
the thread surface
now the
is
length ac, whilst be is
the force tending to burst the nut.
Hence normal load on thread
face
ac
W sec 6
cos 6
As the frictional resistance depends on the normal pressure we may

modify our previous formulae to apply it to vee threads by modifying the
value of the coefficient of friction
If,
instead of taking
/u
we take
(/u).
for
it
a value equal to /u sec0, we
may use
the previous formulae as they stand.
For a metric thread, the vee-angle
is
60, hence 6
30 and sec#
1-155.
Hence
for a metric thread take a modified value for the coefficient of
friction equal to 1-155 ,u.
Friction at a nut face
In addition to the friction at the threads, friction at the nut face must be
allowed
for.
W=
Let
load on nut
= coefficient of friction
r = mean radius of nut.
Then frictional force at nut face = fxW.
Torque necessary to overcome this = (force) (radius) =
Hi
Example
50mm
5.
dia
the threads
of
200N
is
fiWr
A screw-operated arbor press has a square-threaded screw

5mm pitch single start. If the coefficient of friction at
is 0- 10,
what load may be applied by the press when an
applied at the end of a handle 200
effort
mm long attached to the
screw.
Since tan ^
/u;
tan
<j>
0-1
and the
The mean circumference of

149-2
If
friction angle (0)
the thread
,t(50
=
2-5)
543'
47-5 n
mm
is
the helix angle of the thread

5
nm-c
~Lead = 149-2
An . = 0-0335
Circum
from which a = 155'
tana =
The mean
radius of the screw
23-75
mm so that a force of
FRICTION AT A NUT FACE
200N
at
200mm radius will be equivalent to
mm radius
= 1684N.
This
is
the force
F = Wtan( +
Now
=
=
F up
at 23-75
the inclined plane.
^)(Fig. 140)
fTtan(l55'
W tan738'
w - orao
a force
187
543')
WX
= 515? =
0-1340
iÔN
Example 6. A machine slide weighing 255 kgf (2500 N) is elevated by a

acme thread (29 thread angle) 40mm dia, 4mm pitch. If the
2-start
coefficient of friction
slide, {b) to
32
lower
is
0-12, calculate the torque necessary (a) to raise the
The end of the screw
it.
is
carried
on a thrust
collar,
mm inside and 56mm outside diameter.

Mean dia of thread = 40 mm - 2 mm = 38 mm
Mean circum = 38 n = 119-4 mm
Lead = 2 x 4 mm = 8 mm
If
a =
helix angle tan
g
a = -rnrz = 0-0670
a =
Since the thread half angle
of friction = 0-1 2 sec 14}
3 50'
14^
we have to
use a modified coefficent
= 0-12 x 1-033 = 0-124

tan^ = 0-124 and ^ = 7 4'
To
raise the load
we have if F = force at the mean radius

50' + 7 4')
f) = 2500 tan(3
- 2500 tan 1054' = 2500 x 0-1926 = 481-5N
F = Wt&n(a +
will be F (radius at which it acts)

38mm =
f x 0-019m = 481-5N x
The torque
= F x
0-019m = 9-15Nm
To
this
torque must be added the friction torque at the thrust collar.
Frictional force
Frictional torque
= 2500^ = 2500 x 012 = 300N

= 300 (mean rad of collar)
=
300 x ^y5B.
Total torque to raise slide
9-1
= 300N x
5Nm
6-6
0-022
Nm
= 6-6Nm
= 15-75Nm
188
To lower
II
JFtan(0 - a) (Fig. 141)

= 2500 tan(74' - 3 50')
= 2500tan314' = 2500 x 0-0565 = 141-25N
Torque = 141-25N x 0-019m = 2-68Nm
the load
F=
Adding the friction torque at the collar

Total Torque to lower the slide = 2-68
we have
+ 6-6 Nm = 9-48Nm.
Nm
Friction of sliding keys
often necessary in machine-tool construction to slide a collar or wheel

along a shaft at the same time as the wheel is being driven by the shaft
through one or two sliding keys. The force required to slide the collar or
It is
wheel along the shaft is worthy of "consideration as it is affected by the

disposition of the keys.
In Fig. 144(a) the key is fixed in the shaft which rotates in the direction
of the arrow and drives the outer part. Clearances have been exaggerated
and it will be seen that the torque is transmitted by a force F at the key
and a similar force
acting at the circumference of the shaft. If r is the
radius to the centre of the key as shown, and T is the torque being trans-
mitted, then
T = Fr and F =
~
r
The
F/jl
force required to slide the outer
+ Wfi=
IFfx (since
F=
member
along the shaft will be
W).
Fig. 144
FRICTION OF SLIDING KEYS
In Fig. 144 (b) there are two keys, and
if
they are well
each takes an equal share of the load, the torque
W r=
F,{2r) [since
Hence F, =
^-,
F =
is
189
fitted so that
given by
T= Fr+
x
W,].
which
is
half the force for the case of Fig. 144 (a).
Force to slide outer member along the shaft

which is half of that for the case of Fig. 144 (a).
= F
/u
/u
= 2F
u,
1(
Exercises 7b
hand crane a 20T gear attached to the handle drives an 85T gear on the rope
drum. The radius of the drum to the centre of the rope is 35 mm. If the handle is 300mm
long, calculate the velocity ratio. If the efficiency is 75%, what force must be applied to
the handle to raise a load of 250 kg on the rope?
2. A chain conveyor carries goods up an incline of 28 at a speed of 0-2m/s. If the average
mass of the articles carried is 20 kg, and they are spaced at 300 mm centres, calculate the
power necessary to drive the loaded conveyor if its efficiency is 75%, the incline carries
60 articles, and 0-4 kW is necessary to overcome friction.
3. The saddle of a lathe is equivalent to a weight of 1600N and 1 turn of the traversing
wheel moves it 100mm along the bed. If the efficiency of the traversing gear is 0-7 and
1.
In a
the coefficient of friction at the slides 0-10, calculate the force necessary at the rim
of a
4.
140mm
wheel to move the saddle.
flypress has a screw of
50mm
lead, the efficiency of which
is
60% Neglecting the

.
weight of the screw and top arm, what force must be applied at the end of and perpendicular to the level of
5.
280mm
radius to put a force of
Calculate the efficiency of a 20
mm
the coefficient of friction at the threads
by a nut
if
120N
is
is
2500N on
the ram?
square-threaded screw of 5
0-080.
mm
pitch 2 start
if
What tension may be exerted on this screw
applied at the end of a 350
mm
spanner? [Neglect friction at the nut
face.]
6.
face
The
is
a 240
and nut
efficiency of a screw
0-1. If
the lead of the thread
mm wrench
to pull
is
is
15%, and the coefficient of friction at the nut

what force must be applied to the end of
2mm
up the nut against a tension of 8000 N? [Mean radius of nut =
15mm.]
7.
30
"sn
The
20
x Z?"
spindle of a lathe
is
connected to the leadscrew by the following gears: -=r-:
is
^ e l ead screw
mm
pitch, calculate the velocity ratio
between the carriage
and a point on the rim of an 160 mm chuck screwed on the spindle. If the overall efficiency
of the arrangement is 10%, calculate the force necessary at the rim of the chuck to turn
the lathe and traverse the carriage against a resistance of 200N.
of a M24 thread when the coefficient of friction at the
M24 thread take the mean diameter as 22 mm and the pitch 3 mm.]
8. Calculate the efficiency
threads
is
0-08. [For the
9. Calculate the
sloping at 30,
if
work done
in
pushing a
the coefficient of friction
applied horizontally.
What
moving down the plane?
is
horizontal effort
slide
of mass 100 kg up an inclined plane
is 3 m long, and the push is

would be necessary to hold the slide from
0-15, the plane
190
10.
wheel
slides
along a shaft and
is
driven by a sliding key. If the shaft
is
45mm
mm from the circumference, calculate the force necessary

being transmitted at 315rev/min and
shaft when 6-6 kW
diameter and the key projects 5

to slide the wheel along the
H =
is
0-15.
11. If the shaft in the last
same amount
is
example were
fitted
with two opposite keys projecting the
as before, calculate the torque being transmitted
required to slide the outer
member along
the shaft,
i/n
when an
axial force
of 60
= 01 5.]
Bearings
function of a bearing is to hold and line up the shaft it carries
and support the load to which the shaft is subjected. Bearings are generally
designed on the basis of the load carried per unit of projected area, and
if the length and diameter of a bearing are / and d respectively, the
projected area will be / x d (Fig. 145).
The main
Fig. 145
If the
load on the shaft
= W, the intensity of bearing pressure (p) will be
Load
Area
W
P= ld
The pressure to which bearings may be subjected in practice depends
upon various factors, including the speed, method of lubrication, duration of full load operation, materials in contact, and so on.
191
The
following table conveys an idea of bearing pressures used:

Table of Bearing Pressures
Allowable
Pressure
Type of Bearing
N/mm
0-7- 1-0
Line-shafting (bronze lined)

High-speed engines: Main bearings
1-0- 2-0
2-0- 4-0
Crank pins
Main bearings
Crank pins
Punching and shearing machines (low speed
Gas
3-5- 5-0
engines:
10
-12-5
15
-30
intermittent
loading)
0-3- 0-5
Horizontal turbines
Probably the most severely loaded bearing
in the
whole of engineering
the tailstock centre of a lathe.

Let us consider the vertical tool pressure only, and assume the moderate
at
case of a load of 4000 N, with the centre in a hole measuring 5
practice
is
mm
the large diameter of the countersink. Since the angle of the countersink
is 60 the projected area will be
i
0-866
10-8
mm
and the bearing pressure when the tool is cutting close to this centre will be
4000N
-r^r
10-8
mm r
2
370
N/mm
quality mild steel
2
,
about half the ultimate
The main bearing
area of probably 3000 to 4000
Example
be
7.
If
carries only the
of a good
same load with an
2
.
the bearings for the shaft in
Example
12, p. 171 are to
be 2\ times the diameter,

the bearing pressure is not to exceed
proportioned so that their length shall
calculate their dimensions

0-4
mm
failing stress
N/mm
The
If
if
L =
^
2\d,
< .
But area of bearing

b
Hence
= 460 N
= Area of bearing.
biggest load to be carried
L x d = 2W x d =
2\d2
<P
2\d 2
Load
=,
Pressure
460
= 77-r= nm
llSOmnr
,
0-4
=1150
= il^ = 460mm
192
d = \/460 = 21-5 mm
2\ x 21-5 = 53-8 mm
L =
Bearing
When
friction
a bearing
is properly lubricated the two metals forming it are not

but are separated by a thin film of oil. The friction now is
not that of one metal rubbing on another but is the internal friction of the
in contact
lubricant
itself. It
has been found experimentally that the coefficient of

with film lubrication depends upon the rubbing
friction in a bearing
speed
and upon the pressure, and the relation between them
P =
where
=
=
p =
K=
/u
Work
The
is
KV\
coeff. of friction
surface speed of shaft in m/s
bearing pressure in
a Constant
lost in
N/mm
(i.e.
MN/m
0-032 for the usual
oils.
bearing friction
effect of friction in a bearing
is to introduce a tangential resistance

= load on the bearing and n = coperiphery of the shaft. If
efficient of friction, then the tangential resistance will be
= /u. Calling
at the
this resistance F,
The work
lost
and the power
we have F =
W/u (Fig. 146).
per second will be Fv
lost
Fv watts
Fig. 146
AND STRAIN
STRESS
Example
8.
A 50mm
193
dia shaft running at 525rev/min carries a load of
8000N.The bearing is 100 mm long. Estimate (a) the coefficient of friction,

and
(b) the tangential friction resistance,
the power lost in friction.
(c)
0-032Vv
w
that a =
We uhave *u
P
v
J^L =
22
60 000
Bearing pressure (p)
= -^
8000
r^r
0-032 x
^~
50
><
><
525
1.375m/s
x 60 000
N/mm
1-6
W-375 ~
0-032
1-172
0-0234
1-6
1-6
Tangential frictional
resistance
Power
=
=
0-0234 x 8000
187
lost in
friction
= 187 N x
= 257W
m/s
1-378
Stress and strain
material
is
placed in a state of stress
numerical value of the stress
is
when a load
F
Load actingp
r-:
r = -r, when
A
Area subjected to load
.
The
area,
SI unit of stress
i.e.
is
per square metre
upon
it,
and the
FTLoad, and A = Area

j
F=
therefore one unit of load divided by one unit of
the newton per square metre
for practical purposes
acts
given by
(N/m 2 ). This
unit
is
very small
and so stresses will often be quoted in meganewtons
(MN/m 2 ).
This unit
is
quite convenient, since
lMN/m = lN/mm 2
2
and as loads are often quoted in newtons, while dimensions of engineering

components are usually quoted in millimetres, if we ever require a stress
in
MN/m
it is
useful to evaluate the stress in
45
N/mm =
2
45
N/mm
MN/m
2
.
2
,
e.g.
194
It is
II
possible that the unit adopted for fluid pressure will be the bar,
from the previous metric system. In some ways
unit inherited
more convenient
unit since
1
As
it
utilises the
bar
10
N/cm 2
is
very near to atmospheric pressure:
atm =
10-13
N/cm 2
is the effect of gravity on its mass. The

mass of m kilogrammes can be taken as,
weight
As we
that the
= mass x
= mass x
discussed in Chapter
mass of
as the unit of area.
The weight of a body

gravity on a
a.
bar (b) = da N/cm 2 = 10 N/cm 2

2
3
1 hectobar (hb) = 10 N/cm
a mental landmark, the bar

1
cm 2
this is
kilogramme
of mass and written
acceleration due to gravity

9-81 newtons.
the reader will find, in his normal
is
effect of
life,
referred to as "weight" or a kilogramme
kg, with the inference of weight.
it is sometimes expedient to express the weight of 1 kg of

form
and when doing this it should be written kgf At the
mass
kg
same time it should be remembered that 1 kgf =9-81 newtons.
In our
work
in its
When
materials are stressed they change their shape: for example, a
bar will lengthen under tension or shorten under compression. This

change of shape is called strain. We usually express the strain in terms
of the natural length ofthe material, so that if abar 100
to tension
and stretches 01
mm,
the strain
is
mm long
is
subjected
expressed as j^-
0-001.
Within certain limits the materials with which we have to deal behave in
an elastic manner, i.e. the deformation caused by a load vanishes
when the load is removed. If, however, the load on a bar is gradually
increased, a point is reached beyond which the material will not return
to its original shape when the load is removed. This point is called
the Elastic Limit ofthe material. For most materials it has been found that
within the elastic limit the change in length is proportional to the load
producing it: e.g. if 1000 N causes an elongation of 0-05 mm, 2000 will
cause
010 mm, and
so on.
Hence we may
say that within the elastic
limit:
Stretch
is
proportional to
Load
STRESS
same
or, since for the
bar, strain
AND STRAIN
195
proportional to stretch and stress to
is
load:
Strain
proportional to Stress.
is
= a constant quantity
Stress
This
is
the same thing as saying: ~-
This constant quantity is called Young's Modulus, and has a particular

value for every material. It is usually denoted by the letter E. For
steel
000N/mm
has a value of about 200
It is difficult at first to visualize
N/mm
The
signifies.
2
.
way of considering
following
= 200 000
might help the
and to appreciate what E

it
reader:
Stress
t=
means
and a material would have unit
Stress per unit Strain
Strain
strain if its length
were doubled.
(Original length
If,
Stretch
Strain
f)
its length were doubled

would have the value E.
then, a material could remain elastic whilst
under a load, the
Example
9.
20
stress in the material
mm bolt 160 mm long carries a load of 20 kN. Calculate
the extension in the bolt
H
the U
bolt
Stress in *U
if
E =
200 000 N/mm 2
L ad =
20 000
Area
ti
-r
20000
-,
ji^'Z
,_ rw?2
1 XT/
63-7
N/mm
4"(20)
Strain
160
Stress
-=.
E =
200 000
Extension
Strain
63-7
x 160
Ext
Ext
T60
63-7
Stress 63-7
63-7
x 160 _
0-05
lmm
200 000
A 20 mm steel bolt is threaded through a brass sleeve 100 mm

24mm bore and 32mm outside diameter. A nut and washer are
Example
long,
Ext
E =
200000
Extension
Orig. length
10.
196
II
put on and the nut tightened up until the brass sleeve has shortened by
0-05
mm.
Calculate the extension in the bolt.
for steel
N/mm
200 000
for brass
-^ = 0-0005
Strain in sleeve
and since
E =|==^:
Stress
^(Strain)
80 000
N/mm
80 000 X 0-0005
40
N/mm
= 40N/mm 2
Strain
Stress in sleeve
Cross-sectional area of sleeve
=
Hence compressive load
|(32
22 x 448
24 2 )
mm
a
352
by sleeve =
carried
40 x 352
14
==(1024
576)
(Stress) (Area)
080N
This will be equal to the tension in the bolt.
Hence
1-1* = 14080 = 14080 =

,.
3142^
stress in bolt
AA OXT/
448
N/mm
p*y
E =
But
and
Stress
-=-
Ci
Strain
strain
'
Ext
Extension of bolt
Extension
Orig Length
1^L_~
44-8
Stress
Strain
200 000
Ext
100
44-8
100
200 000
100 x 44-8
200 000
0-0224
~
nM
0224mm
A
mm
Exercises 7c
1.
If
bearing has to carry a load of 3000N, with a bearing pressure of 0-75N/mm 2
the length of the bearing is to be made equal to twice its diameter determine its dimensions
2. A 50mm diameter shaft runs in two bearings spaced at 2-5 m centres, the bearings
each being 80mm long. Loads of 700N, 800N and 750N act on the shaft at 0-5m, l-25m
and 1 -8 m respectively, from the LH bearing Determine the load and bearing pressure at each
.
bearing.
3.
bearing
50mm
diameter,
80mm
long, carries a total load of 6000N. If the shaft
rotating at 210 rev/min estimate the coefficient of friction from the expression
/u
is
0-032Vv
.
Hence determine the number of
P
i.e.
the power lost in watts.
joules of
work
lost in friction
per second,
STRESS
4.
The end
shaft. If the
thrust
AND STRAIN
197
on a spindle is taken by a collar on a 60mm diameter portion of the

2
is 2100N, and the bearing pressure is not to exceed 0-7 N/mm
maximum thrust
determine the necessary top diameter of the collar.

5. A line of 60mm shafting runs in six bearings each 100mm long. The average load
on each bearing is 6000N and the speed of the shaft is 3 1 5 rev/min Estimate the coefficient
of friction and the power being lost in friction.
2
what load would a
6. If the Elastic Limit of a certain material were at 160 N/mm
sustaining
a permanent stretch?
20 mm diameter bar of the material carry without
2
calculate the load in
7. Taking the ultimate stress of a mild steel to be 500N/mm
the
root
of
the thread. [Take the
metric
bolt
at
Newtons necessary to fracture an M6
diameter at the root of the thread as 4-5 mm .] Hence taking the efficiency of the
thread at 10%, find what force at the end of a 200mm spanner will cause the bolt to
.
[M6
fracture.
8.
the
Calculate
1 mm]
800mm long, is pulled up to a
2
bolt, and if E = 200 000 N/mm
thread has a pitch of
drawbolt
20mm
stress
in
dia,
the
tension of 16
,
000N.
determine the total
extension.
9.
An
air cylinder is
and nuts.
140
mm diameter and the cylinder head
If the nuts are tightened
at the root
of the thread when the
up to an
air
initial
pressure in the cylinder
M12 thread at 9-5 mm.]

ring 20mm wide, 10mm thick
is
held on by six
M 12 studs
tension of 1000N, calculate the stress

is
0-6N/mm 2 [Take the root

.
diameter of the
10.
steel
and shrunk on
to a shaft
the tension in the ring.
150mm
diameter. If
and 14985 mm inside diameter,
E = 200000N/mm
2
,
is
heated up
estimate the stress and
Mechanical
principles
III
The equations of motion

The distance travelled during a given time by a body moving at a certain
constant speed will be given by multiplying the speed by the time, or if
s
space travelled,
velocity (or speed), and

s
It is
vt
time,
(1)
important that the time units of v and t are coherent (e.g. if v is in

t must be in seconds and s will then be in metres).
metres/ second, then

Acceleration
Acceleration
starts
from
is
rest
the rate of increase of velocity. For example: if a body

with an acceleration of 1 m/s every second (i.e. 1 m/s 2
),
velocity at the
end of
second will be 1 m/s, at the end of 2 seconds it

will be 2 m/s, and at the end of / seconds it will be t metres per second.
Hence we may say for a body starting from rest with an acceleration a:
Final velocity (v) after time t
v = at
If, instead of starting from rest, the body already had an initial
velocity
of u, then: Final velocity after time t = u + at
its
This gives us
at
(2)
may be slowing down or decelerating.

acceleration will then be a minus quantity, and we shall have for its final
Instead of accelerating, a body

Its
velocity:
v
This slowing
down
is
at
generally termed retardation.
A graph of velocity-time for equation (1) above is shown in Fig. 147(a)

and the area under the graph is equivalent to the distance moved.
If we now plot a similar graph for equation (2) it will be as Fig. 147(6).
In this case, due to the acceleration, the velocity is increasing at a constant
rate and the graph is a sloping line instead of a horizontal one. The
distance moved will be, as before, the area under the graph (Area O ABC).
ACCELERATION
199
Fig. 147
OABC = OADC
But
=
=
This gives us
If u
= O
+
+
ut
ut
hat
then the line starts at
and
hat
The reader
ADB
\tat
2
(3)
strongly advised to interpret problems of accelerated
is
motion as far as possible with the help of a graph.

Equation (3) could have been obtained as follows: For any motion the
velocity
this
is
by the time
Finally,
eliminate
(average velocity) (time). In Fig. 147 (b) the average

at a height midway between A and B, i.e. u + \at. Multiplying
space travelled
we
we
get s
ut
hat
as before.
require an equation connecting
v,
and
t.
In equation (2)
we have
and
u
t
at
Substituting this value for

s
in
equation
ut
hat
uv
u2
-^r-
(3)
we have
/v
*\
2uv
u2\
a, so
we must
200
Putting on the
III
common denominator 2a
2uv 2u 2 + v
s =
2
2uv
u1
2a
u2
s
2a
which gives us that
If the initial velocity
u2
2as
(4)
(body starting from

v2
then
rest)
las.
In problems dealing with the motion of bodies falling under the action
of gravity then,
a
This
is
acceleration
generally signified by
due to gravity =
9-81
m/s 2
g instead of a, and the reader should note

and seconds. The
particularly that in using 9-81 forg the units are in metres

units of
all
the other quantities in the equations must be kept in coherent
units.
Example
Find
its
drop stamp
Here
and
falls freely for
moment
velocity at the
it
m under the action of gravity.
strikes the tup.
= s = 6ma = 9-81 m/s 2

= las
= 2 x 9-81 x 6 = 117-72
= Vl 17-72 = 10-85m/s
Example 2. A shaping machine ram is running on a stroke of 450mm. It

starts from rest, accelerates at a uniform rate until the centre of the stroke
and then retards at a unifrom rate to a standstill at the end of the stroke. If
the stroke occupies \\ second, find the acceleration and the maximum
speed attained.
This problem
is
best illustrated graphically,
and the motion
is
repre-
sented in Fig. 148.
The ram is accelerated from O to A, its velocity increasing uniformly

and the reverse process takes place from A to B.
The area OAB represents the space travelled, which in this case is
450 mm = 0-45 m
ACCELERATED MOTION
Hence
.-.
045 = OB.AC and since OB =

045 = i.HAC = |AC
AC = v = 0-6 m/s
For half the stroke
acceleration
Note
=
=
anda = 0-8m/s 2
a. \
0-8
speed of ram
max
seconds
at
0-6
Hence
201
that the average speed of the
m/s 2
0-6 m/s
ram =
0-3
m/s
Vel.
Fig. 149
Fig. 148
Example
A planing machine table is set for a travel of 900 mm. It starts
3.
uniformly during the first 1 50 mm, runs at a constant

and then retards uniformly to rest during the last 1 50
speed for 600
of the travel. The total time taken travel the 900mm is 4 seconds.
from
rest, accelerates
mm
mm
Find (a) the average speed, (b) the maximum speed, (c) the acceleration.
A graph showing the motion is shown at Fig. 149. Let the maximum
retardation
velocity be v and the times of acceleration, uniform speed and
as shown.
f,, t 2 and
tj,
(a)
The average speed
will
be
0-9
distance
~~
time
Since the
first
acceleration
For the
and
last
m =
0-225 m/s
4s
portions of the travel are identical: retardation
(a).
first
part of the stroke:

v
las
0-3a (since s
0-15 m)
(1)
202
Also, for the
first
and
last
III
portions of the travel
at,
and
at,
t,
t,
and
for the
second
s2
t2
vt 2
= 600 mm =
(since s 2
0-6
.,,,,,
+t + =- +
+ - =
a
a
v
..t
(since total time
From
ti
equation
2v
0-6
+
a
,v
(2)
4 seconds)
# =
(1):
2v
(2):
0-6
0-3
V2
+ =4
0-6
0-6
0-3
ii=4
i.
4v=
and
(1)
Substituting this in equation
Since from
0-6 m)
0-3
1-2, v
0-3
0-3m/s2
0-3
Exercises 8a
from rest and with uniform acceleration attains a speed of 300 rev/min
in half a minute. Sketch the graph of velocity-time, and calculate (a) the acceleration in
rev/min 2 (b) the number of revolutions made by the shaft during the period.
2. A drop stamp falls freely under the action of gravity from a height of 8 m. Calculate
(a) the time of fall, and (b) the velocity at the instant it strikes the bottom block.
3. Starting from rest, a shaping machine ram, with uniform acceleration, reaches a
speed of 24 m/min during 240mm of travel. Find the acceleration and the time taken.
4. A cam rotates at 180 rev/min. During 90 of its revolution it causes a plunger to
rise a distance of 25 mm. Half the rise is made with uniform acceleration and the remainder
with an equal retardation. Calculate the acceleration of the plunger and sketch the graph of
1.
shaft starts
velocity-time for
5.
The
it.
total travel of a planer table
uniformly for
\\
2-1
is
m.
Starting
from
rest,
the table accelerates
seconds, runs at a constant speed for 2 seconds, and retards to rest
during 1| seconds. Calculate the acceleration, and the speed during the middle interval.
Sketch the graph of velocity-time.
6.
After the power has been shut
off,
a flywheel rotating at 180 rev/min slows
to rest during 90 turns. If the retardation
time taken by the wheel in coming to

7.
machine
slide
is
uniform finds
its
down
value in rev/min 2 and the
rest.
has an acceleration of 0-08 m/s 2
How
far will this slide travel
from
MASS AND WEIGHT
rest
8.
0-1
before reaching a speed of 24m/min, and
m/s 2
how long
will
it
203
take for this to be effected?
from rest and travels a distance of l-25m with an acceleration of

2
and then comes to rest again with a retardation of 0-05 m/s Calculate (a) the
slide starts
maximum
speed attained,
{b)
the total time taken.
Sketch the graph of velocity-time.
Motion and force

Newton's First Law of Motion states that every object remains at rest or
moves with uniform velocity in a straight line until compelled by some
force to act otherwise. His Second Law states that change of motion is
proportional to the impressed force, and takes place in the direction in
which that force

Before
acts.
we can
arrive at a quantitative relation
between force and
change of velocity we must consider the velocity of an object as something

more than a rate of movement, since force required will depend upon the
size or
amount of material
Mass and
in the
body.
weight
Every object is made up of a mass of material (iron, wood, stone or whatever it might be), and this mass is constant and invariable, so long as we
do not cut away from or add material to it. Due to the gravitational
pull of the earth acting
on
body exerts a downward

weight of a body is not a
The
of the body.
this material every
force. This force is the weight

constant quantity because the pull of gravity varies according to the
distance from the centre of the earth. For example, the weight of the same
amount of mass would be about \ percent greater at the poles than at the
equator. We thus have the mass of a body, being the amount of substance
and a constant quantity, and the weight, being the downward force
caused by the gravitational pull acting on the mass.
We may now define the quantity of motion of a body as being (mass)
(velocity), and for the given velocity this will not vary since mass is a
in
it,
mv (m = mass) is called Momentum.

Force
is proportional to change of motion,
Law:
Second
By Newton's
of mv.
change
to
proportional
i.e. Force is
constant.
is
it
as
change
cannot
But m
.-. Force varies as m (change of v)
Now change of velocity is acceleration.
Force varies as ma
Hence
causes unit
If the units of F, m and a are chosen so that unit force
constant quantity. This product
204
we may
acceleration on unit mass

relationship
III
say
F = ma, and this is the fundamental
between the quantities.
The
SI system of units is coherent. This means that the SI unit of force

the force that gives to one unit of mass one unit of acceleration. To
is
honour the contribution of Sir Isaac Newton

newton. Hence
F (newtons) = m
Let us
i.e.
now
to Science this
is
called the
(kilogrammes) X a (metres per second every second)
consider the action of gravity on a mass of
m kilogrammes,
the weight of the body.
Using
F = ma
and
F mg
=g
The weight of a body of mass m kilogrammes is, therefore, mg newtons;

g may be taken
as 9-81
m/s 2
Example 4. If the planing machine table in Example 3 has a mass of

400 kg, and the coefficient of friction at the slides is 0-1, calculate (a) the
total force necessary to accelerate it, and (b) the power being taken to
accelerate and overcome friction at the instant when the table has moved
75
mm from the beginning of

(a)
Force to overcome
(mg)fi
Force to accelerate
= ma
= 400 X
=
force to
=
(b)
After 75
travel.
= (W)/u
= 400 x 9-81 x
friction
Total force
its
0-3
0-1
= 392-4N
= 120N
friction + force
+ 120N = 512-4N
overcome
392-4
mm of movement,
speed of table
to accelerate
-1-
0-3
m/s
= (force) (speed)
= 512-4 x 0-3 = 153-75W
Power = 154W = 0154kW
Rate of doing work
We might add that during the middle portion of the stroke no acceleration
is
taking place and the table has merely to be kept moving against friction
(neglecting any cutting force).
Here we have:
frictional resistance
392-4
FORCE OF HAMMER BLOWS
= 0-6 m/s
= 23544 W =
Speed
Power = 3924 x
0-6
0-235
205
kW
Force of hammer blows

The force of a hammer blow may be estimated by considering the retardation of the hammer as shown by the following example:
Example 5. A hammer of mass 1kg and moving at 2 m/s strikes a pin

and is brought to rest by driving in the pin 5 mm. Calculate the average
force of the hammer blow on the pin.
To
hammer we may
find the retardation of the

v
Here
u2
v (final velocity
(initial velocity)
u2
a
Force
Example
6.
= ma =
=
=
=
=
=
use the equation
las
2 m/s
5
mm
0-005
las
I2
= -400 m/s
x 0-005
X 400 = 400 N
1
A machine slide, of mass 500 kg and moving at 24m/min, takes
second to come to rest after the power is shut off. Calculate the average
Motional resistance assumed as a force acting against the slide.
To find the retardation of the slide we may use the formula
1
Here
= 04 +
a(l)
= |=
= -04 m/s (-ve
0:
0-4 m/s:
If the average resistance
is
at
500 x
second
because retardation)
denoted by
F = ma =
04 = 200N
Exercises 8b
of mass 100kg starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to a speed of
12m/min in 2 seconds. Neglecting friction, calculate the force necessary to produce the
1.
slide
acceleration.
2.
machine table has a mass of 60kg and the
frictional resistance at the slides
is
206
III
equivalent to a force of 50N. If a constant force of
speed will
3.
it
have attained
4.
is
applied to this slide, what
planer table in Ex. 8a, No.
If the
friction at the slides
during the
80N
after 2 seconds?
first
were
portion of
0-08,
its
5, had a mass of 300kg, and the coefficient of

what force would have been required to accelerate it
travel?
lkg hammer head moving
l-2m/s
at
is
brought to
a distance of 10 mm. Assuming the retardation of the
rest
hammer
by driving a pin through

to be constant, calculate
the average force of the blow delivered to the pin.
Taking the mass of the cam plunger in Ex. 8a, No. 4, to be 1-2 kg, calculate the
by the plunger on the cam face during the portion of the lift that
the plunger is accelerating. [The plunger moves upward on a vertical centre line.]
6. A shaping machine ram has a mass of 150kg and on its return stroke it starts from
rest and moves through a distance of 360
in 0-75 s with uniform acceleration. Neglecting
5.
vertical force exerted
mm
friction, calculate the acceleration,
moved 360mm and
the accelerating force, the velocity after the
the power necessary to
move
it
ram has
at that instant.
drop stamp of mass 100kg falls freely from a height of 6m. Calculate its final
brought to rest by compressing the metal on the bottom block through a
distance of 10mm. Determine the retardation of the stamp and the average force ofthe
blow delivered
7.
speed.
8.
It is
machine
slide
of mass 50 kg
frictional resistance to
its
motion
is
is
moving
at
0-8m/s when the power
equivalent to a force of 50N,
how
is
shut off. If the
far will
it
travel
before coming to rest?
Energy
There are various forms of energy (e.g. heat energy, chemical energy,
electrical energy, etc) and the origin of all of them may be traced back
to energy derived from the heat ofthe sun. The Law ofthe Conservation
of Energy states that energy cannot be destroyed: one form may be
changed into another, but we can neither create new energy nor destroy
that which is in the universe. At the moment we are interested in the
energy of mechanical movements, and in this connexion we may define
the energy of a body as the power of overcoming resistance or ofdoing work.
A body may possess energy by virtue of its position, e.g. a weight on
a cord wound round a shaft may rotate the shaft and do work as it descends
to the floor. A wound-up clock-spring possesses energy. Energy of this
kind
is
called Strain Energy.
When
a body
Kinetic Energy.
is
moving,
it
possesses energy of a different kind called
machine slide are

examples of moving bodies possessing kinetic energy.
Since we may convert energy from one form to another without loss,
we may obtain an expression for kinetic energy:
Let a body of mass m (i.e. weight mg) be raised to a height h above
some datum
rotating flywheel or an oscillating
line (Fig. 150).
When
in this position the
body
will possess
ENERGY
207
mgh units of potential energy, since this amount of work must be expended
to lift it there. If now the body be allowed to fall, it will lose its potential
energy, and gain an equal
amount of kinetic energy and
KE = PE = mgh
We may express the K.E. in terms of v

v
las.
and
:.v 2 = 2gh
0; a
and
because
g,
h.
2g
Hence
mgx
KE = mgh
v2
Tg
2
= mv
(6)
~T
m
and v.
expression for kinetic energy in terms of
metre,
i.e. the joule (J).
newton
is
the
energy
of
of
all
forms
unit
The SI
The reader is reminded that energy and work are interchangeable: to
An
put a body in possession of a certain amount of energy requires the

expenditure of an identical amount of work.
m
1
F = \mg
v\\
1
Datum
LL.UPS1
Fig. 150
shaping machine ram has a mass of 200 kg and accelerates

of its travel in 0-75 s. Find
rest, covering the first 360
the velocity at the end of this travel, and show that the kinetic energy of
the ram at that point is equal to the work done in accelerating it.
In Fig. 151 the motion of the ram may be represented by the lineOA,
Example
7.
uniformly from
and
AB
mm
represents the velocity v attained after 0-75 second.
208
III
= Area OAB =
Since space travelled
i(v
!)
360
0-36
0-36
5" =0-36,
and
mm
=
0-96 m/s
To
we have
find the acceleration
096 =
Force
Energy of 200kg ram
Example
8.
1-28
stopped
slide is
in
Hence 40
do
is
from the aspect of energy.
0-4
0-4
second from a speed of 0-4 m/s
0-4
(velocity) (time)
J of energy
the force acting to
it
Average speed
space
92- 16 J
04 m/s
= 92-16 J, as before,
Solve Example 6 by treating
mv 2 _ 500 X
= 256 N
256 x 0-36
200 x ' 962
= ma = 200 x
at 0-96 m/s
v
=-
at or a
(force) (distance)
Kinetic energy of 500 kg slide at
The
ne
28m/S
0T75
Work done =
-~
0-2 m/s
=0-2x1=
0-2
dissipated over a distance of 0-2
m and
if
is
it
40
Work =
= F x 0-2
=
(force) (distance)
F=
200
40
-s-
0-2
as before.
before
250 kg drop stamp falls through a height of 4
in a
brought
to
rest
and
is
metal
compresses
the
striking the work. If it
blow.
force
of
the
average
the
25
mm,
estimate
distance of
Example
9.
Work stored up in stamp when

= potential energy = mgh =
This
is
striking
work
250 x 9-81 x 4
98 10 J
mm = 0-025 m
Work = (force) (distance)
9810 = F x 0-025
dissipated over a distance of 25
7om
aQ25
392 huui>
400N
j?x
CIRCULAR MOTION
209
Circular motion
Many
of the problems of the shop deal with rotating masses (flywheels,
pulleys, etc), so that
we must adapt our knowledge
to circular as well as linear
of motion and force
movement.
It is quite permissible to use the equations of motion as they stand

and apply them to some point on the rotating body. In general, this will
be a point on the rim should the body in question be a flywheel or pulley.
however, when dealing with circular motion, to use

if we consider any rotating body
the speed of points at different radii will vary according to their radius.
The angular speed of the body, however, is constant, irrespective of the
It
is
better,
the angular notation of quantities, since
radius.
Fig. 152
We have
seen that
if
we
consider an angle
struck from the centre O, and r

If this refers to a
if
arc
AB =
space
body having
moved
(s),
if
AB
circular
then -
or
v
is
in m/s,
and
r in
m, then
the arc
6 in radians.
motion about
angle
centre:
(radians), or
of the body at radius
(v)
velocity
O as
Or
represents the velocity
- = angular
If v
is
Again,
AB =
radius, then
the
is
AOB, where AB
r,
(&>)
cor
to will
then
(7)
be
in radian
per second.
same way the relation between the linear acceleration a and the
angular acceleration a of a body moving in a circle is that
In the
= a
r
or a
ar
210
III
When the reader has become accustomed to these simple conversions

from the linear to the angular notation, he will find the angular working
is preferable to and more rational than linear working for problems of
rotation
The equations
of motion given on pages 198 later
when
angular notation
s
Since
=
=
space in radians;
may be used
for
that:
velocity in rad/s
acceleration in rad/s 2
revolution
remembered
it is
In radian we
may
convert rev/min to rad/s by
N=
rev/minJ
dividing by 60 and multiplying by 2n,

i.e.
(o
Example
10.
(rad/s)
-tk^ 71
oU
A pulley revolving at 220 rev/min comes to rest with uniform
retardation in 50 turns. Calculate the angular retardation and the time
taken
We may
retardation
obtain the time very simply without using radians, for if the
is uniform, the velocity-time graph is a straight line and the
average velocity
The
= =- =
10 rev/min
comes to rest in 50 turns

min = ffi x 60 = 27 sec.
pulley therefore
rev/min,
i.e.
in
fYfc
Using the equation
cv 2
oj x
11.
to accelerate
mean speed of 1 10
at
-pfT-Mi
a. 27.
oU
220
2n
- ~zr X ^pt
Ol) X 2/
a =
Example
at a
_,
' 853
,.
rad/s 2
gas engine which normally runs at 500 rev/min takes 20 s

flywheels to their full speed. Calculate the angular
its
acceleration and the
number of revolutions made by the engine. (Assume
constant acceleration.)
We may
obtain the
number of
before, since average speed
Using s
vt
revolutions from the average speed as
= -= =
we have s =
250
-^
oU
250 rev/min
X 20 =
83-3 revolutions.
ACCELERATING TORQUE
To
we may use
find the acceleration

a> 2
-Zrr-2 71
500
211
a> l
at
on
a.20
ol)
500 X 2.T
60 x 20
-2-
2-63 rad/s
Exercises 8c
Convert a speed of 175rev/min to rad/s, and llOrad/s to rev/min.
A pulley has an acceleration of 4 rad/s 2 How long will it take to reach a speed of
1.
2.
250 rev/min?
3.
shaft retards
2
tion in rad/s
from a speed of 500 rev/min to
rest in 3|
second. Calculate
its
retarda-
Calculate the kinetic energy of a car of mass 1400 kg and travelling at 54km/h.
is brought to rest by the brakes in 30m, find the average force of resistance exerted.
4.
If this
7, from a consideration of energy.

machine table of mass 150 kg is moving at 30m/min. Calculate
5.
Solve Ex. Sb, No.
6.
What
7.
force applied to
it
will bring
it
to rest in
600mm?
its
kinetic energy.
(Neglect friction.)
Find the energy stored in a 4kg hammer-head moving at 2m/s. If this hammer is
rest by compressing the metal under it through a distance of 25 mm, determine
brought to
the average force of the blow.
Accelerating torque
When
it
a torque acts on a rotating body or on a body capable of rotation
causes angular acceleration.

In Fig. 153
radius r and
Then
F=
let
let
the small mass
the force
ma, where a
But torque
T=
Fr,
F act on
=
be rotating about the centre
at
it.
linear acceleration of
and angular accel a =
m.
-, i.e. a
ar.
Hence F = ma = mar and T Fr = mar

But a rotating body is made up of many small masses m, each situated at
2
its
own
particular radius.
all these small masses we will call M, the total mass of

the body. If this mass could be concentrated at a single radius which we
2
a Actually
will call k, we could write for the whole rotating body: T =
the
it is possible to determine the value of a radius at which the whole of
The sum of
Mk
mass of a body may be assumed as concentrated, and

the Radius of Gyration, being denoted by k.
this radius
is
called
212
We may thus write:

Accel torque (T)
= Mk 2 a
(8)
For a flywheel having a rim heavy in proportion to the rest of the

may be assumed as the mean radius of the rim.
For a plain disc of radius r, k = 0-707 r.
We might caution the reader again regarding the units of the above
expression. If T is in newton metres (Nm),
will be in kilogrammes,
k will be in metres and a will be in rad/s 2
wheel, k
If 60*0
S/
I
l
160N
s
\
/
Fig. 153
Example
12.
Fig. 154
flywheel of mass 550kg has a heavy rim, the inside and
outside radii of which are 450
wheel
is
radial force of
is
160N.
The
x
550mm
and
is
respectively.
tangential force at
how
between the brake and
long the wheel will take to
make
When this
pressed against the rim with a
If the coefficient of friction
0-25, calculate
and how many revolutions

160
mm
rotating at 105 rev/min a brake
the wheel
25
40N
come
to rest
doing so.
the rim of the wheel tending to stop
it
will
in
it
is
fx.
160 x 0-25
mm
= 40N
= 0-55 m, the retarding torque will

Since this acts at a radius of 550
be 40 x 0-55 = 22Nm.
As the rim is heavy in comparison with the rest of the wheel, we will
take the Radius of Gyration at the mean rim radius, i.e. at 500mm radius
(0-5 m).
ACCELERATING TORQUE
Using the torque equation
22
T = Mk a we
2
550 x 0-5 X 0-5 x a from which a
We may now use
the equation
co 2
w,
213
have
22
5Q
= 0-16rad/s
at to find the time to stop
the wheel since

105
01 6
and a =
(retardation)
= -^-2* -0-16*
Hence
In 0-16?
i.e.
60
= tr
60 x
n
7
X
%* = 68
0-16
x n
'
8 seconds
Since the average speed of the wheel in coming to rest

it
will
make
52-5
X -pk~
6U
is
52-5 rev/ min
in 68-8 sec, i.e 60-2 re v.

.
A pulley is in the form of a cast-iron disc 500mm x 80mm

driven from a source of power which exerts a constant torque
of ION m. How long will this pulley take to attain to a speed of 210rev/min
when started from rest? Take the density of the cast iron to be 7280 kg/m 3
Example
thick. It
13.
is
j DH X
Mass of pulley =
= 2| x
density
52
08 x 7280 kg
= 1144 kg
Taking the radius of gyration as 0-707 x outside radius, we have k
X 0-25 = 0-1 72 m
The applied torque is
0-707
lONm
T = Mk 2 a,
and applying the torque equation

10
0-172 2
H4-4 x nmi
<x
co
= 2l0rev/min =
ttt-a
44
~ S3
15-7
seconds
114-4
0-172 2
2-8rad/s 2
44rad/s
X a
214
III
Example 14. A steel level 300mm long is of rectangular cross-section

40 mm x 20 mm, and is pivoted at its centre One end bears on a cam which
.
causes
it
to swing through a length of 25 mm, during the time that the
cam
revolution at 180rev/min. If half the swing of the lever is made

with constant acceleration, and the other half with constant retardation,
estimate the torque required to accelerate the lever. Ik for a lever pivoted
makes
= -r-approx(L =
at
the centre
as
7840 kg/m 3
The problem
shown
is
length of lever).] Take the density of steel
in Fig. 155.
Fig. 155
Approximate mass of lever = 0-3 x 0-04 x 0-02 x 7840 = 1-88 kg.

The lever is accelerated through an arc 25 mm long on a 150 mm
i.e. through an angle of radian.
This takes place during turn of a cam revolving
radius,
180 rev/min,
at
i.e.
rev at 3 rev/s
= X j = 27 second
= <ot + \at 2 = \at 2 when
Since
.-.
\at\ and a
If)
=g-
For the lever we have radius of gyration k =

25
Hence applying
mm
= ^jkr =
co
-pr
192 rad/s 2
=
yy
0-025 m, and mass
m=
1-88 kg.
the torque equation
T = mk 2 a =
1-88
(0-025) 2
X 192 = 0-225Nm
cam end of the lever being accelerated upward

amount would have to be applied by the cam to the
This means that with the

a torque of the above
THE ENERGY OF ROTATING BODIES
end of the
applied to
215
With the cam end falling, this torque would have to be

the lever by a spring or other means to prevent the roller from
lever.
leaving the cam.
of course, relative to the lever only, and

neglects the effect of attachments to its free end.
The above consideration
is,
The energy of rotating bodies

continue our consideration of a rotating body as having all its mass
concentrated at the radius of gyration (k), if the body is rotating at a
speed of a> radians/second the linear speed in metres/second of a point
If we
at radius
will
be
v
o) k, if
is
Since the kinetic energy of a body

m(a)k) 2
mv 2
-^-; for a rotating body
it
will
be
newton metres
KE =
Hence
in metres.
-=
joules
Rotating flywheels are used on presses and other machines for the
purpose of storing a reserve of energy, so that when a sudden large output of work is required the machine will not stall, or undergo an undue
slowing up in speed.
Example
500
Calculate the energy stored up in a solid disc of cast iron,
mm dia by 80 mm thick,
when
rotating at 180 rev/min. If this wheel
speed after a hole has been blanked if the

blanking pressure is 100 kN and its duration extends over 5 mm.
From Example 13 the mass of this wheel is 114-4 kg and its radius of
gyration, 0-1 72 m.
is
on a
press,
what
will
The angular speed
be
o>
its
180
-^r- x
In =
6;rrad/s
oil
Putting these in the expression for Kinetic Energy
mk (o
KE = - - =
Energy stored
at
114-4
180 rev/min
0-1 72 2
601-5 J
(6tt)
216
III
For a pressure of 100 kN extending over
100 000
0-005
mm,
the
work done
500J
This energy must be given up by the flywheel and

will
be 601-5
If oj
is
500
its
energy afterwards
101-5 J
the speed of the wheel after giving up the energy: re-applying
the expression for kinetic energy

,
Tm
101-5 =
mk*a>*
-
rev/m
rnk 2
= ^60 =
(jo
114-4
203
X 0-172 2
7-75 rad/s
7-75
-=
= x- =
In
In
=
7-75 X 60
=
232-5
Hence speed of wheel

16. Solve
_,
74 rev/min
71
2.71
Example
2 x 101-5
2
1
'
60
co
rev/s
u>
after blanking hole
Example
12
74 rev/min
from a consideration of energy and work
done.
At 105 rev/min the work stored up
in the flywheel
550 X 0-5 X 0-5 X
11
= Energy =
11
=
The tangential
8320 J
force at the brake block
8320
of energy this must travel tpt-
Revs of wheel
for 208
208
= 40 N, and to dissipate 8320 J
m on its circumference
208
208
Circum
n x
A rev, as before
60-2
,
1-1
Average speed = 52-5 rev/min
Hence time
Example
balls
17.
spaced
to stop
-py-^
X 60 min =
68-8 s
two 150mm diameter spherical cast-iron

radius. At
ends of the arm, each ball being at 500
fly-press has
at the
mm
THE ENERGY OF ROTATING BODIES
217
Fig. 156
what speed must the arm rotate

penetrating a thickness of
2-
if
the punch
is
to be just capable of
mm under a constant pressure of 20 000 N?
Take the density of cast iron to be 7280 kg/m3

The reader is no doubt acquainted with the fly-press, a sketch of which
is shown in Fig. 156.
.
mass of a
= volume x
ball
=
Energy stored
in 2 balls at
n * ai53
a speed of
pM
12-9
0-5
density
x 7280= 12.9kg
co rad/s.
mk2(o2
0-5
<o
3.225a; 2
This must be equal to the work output required

= 0-0025 m
20 000N acting for a distance of 2- 5
at the
mm
=
=
Hence 3-225w 2 =
20 000 x 00025
50J
50,
50
15-5,
3-225
Vl5-5
3-94 rad/s
3-94
^P = 0-627 rev/s
punch,
i.e.
218
1.
CI flywheel rim
is
radius of gyration as the
.1
2. If the flywheel in
HI
Exercises 8d
0-8m inside diameter and
outside,
mean
315rev/min [Density of CI
01m
radius, calculate the energy stored
wide. Taking the

up when the speed is
= 7280 kg/m3 ].
Ex. No.
1 is
attached to a press and a punching operation causes
the speed of the wheel to drop to 262-5 rev/min, calculate the energy absorbed by the
operation.
3.
at 105
CI flywheel, rim
14m
outside diameter,
lm
inside,
and
01m
wide
rev/min when two brake pads are pressed against opposite sides of
is
its
revolving
rim. If the
coefficient of friction at the brakes is 04, with what force must they be pressed against the
rim to bring the wheel to rest in 30 revolutions?
4. A motor develops a constant torque of 32Nm. It drives a shafting and pulleys of
mass 400 kg, and having a radius of gyration = 200 mm. Calculate the time taken for
motor
from rest to a speed of 3 1 5 rev/min.

form of a solid cast-iron disc 0-6 m diameter, 80mm thick, and is
carried on a 50mm diameter shaft. When the wheel is revolving at 315 rev/min it is disengaged from its drive and comes to rest in 75 seconds If the retarding torque is due entirely
the
5.
to accelerate the shaft
flywheel
is
in the
to friction at the bearings, calculate the tangential frictional force at the surface of the
50mm
shaft
upon which the wheel
A press has
is
mounted.
= 0-707 m. The press is

which the ultimate shear strength is 400N/mm 2
When a bar is being sheared the full load comes on and remains constant whilst the shear
blade moves 5 mm, after which the load drops to zero. If the above flywheel is rotating at 52-5
rev/min when a bar is sheared, calculate the reduction in speed caused by the work absorbed.
7. A fly-press has two masses each of 5 kg attached to opposite ends of the arm at
400mm radius. When the arm is rotating at 1 rev/s a punch in theram makes contact with a
pin and drives it a distance of 5mm into a hole. Calculate the average pressure exerted
on the pin by the punch.
6.
a flywheel of mass 400 kg and radius of gyration
shearing metal bars
8.
250 mm,
cylindrical
is
40mm x 20mm,
for
mixing tank mass 160kg, inside diameter lm, radius of gyration
rotating at 105 rev/min
when 20 kg of material
immediately moves to the sides of the tank and arranges

estimate the
momentary reduction
in
is
tipped into
itself at
mean
it.
If the material
radius of 400 mm,
speed caused by the extra mass.
Heat and Heat Energy

Temperature
The temperature of a substance

it
is
no indication of the amount of heat
contains, but merely a measure of
its
"hotness level."
There are two scales of temperature used in this country; the Celsius
and the Kelvin. (The Celsius scale is a more modern* name for the Centigrade scale, but the latter name is likely to persist for some time after the
adoption of the SI conventions.) The freezing-boiling point limits of water
are
shown
in Fig. 157.
AMOUNT OF HEAT
373
100"
219
Boiling
Freezing
273
Fig. 157
Celsius
Kelvin
The degrees of temperature on these systems are generally denoted C

and K respectively. The chief calculation concerning these is the conversion
from one to the other.
It will
be noted that a very simple relation-
ship exists,
i.e.
temperature in Kelvin
temperature
in
20C = 273 + 20
and 353 K = 353 - 273
(The reader
will note that the
Celsius
273.
For example
= 293K
= 80C
word "degree"
is
not used
when
referring
to the Kelvin scale.)
Furthermore, 1C of temperature rise = 1 K of temperature rise. The

symbol relates to the kelvin scale of absolute temperature and goes down
to absolute zero (0) of temperature. It is employed mostly in scientific
and thermodynamic work.
Amount of heat
Heat is a form of energy, and hence the unit for a quantity of heat is the
same unit as for a quantity of energy, i.e. the joule. For large quantities
we occasionally refer to kilojoules and megajoules.The amount of energy
mass of a substance a unit increase of temperature
is called the specific heat capacity of that substance. As an example,
the specific heat capacity of water is about 4200J/kgC. Water has the
needed to
raise unit
greatest specific heat capacity of any substance, so that
all
other sub-
stances have a specific heat capacity of less than 4200 J/kgC.
220
III
Table of Specific Heat Capacities

Specific
Substance
in J/kg
Water
1300
2140
2000
400
540
900
1300
480
oil
Petroleum
Turpentine
Copper
Cast iron
Aluminium
Lead
Steel
Brass
395
2400
880
1000
Oak
Stone generally
Air
constant pressure)
(at
When
4200
2930
Alcohol (absolute)
Olive
Heat
Capacity
a substance
is
heated up the heat transferred to
it
will
be
given by
(Mass of substance)(Rise
in temperature)(Specific heat capacity)
= mc (T - T,)
[m = mass;c = sp.ht. capacity; T and T = Temp limits.]
2
Heat
Due
calculations
to the fact that heat escapes so easily
and so rapidly by conduction,
convection and radiation, the results of heat and temperature calculations

are not to be relied upon. It is possible, however, to obtain an approximate
idea of the state of conditions, and the work involves important principles
in
which we cannot have too much practice.
Example 19. A piece of steel of mass 5kg is heated up to 700 C and

immersed in a tank 400mm square containing 250mm of water at 15C.
The steel is left until temperature conditions become steady. Assuming
that
10% of the
When
and
if
heat
is lost,
the hot steel
no heat were
is
estimate the final temperature.
placed in the water
lost externally the
it
will lose heat to the water,
heat lost by the steel would be
HEAT CALCULATIONS
equal to the heat gained by the water.

is gained by the water.
As
of the heat lost by
90%
it is,
221
the steel
Let
7 be
the final steady temperature.
Heat
lost
The mass of
in
a tank
04 m
by
steel
=
=
(mass)(sp. ht. cap.)(fall in temp)
X 480(700 - 7)
cubic metre of water
square
when
0-4
the depth
0-4
= 1000 kg,
is
so the mass contained
0-25
x 1000 = 40kg
0-25
Heat gained by water = 40 x 4200(7 - 15)

= i%(heat lost by steel) we have
(2)
Since heat gained by water
168000(7
15)
Multiplying out the brackets
0007-
168
From which
Example
20.
placed in 2
we
4 032 000
t
T=
4Q32Q0Q
170160
X 480(700 -
7)]
(3)
have:
2 520 000
piece of steel
litres
U5
170 1607
h
and
kg
512 000
1607
^ 7 or
= 2H1C
in
mass
of water. Conditions are
is
taken from a furnace and
made such that
the
minimum
of heat escapes. If the initial temperature of the water was 20C and the
final steady temperature of steel and water 52 C, estimate the temperature
of the
when taken from the furnace.

assume no loss of heat we have
Heat gained by water = Heat
steel
If we
Let
7=
Mass of 2
lost
by
steel.
furnace temperature
litres
of water
2 kg
= 2 X 4200(52 - 20)
= 8400 x 32 = 268800 J
Heat lost by steel = (mass)(sp. ht. cap.)(7 52)
= x 480(7 - 52) *= 480T Equating: 4807- 24 960 = 268 800
4807 = 293760
Heat gained by water
293760
21480
estimate
a
low
would be
24 960
Actually this
as
some heat would be
lost.
222
III
Exercises 8e
The dimensions of a workshop
40m x 16m x
and the ventilation system

temperature in the shop
is 20C and the outside temperature 12C, calculate the heat lost per hour by the shop
due to the two air changes. [Sp. ht. capacity of air = 1000 J/kg C, density of air =
l-3kg/m 3 .] Give the answer in megajoules.
2. A piece of steel mass 5 kg is taken from a furnace at 700 C and plunged into
1.
is
such that the
air in
the shop
is
8 litres (8kg) of water at 15C. If
the water
when
are
12-5
changed twice per hour.
10% of the heat
If the
is lost,
estimate the temperature of
steady conditions have been reached. [Sp. ht. capacity of steel
480J/kg C.]
Water flows through a gas-heated boiler at the rate of 12 litres per minute, and
is raised from 20C to 70C by the boiler. If the efficiency of the boiler
70% and the gas used yields 18MJ/m 3 when burned, calculate the gas consumption of
3.
its
is
temperature
the boiler in cubic metres per hour.
4.
piece of steel of mass 1-25 kg
is
and the
final steady
taken from a furnace and quickly transferred
The
initial temperature of the water was 15C,

temperature was 50 C. Assume that no heat escaped during the
into a tank containing 3 litres of water.
process, and estimate the temperature of the steel
An
5.
when taken from
flows, the tubes being subjected to a circulation of cooling water

oil
flows through the tubes at the rate of 18 litres/min,
80C, and
it
be necessary
oil
the furnace.
which the
oil-cooling arrangement consists of a nest of tubes through
desired to cool this
is
if it
= 2000 J/kg
enters at 18C
down
and leaves
its
on
their exterior.
oil
The
entering temperature
is
to 30C. Estimate what flow of water will

at
28C.
[l
litre oil
0-9 kg, sp. ht. cap.
of
C.]
6. In a certain locality the cost of gas for industrial heating was 4p per cubic metre,
and the cost of coal 1200 per tonne (= 1000kg). The heating value of the gas was
18MJ/m 3 and of the coal 25MJ/kg. Assuming an efficiency of application of 90% for the
gas and 60% for the coal, compare the relative costs of heating by gas and coal.
Heat energy
Heat is a form of energy, and when mechanical work is dissipated by fricconverted into heat. Most of our mechanical energy is derived
from heat by converting it through some form of heat engine The relation
between heat and mechanical energy was at one time called Joule's Equivalent, after the famous scientist Joule. The use of Joule's Equivalent is
tion
it is
not required
when
using SI units, as heat and other forms of energy use
the same unit.
Example
21. If
lkg of coal when burned yields 25 MJ, estimate the mass of

kW if the overall efficiency is 10%.
coal required per hour to generate 100
2 =
We have that Input
Efficiency
-r^.
100
HEAT ENERGY
Output
= lOOkW,
Input
-^
= lOOkW x
1000 kW = 1000 000

Heat energy required per hour
Heat energy in 1 kg of coal
Mass required =
Example
22.
ine
223
= lOOOkW
= 1000 000 J/s = 10 6 J/s
= 10 6 X 3600 J
= 25MJ = 25 X 10 6 J
=
144 kg
machining operation is cooled by soluble oil having a

3000J/kgC, flowing at the rate of 601itres/min.
being absorbed at the cutting point and 80% of the heat
taken away by the cooling oil, calculate its rise in tempera-
specific heat capacity of

If 10
kW
generated
is
is
ture, tl litre of coolant
Assuming
we
all
0-9 kg].
the power to be dissipated as heat at the cutting point,
have:
Heat generated per minute at the cutting point

for one minute = 10 OOOJ/s x 60s = 600 000J
Heat taken away by coolant = & x 600 000 J = 480 000
Heat taken up by coolant = (mass)(sp. ht. cap.)(temp rise)
= (60 X 0-9) (3000) (temp rise) joules
= lOkW
Equating these we have:
(60
x 3000) temp
0-9
_
Temp nse =
-
Example
23.
The
rise
= 480 000 J
480 000
60 x 0-9 x 3000
Q or
=!&--
surface speed of a grinding wheel
is
1200m/min. The
of 40mm
square cross-section is pressed against the

end of a steel bar
of 100N. If the coefficient of friction

force
a
min, with
wheel for
0-4, and if half of the heat generated is
is
the
wheel
steel
and
between the
absorbed by the steel, being momentarily confined to a depth of 2-5 mm,

estimate the temperature rise at the surface in contact with the wheel
face.
If the coefficient
of friction
is
tangential resistance will be 100
per second
= 40N x
.*.
12
Work
0-4
and the radial pressure 100N, the

= 40N and the work dissipated
0-4
= 800Nm = 800 J.
dissipated in 15 s
Heat input from work
12
000
\ x 12 000 J
= 6000 J
224
III
Taking the density of steel as 7840 kg/m 3 the layer of metal to which
this heat is assumed to be confined = volume x density.
,
=
=
Heat given =
6000 =
Temp
rise
0-04
0-04
x 0-0025 x 7840
0-031 36 kg
(mass)(sp. ht. capacity)(temp rise)
(0-031 36)(480)(temp
480 x 0031 36
rise)
^C
Exercises 8f
1.
cutting operation
is
absorbing
2kW
at the tool point. Calculate the heat
generated in kilojoules per minute. If this operation

the rate of 10
litres
per min, and
temperature,
rise in
litre oil
[l
2. Estimate the gas
is
being cooled by
taken away by the
if
90% of the
0-9 kg; sp. ht. cap. of oil
heat
is
consumption of an engine when
it
is
oil
oil,
being
flowing at
calculate
its
2500J/kgC.]
developing 12 kW with a
thermal efficiency of 20%. Take the heat value of the gas used
the answer in cubic metres of gas per hour.
at
18MJ/m and express

3
3. A bearing is 140mm diameter and runs at 500rev/min. It carries a load of 20 kN

and the coefficient of friction is 0-06. Calculate the work spent per minute in friction.
If the bearing is to be cooled by a circulation of oil [sp. ht. cap. = 1600J/kgC], and if
the temperature rise of the oil is not to exceed 8C, what mass of oil must flow through
the bearing per minute?

4.
flywheel of mass 250 kg and having a radius of gyration of 400
210rev/min, when
mm
is
rotating at
by a brake. Calculate the heat generated at the

brake. If the brake shoe is cast iron of mass 4kg, and it absorbs half the heat generated,
estimate its rise in temperature. [Spec. ht. cap. of CI. = 540J/kgC.]
5.
it
is
brought to
grinding operation
is
required for the cooling water

rise in
temperature
is
rest
absorbing
if all
5kW
at the
the heat generated
wheel. Calculate the rate of flow

is
taken away by the water and
not to exceed 4C. Give the answer in litres/min.
its
d +
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225
Appendix
II
H Holes (Hole Basis)
ISO Standard
Tolerance Limits for Selected Holes. (Selected from BS 4500: 1969)
= 0001 mm)
(Unit
Nominal
Up
Over
H7
Sizes
H9
H8
Hll
to
and
UL
UL
LL
LL
UL
LL
UL
LL
includ-
ing
mm
mm
10
15
22
36
90
10
18
18
27
43
110
18
30
21
33
52
130
30
50
25
39
62
160
50
80
30
46
74
190
80
120
35
54
87
220
120
180
100
250
250
40
46
63
180
72
115
290
UL =
Upper Limit
LL = Lower
Appendix
Limit
III
H Hole
over the Range 6mm to 180mm
British Standard
[Limits for
H6
to
Hll
Abstracted from BS 1916 (1953)1
Nominal
Size
over
to
High Limit
(unit
H6
H7
H8
+ 0001mm)
H9
H10
Low
Hll
10
15
22
36
58
90
10
18
11
18
27
43
70
110
18
30
13
21
33
52
84
130
30
50
16
25
39
62
100
160
50
80
19
30
46
74
120
190
80
120
22
35
54
87
140
220
120
180
25
40
63
100
160
250
226
Limit
H6toHll
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227
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Appendix VI
The Trigonometrical Addition Formulae
sometimes necessary to express the trigonometrical ratios of the sum
It is
or difference of two angles in terms of their individual ratios.

tions are
If the
shown
in Fig.
The condi-
58 and the formulae are quoted without proof.
reader wishes to pursue the proof he can do so by consulting any
trigonometrical textbook.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 158
In Fig. 158
sin
(a),
A cos B + cos A sin B

A cos B sin A sin B
tan A + tanB
=
- tan A tan B
(A + B) =
cos (A
B)
tan (A
B)
sin
cos
In Fig. 158(6),
sin
(A
cos (A
,
tan (A
v
A cos B cos A sin B

A cos B + sin A sin B
tan
A r
tan B
=^
B) =
B) =
_,.
B)
sin
cos
t
+ tanA tanB
A in (A + B) we get:
sin 2 A =2 sin A cos A
cos 2 A = cos A sin A = 2 cos A
cos A + sin A = 1)
2 tanA
tan 2 A
- tan A
By
writing
B =
230
2 sin 2
A (since
Appendix VII
Continued Fractions
A continued fraction is a series of fractions derived from a single complicated fraction, each fraction in the series approaching more nearly to the
value of the fraction from which the series was derived.
If during the course of our work we required to obtain a gear ratio
131
(e.g. for cutting
an obscure screw pitch)
we could
of, say, -r-,
only do
by having gears containing 131, and 353 teeth, because neither of the
numbers has any factors. To cut such gears for the job would be out of the
question, as in the first place they would be too large to fit on to the
machine, and the cost of making them, if they were only required once,
would be prohibitive.
By applying the method of continued fractions to such a problem, it
would probably be possible to obtain a ratio in a usable form, and having
a value so close to the original, that under the circumstances it would be
it
acceptable.
For the purpose of explaining the method we
will
convert the above
ratio to a continued fraction:
Example
18.
numerator
Put the numbers down as a division
into the
sum
only divide the
denominator
131)353(2
262
Now divide this
91)131(1
into the
original divisor
Divide into the
9J_
40)91(2
80
last divisor
11)40(3
Divide into the last divisor

(and so on every time)
33
7)11(1
7
4)7(1
4
3)4(1
3
1)3(3
3
231
APPENDIX
232
The
VII
quotients obtained from the continued division are
1,2,3,
2,
These may now be written
1, 1, 1
as the
and
3.
denominators of a continued fraction
as follows:
A
C
1
1
1
1
1
1
We now have to find what are called the "convergents" of this fraction.
In simpler terms, the convergents are approximations to the actual value
of the fraction. They are, in value, alternately too large and too small,
but each time they approach nearer to the actual value (hence the term
convergent).
1st
convergent
[Down
2nd convergent [To
to line
line
CD]
AB] = y
1
2+1
3rd convergent [To line EF]
2+1
2+
"2 +
4th convergent [to line
GH]
2+1
2+1
1
j_
2
J_
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
2+1
2+
ft
K
^
+f
-10
27
+ ^
233
5th convergent [to line JK]
2+1
\
1
+ 1
1
2+1
1+1
J_
+ &
I
H
u
9
LM]
2+
2+
1
1
1
.
1
1
16
23
16
16
z 23
62
_23
62-
23
NP] (The reader should now be

.
this for himself)
8th convergent [whole fraction]
able to check
= "
- 353
values of the convergents, their decimal equivalents and the error

(+ or -) from the true value of the original fraction, are set down in the
The
following table.
234
APPENDIX
VII
Original Fraction
Mi
0-3711
Error
Decimal
Convergent
No.
Equiv.
Value.
or -.
0-5000
+ 0-1289
0-3333
-0-0378
0-3750
+ 0-0039
0-3704
0-3710
-0-0007
+0-0003
-0-0001
0-37113
-rG.00003
0-3714
0-0000
0-3711
a graph of the error against the convergent No. is plotted it will be

like Fig. 159. It will be noticed that the error is only 0-0007
even at the 4th convergent, although this is a very simple fraction
If
somewhat
<#)
+
V.
O
u
\
1
A^
3
Xi^
^_
5
Convergent number
1
Fig. 159
6
"
Answers
to exercises
Exercises 2a
Hole
Clearance
Shaft
75-120
74-940
(mm)
0-226
max
75-000
74-894
min
35-062
35-018
max
0-060
35-000
35-002
min
-0-018
3. 20-021
19-980
max
0-062
20-000
19-959
min
0-020
57-046
57-083
max
57-000
57-053
min
-0-007
-0-083
(mm)
(mm)
1.
2.
0-060
(interference).
4.
(interference).
5.
Centre distance 124-98
6. 40-0062
7.
8.
mm; "Not Go"
diameter 12-079
mm
mm diameter
Open out "Go" and "Not Go" ends by 0-052 mm

Same fit with blocks on top limit. Additional clearance
of
0017mm
with pair of
blocks on bottom limits
Reduce "Go" diameter by 0-0373 mm and "Not Go" by 0-036 mm

Max. 0-271 mm: Min. 0- 170mm
9. Yes.
10.
Exercises 2b
108
1-10
1-60
1005
103
9-00
100
2000
1-60
16-00
700
5000
1-01
2.
104
3.
4.
1-70
25-00
106
7. 1-02
8. 1-05
24.00
1-30
1-50
1-40
50.00
13-00
7-00
17-00
1-70
6.
100-00
1-09
10.(a)
1005
(b)
105
11.
"Go"
1-90
1-02
1-90
3-00
1-90
12-00
1005
117
75-00
600
20-00
1-80
600
25-00
20-00
12. 1-08
400
1000
235
end.
2500
"Not go" end.
105
1-90
900
800
10-00
236
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Exercises 2c
1.
mm
0-30
5. 0 6'
too steep
10-31
6.
BC =
AD
7.
9.
True angle
75-79mm.
3.
37 43'; error 0
35-90mm;>>
41-40
mm higher
mm
29- 15
= 13-10mm;x = 26-93
mm; 0- 108 mm
8. 500-09
1'
1016mm
10.
One end
4.
CD =
39-25 mm;
11.
14-86mm
Exercises 2d
1.35
3. 47 4'
2. 22 20'
18'
5. 25 50'
6. a
8.
AB =
1.
40-546 mm; 252'
46-23 mm,
103-5mm; 29 32'; 34
4. (i) 3946';
a =
30 18'
(ii)a
A=
7.
152- 19
= 8,6 = 16; (iii) 25-01

mm; B = 57-81 mm
12'
Exercises 2e
- H) 2 =
4. (25
2.
225
ll-67mm
D)
102
3.
A=
5.
d = j; 26-67mm
77-508mm; B = 76-008mm
1546mm
6. 9 12'
Exercises 2f
20-53mm;
Normal to axis,
10-09mm
36-43mm;
1. (a)
(b)
2.
58-9
3.
7. 14-16
mm diagonally across plugs, 59-26 mm

12-94mm
4.
mm
(c)0-767in
8. 64-05
5.
15-4mm
6.
52-804mm
mm
Exercises 3a
28
39
54
250
877
180
130
1260
104
145
202
280
94
68
49
35
25
2630
1820
237mm,
4. 41 3 rev/min;
75
mm
7. 2-61
500
- 20
mm;
10.
Rake
1.
5728'
35-51
3.25-2m/min
h
73
27;
6.
Rake
8. 15
21
5.
4.
9.
Exercises 3c
4. (a)
155 mm;
(6)
3. 29
in 6-128;
0-65 mm;
(c)
5500 rev/min
Tu " g C arb
g .0
g
rl .o
2-8
r- approx
/5
12 10', Clearance 14 50'
19 36'; Clearance 15 36'
2.
Dia
Dia
60mm
119 mm,
Exercises 3b
32-28;
mm
rev/min
7 32'
a =
7 18';
22 13'
5.
805mm;
7.
Angle 41
5' for 355' to 42'
Depth
18':
6-95
7-07mm; 247mm; 70
6.
mm Land 2-81 mm
8. 4-78
237
38'
mm; l-66mm
mm; 6122mm; 22 03' with Horiz.

204mm; (b) 29-6 mm; (c) 11 23'
9. 2-564
10. (a)
Exercises 3d
1.
x 6*
i.5009mm
*J = jjp
50 x 110
55
2. |J; Actual lead 3-1428
3. 4-433
mm;
4. (a) 1-93
Error
+ 0-0012mm
39
nearest 4-432 with -rj ratio; 66-47 mm/min
44
kW;
5.312mm;
(6)0-778mm 3 /J
8.
7. 384/7
9.
mm;
35
27-96
Nm
1400 rev/min; 14-63Nm; 2-79 kW
11. Nearest Ratio
20
49
(a)0-8786kW;
10.
40 x 25
35
6.10mm
Pitch
2-041
(b) 2-238
J/mm
53-3 m; 1-95/?
mm
?()
Exercises 4a
1.
6-69 mm; (a) 69-52
2. (a)
w =
9-435 mm; h
3. Cutting 0-06
4. Cutting
mm
(6) 0-49
mm
= 61 mm;
(6)
w = 1000mm;
6-37
mm
mm too shallow.
0-17mm
too deep; Tooth
0-12mm
thin;
Space 0-13mm wide.
w = 1110mm, h = 5-98mm; (i) w = 1104mm, h = 5-95mm

(b) 178-48 mm
7. 19346 mm
7-38 mm;
(a) 25738mm
(b) 2345 mm
(a) 23-63 mm;
(c)86-7mm; (rf)78mm
(b) 140-6 mm;
(a) 1845mm;
5. (a)
6.
8.
9.
1.
2.
3.
Exercises 4b
= 210mm; T.D. = 218mm; Depth = 9mm
w = 7-808 mm; h = 4-0768 mm
T = 40T; P.D. = 200mm; T.D. = 208mm; t = 24f;
p.d. = 120mm; t.d. = 128mm; Depth = 9mm
P.D.
4. 179-7
6. (a)
mm
5. 0-215
221-35mm;
(b)
229-35mm;
(c)
9mm;
(rf)
1910mm;
(e) 63.
P.D. 124-71 mm, T.D. 132-71 mm; (c) 678mm; (</) 42.
8. 2; P.D. = 70-71 mm; T.D. = 74-71 mm; lead = 222mm; 4-5
T.D. Helix angle, 20 22'; lead, 1016mm
9. Gear: 45T, 120mmP.D.; 125
Pinion: 30T, 80mm P.D., 85mm T.D.; Helix angle, 20 22', lead, 677mm
7. (a) 27;
(b)
mm
mm
Exercises 4c
1.
2.
T.D. = 46-36 mm; R.D. = 3263mm; A = 9 2'.

35T; P.D. 11140mm; T.D. 1 17-76 mm; Centre Dist 75-70 mm; Throat rad. 16-82mm;
Whole dia. 124-71 mm; 28-22mm [Face angle 75.]
3. 6;
4.
A =
32 29'
8-62
mm
P.D.238-73mm; throat dia. 24509 mm;

P.D.61-27mm; T.D.67-63mm; A = 1434'
Wheel: 75T;
rad. 2745
mm. Worm:
5start;
238
5.
T =
Cone dist., 4242mm; Add. angle, 322'; Ded. angle, 414';

Whole dia., 63-32 mm; Tip dist., 28-23 mm.
Wheel: 39T; D = 195mm; Angles: P = 56 18'; Add., 2 27'; Ded., 33'; Face, 5845';
Root, 53 15'; Whole dia., 200-55mm.
Pinion: 26f; d = 130mm; Angles: P = 33 42'; Add., 2 27'; Ded., 3 3'; Face, 36 9';
Root, 30 39'; Whole dia. 138-32mm; Cone dist., 11716mm.
24; P. angle, 45;
Face, 4822'; Root, 4046';
6.
7. 5-9
8.
mm;
5 58'.
122-77 mm;
= 90mm;
18T; P.D.
Pinion:
dia., 96-93
73 54'; Add.,434';Ded.,543';Wholedia,
P =
Angles:
466'; Add., 434'; Ded., 543';
Whole
mm.
Exercises 5a
2. 25 to
(c)4-88mm
(6)6-944mm;
(a) 15;
1.
= 120mm; Angles: P =
Cone dist., 62-45 mm.
Wheel: 24T; P.D.
3. 731'; negative.
4. 926'.
31-19mm.
6. 4-82mm.
30;
5. 82j
Exercises 5b
1.
189mm/min
70rev/min,
4. 2-04 min
5. Spiral mill.
2.
60480mm
6.
1-8
kW,
2-94
2-5
kW
3.
3mm.
min, 0-15p.
Exercises 5c
and 5d, whole numbers refer to complete turns of the
crank, numerators of fractions to holes, and denominators to hole circles. When the
fraction is a simple one (e.g. \) it has been left in that form. Numerators of gear ratios
are drivers, and denominators are driven gears.]
[in the answers to Exercises 5c
1. (a)
3i;
2. (a)
3;
(b) 2f;
(b) 2tf;
(c)
Iff;
(d)
(c)
ljf;
(d)
(b) 2{f;
(c)
3f;
(b)
(c)
3ff;
5.
If; 3
6. (a)
3&;
(e) |?
A;
(e) ft;
(d) 5{f;
3. (a) If;
4. (a)
Iff;
lfc
f;
(g) f?;
ff;
fe)fc
(h)
(h) j?
7&.
()
(J) 8i;
(J)
CO
15
(<?)
mm
^+
^+
(6)
tf ;
(c)
if;
(<*)-*
A;
40C.c
cN - C
8 holes; 20 circle; Gears,
8. (a)
(b)
20
If
20 holes; 27
circle;
ft;
[Note.
9.
circle;
Gears,
^;
plate to turn
Gears,
ff
fj}
ft;
?f;
direction as crank,
(d)
8(a), (b), (c)
and
(d).]
10. 5ff;8f|; lift; 14ff
Exercises 5d
1. (a)
2.
,
3
If.
4
,
7*
1^; 10 36' 26";
fl^
is
41 24';
(c)
8^; 75 45'
nearer and could be obtained on Cincinnati.]
...
(b) 4f;
{a)
100 x 32
:48x56
...
(6)
100
x 24
W4T
, ,
;
32
(C)
72
(rf)
as crank.
(c)
8 holes;
10 holes, 33 circle; Gears,
direction as crank.
Other solutions are possible to
1652'
same
plate to turn opposite to crank,
same
same direction
plate to turn in
plate turn
40 x 24
64-lT48
40X
32
5.
a =
239
3648'
48 x 56
6. ft
7.
9.
10.
11.
24
if;
1'
between axes of work and cutter
8. Nearest =
720mm lead; tf ratio; 19 14'
72 mm; gear ratio f; a = 4603'
Gear ratio f; a = 22 1'; lead = 25 mm
Lead = 60 mm; gear ratio = f a = 30
ft
Jg
(based on
245mm
lead)
Other solutions are possible to Nos.
UVofe.
9,
10 and 11.]
Exercises 5e
5. 55-4
3. 496'
2. 6723'
1. 2958'
mm;
245-8 mm; 1232'
4. (a) 416';
6. (a) 5046';
(6)
(b)
972'
10428'
Exercises 6a
[in the solutions to Ex. 6a the angle given
drawn to the commencing end of the

upwards; 34 to
2. (a) 7-21
(b)
10-85
(c)
10-94
(d)
31
(e)
if)
upwards; 34 to
(c)
2-2
(d)
13-4
R of vert
14-5
upwards; 50 to
downwards;
6-6; cb
L to
6. 5 units
=
=
of vert
above horiz
upwards; 21 to R of vert
R to L; 32 above horiz
(/) 9-3
7. ac
vertical or horizontal
downwards; 4 to R of vert
L; 44 below horiz
3-4 downwards; 13 to L of vert
12 L to R; 5 below horiz
10-85 upwards; 41
5. ac
made with the
to L; 41 below horiz
(b)
(<?)
that
R to
3. (a) 7-2
4.
downwards
is
vector.]
21;
cZ>
8-7
12 to
of vert
of vert
= 5-5; abc = 50.

R; 37 above horiz
=
7-6 vert
downwards.
to R; 30 above horiz; be
8.
ab
1.
R to L (outwards);
3.
212N;
6.
Suspension chain 196N; pulling chain
downwards; 30 to
of vert
Exercises 6b
53N/mm
11 18' to lathe centre line.

4. 0-085m/s; 45 to horiz.
100N
2.
Horiz 38-3N; vert
5.
266-3N
233N; 552N
7.
32-1
Exercises 6c
1.
530N
in
a plane at 34 to vertical; line of action inclined at 71 to 500N force.

4. 216N.; 34 to horiz.
3. 309N; 904N
2.
11mm
5.
130N; 200N
8.
2860N
11.
6.
520N; 26 to
9.
274mm
76-5cm 3 113 from

;
horiz.
rad; 100
from 50 kg mass
7.
10.
163-5N horiz. L. to R.
5550N
240
Exercises 6d
4.
0-775mm
l-3m/s,
7. 0-088
10. (a)
m/s
2. 0-84 m/s
0-17m/s; 23 to
6. 0-8 m/s
8.
856N
9. 0-0051 m/s;
(b) 16-8
3. (a) 114;
OA
rpm.
7840
0-244m/s. 11. 0-00052m/s
(6)
f;
5.
(b) 4-64 m/s
5-36 m/s,;
1. (a)
Exercises 6e
8N
1.
170N
4.
Front bearing 1620N upwards; rear bearing
2.
5.
Right 357N;
7.
177N
1.
25-6N; 25-4N
4.
270N
3.
340N
80N
6.
left,
8.
tailstock 531N
417N downwards.
1600N, 600N
Headstock 319N;
Exercises 7a
2. 750N
5. 0-1184kW
at 6 57' to horiz.
3. 12
300N
kW
6. 0-792
Exercise 7b
1. 36-4;
5.
93-9N
68-5%; 18
2.
060N
6.
385-7N
9. 2340J,
10.
l-97kW
121N
1200N
3.
51-9N
5-3N
7. 377;
11.
4.
118N
8.
35-1%
lONm
Exercises 7c
1.
2.
3.
894mm
d = 44-7mm; L =
RH load =
LH load =
1080N; B. press
1170N; B. press
n = 0-0158,
300N
52-2 J
4. 86-2
6. 50
9. 23-1
1.
N/mm
=
=
4. 14-4 m/s 2
2. 1-28
5.
5.
= 200N/mm 2
lm;5s
1.
ION
2.
lm/s
5.
17-3N
6.
l-28m/s 2
fi
0032,
114kW
50-9N/mm 2 0-204mm
tension = 40 000N
8.
;
Exercises 8a
s, 12-5 m/s
0-4m/s 2 0-6m/s
7.
7. 10-8m/s;
mm
10. Stress
10rev/min 2 75 revs
N/mm
N/mm
7950N 63-2N
7.
0-27
0-29
3.
0-333 m/s 2 ;
6.
180rev/min 2
1-2 s
;
min
8. 0-5m/s; 15s
Exercises 8b
3. 355N
192N; 0-96m/s; 0-1849kW
5890m/s 2 589kN
8.
4.
72N
320mm
Exercises 8c
1.
18-31; 1050.
4. 157
2
3. 14-9rad/s
2. 6-55 s
500 J; 5250N
6. 18-75J;
31-25N
7. 8 J; 320
Exercises 8d
1.
22 700 J
2.
6940
3. 101
5.
131N
6.
16-5rev/min
7.
6320N
4. 16-5 s
8.
13-6rev/min
Exercises 8e
1.
4.
1664 MJ
785C
2.
59C
5. 38-61itres/min
3.
12m
6.
Cost gas
Cost coal
3-09
1
Exercises 8f
1.
120kJ; 4-8C
4. 9680J;
2-24C
2.
12m /h
3
3.
264 000 J; 206kg
241
Index
Dividing head, 123
Acceleration, 198
due to
gravity,
Drilling power, 8
200
Angles, cutting tool, 63

(solid),
evaluation
of,
142
Angular indexing, 130

measurement with sine bar, 22
Efficiency of a machine, 181
Energy, 206
heat, 218, 222
of rotating bodies, 2 1
surfaces, location of points on, 32
velocity
and
acceleration, 209
Equations, of motion, 198
Arithmetical progression, 57
Equilibrium, conditions for, 155, 171
Backlash, 95
Faceplate, balancing of
Balancing of masses in one plane, 159
Feeds for
Bar (pressure),
Fluting angle for milling cutter teeth,
Bearing
work
115
friction, 192
Force, 203
pressure, 191
of
Bevel gearing, 106

Bores, measuring large bores, 28
hammer
blow, 205
Forces, acting on a cutting tool,
BSI Limit System, 14
in a
mechanism, 167
vectorial representation,
Cam
on, 159
milling, 121
Form tools,
milling, 138
Celsius temperature, 218
Fraction, continued, 231
Centigrade temperature, 218
Friction, 176
Change wheels (odd
threads), 77
at a
Circular motion, 209
68
bearing 192
at nut face, 186
Coefficient of friction, 177
coefficient, 177
Continued fraction, 231

Conventions SI, 4
in
Cosecant, 92
when clamping,
screw thread, 182
of sliding keys, 188

178
Cotangent, 92
Cutters (milling), clearance, 117
Gauge, point for bores, 28
fluting angle, 115
slip,
grinding, 117
number of teeth,
113
speeds and feeds, 121
rack, 86
tooth rake, 114
Cutting power, 79
17
Gauging large radii, 25

Gear tooth form, 85
vernier, 87
Gearing, backlash, 95
speed range, 58
base pitch, 92
tool angles, 63
bevel, 106
forces acting on, 157

life,
helical,
96
plug method of checking, 90
61
242
57
INDEX
stub,
Moment of a force,
Momentum, 203
94
worm, 102
Geometric speed range, 58
Graph of motion,
Hammer
10, 199
blow, force
of,
205
Motion
in a circle,
equations
Newton
of,
170
209
198
(force), 3
Heat, 218
Pitch (base) of gears, 92
of work, 222
specific capacity,
219
Helical gearing, 96
and
Helix, lead
angle, 98
Power
for cutting, 79, 122
Progression, arithmetic and geometric,
57
Inclined plane, 182
Rack
Indexing, angular, 130
Radian, 209
compound, 126
(gear),
Rake on
86
milling cutter teeth,
14
differential, 128
Screw
simple, 125
cutting, calculations for
odd
threads, 77
Involute, 84
ISO Limit system, 14

ISO Metric thread, 48
thread as inclined plane, 182

threads,
measurement by
wires, 47
Secant, 92
Johannson gauges, 17
Sine bar, 22
SI units, 3
Kelvin, 219
Slip gauges, 17
Kilogramme, 6
Specific heat capacity, 219
Speed range geometric, 58

Level
(spirit),
19
Spiral milling, 134
Limit, 13
Spirit level, 19
systems, 14
Strain, 193
Lines on angular surfaces, true length, 32
Stress, 193
Mass,
Stub teeth, 94
Taper, measurement with balls and
6,
203
Measurement of gears, 87-90

by slip gauges, 17
of large bores, 28
of large
radii,
25
of tapers, 23, 38,
Mechanical advantage, 181

Metre, 2
rollers,
turning, 66
Temperature, 218
Tolerance, 13
Tool
life
Milling cam, 138
38
sine bar, 23
angles, 63
calculations, 61
Tools, form, 68
acceleration, 211
cutters, 113,
Torque to cause
feeds, 121
Trigonometrical addition formulae, 230
fluting angle, 115
Turning moment, 211
indexing, 125 et seq
power, 220
spiral,
Units SI metric, 3
134
Modulus of
Elasticity, 195
Vector diagrams of velocity, 162
243
244
INDEX
Vectors, 148
addition and subtraction, 148

applications, 151
Velocity ratio of a machine, 181
Whitworth thread, 48
Wire measurement of screw threads, 47
Work, 206
Worm gearing,
102
vectorial representation, 162
Vernier (gear tooth) calculations, 87
Young's Modulus, 195
'This is a
new edition with a new format, and completely revised to present its
the introductory chapter leads straight into the "new"

and includes some worked exercises with them so the reader is left in no
doubt as to what is to follow.
'The book divides neatly into two parts, the first dealing with machine tool
calculations, liberally spaced in the text and very clearly illustrated. Each
section is concluded by a number of problems to be solved by the student;
answers are supplied at the end of the text.
"The second part of the book deals with mechanic's principles, including
statics, dynamics and a few pages on heat, invariably a product of a
machine operation. The text concentrates its attention on the practical
aspects of the principles involved and rightly leaves the more academic considerations to other authors and other places.
'The author and his books on workshop technology have enjoyed great
popularity for 30 years, the books being standard works for many technical
material
in SI units;
units
easy to see the reason for the appeal, for this edition is neat
is not over-compressed. We can expect to see it
use for another 30 years.'
Marine Engineers Review
colleges:
it
is
and compact yet the material

in
Other books in SI units by Dr Chapman:

Elementary Workshop Calculations
Workshop Technology Part 1, fifth edition
Workshop Technology Part 2, fourth edition
Workshop Technology Part 3, third edition
EDWARD ARNOLD
2.50 net
ISBN:
7131 3260 4

Chapman - Senior Workshop Calculations

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MSc(Eng), FIMechE, HonFIProdE

First published 1941

by Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited

Reprinted 1944, 1947, 1949, 1952

Second edition 1954

Reprinted 1973, 1978

All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any

means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherEdward Arnold (Publishers)

wise, without the prior permission of

Photoset and printed in Malta by Interprint (Malta) Ltd

a revision of the workshop practice material in Senior

Workshop Calculations This revision was made necessary by the advent

Senior Workshop Calculations has enjoyed a vogue of thirty years and

has rendered a useful contribution to

countless students as well as to that of mature workers

has always been

form the book will continue to serve the

The SI system of units and conventions

Multiples and sub-divisions of the unit

and quantities - Dimensioning - Mass,

2 Measurements and gauging

- 3-wire measurement of screw threads -

Miscellaneous measurement problems

3 Calculations for cutting, turning and boring

- The tooth Vernier - Constant chord

5 Milling and the milling machine

Rake - Clearance - Tooth

Vectorial representation - Addition and subtraction of

- Machines and efficiency - The inclined plane

standard holes and shafts

and IV: BSI standard holes and shafts

Appendix V: Conversion table

Appendix VI: The trigonometrical addition formulae

Appendix VII Continued fractions

The SI system of units and conventions

the U.S.A., but even in these countries it is

used for precise

conversions back to the old units. This process can be speeded up by

Some of these could be

(say) the mental judgekilogramme, the amount

weights, capacities, etc.

metre, the weight of

primary units as follows:

In addition to these there are a

number of supplementary and derived

give below a selection of those which are most likely to be

required by students using this book.

given in BSI publication

A full list of the SI Units and con-

*The reader has probably heard of the bar

SUPPLEMENTARY AND DERIVED

Supplementary and derived units

Selected supplementary and derived SI units

Kilogramme per cubic metre

Metre per second squared

Specific heat capacity

Joule per kilogramme

Potential difference >

probable that the word "centigrade"

but SI recommends the use of

Celsius to prevent confusion with another unit.