UNIT.

5 (ground improvement)

Stone columns:
Stone columns refer to columns of compacted, gravel size stone particles constructed vertically in the ground to improve the performance of
soft or loose soils. The stone can be compacted with impact methods, such as with a falling weight or an impact compactor or with a vibroflot, the more
common method. The method is used to increase bearing capacity (up to 5 to 10 ksf or 240 to 480 kPa), reduce foundation settlements, improve slope
stability, reduce seismic subsidence, reduce lateral spreading and liquefaction potential, permit construction on loose/soft fills, and precollapse sinkholes prior
to construction in karst regions.

Design Considerations for stone columns:

The design of stone columns is still an empirical process; however, general design guidelines have been developed and are provided below.
For stone columns to adequately perform, the soils surrounding the columns must provide sufficient lateral support to prevent bulging failures. In
addition, the columns should terminate in a dense formation to prevent bearing failures. Stone columns are typically stiffer than the materials that surround
the columns; therefore, the columns will settle less and will carry a larger portion of the applied load. The applied load is transferred between columns
through soil arching. Ultimately equilibrium is reached when sufficient load has been transferred to the columns to prevent further settlement of the
surrounding soils. In stability and bearing analyses, composite shear strength of the soil-stone column matrix is used. The composite shear strength is based
on the shear strength of the in-situ soils, the shear strength of the stone materials, the area replacement, and stress ratios.
Unit Cell Concept
According to Ground Improvement Methods, For purposes of settlement and stability analyses, it is convenient to associate the tributary area of soil
surrounding each stone column with the column illustrated in Figures 19-13 and 19-14. Although the tributary area forms a regular hexagon about the stone
column, it can be closely approximated as an equivalent circle having the same total area. The resulting equivalent cylinder of material having a diameter
(De) enclosing the tributary soil and one stone column is known as the unit cell. The stone column is concentric to the exterior boundary of the unit cell.

Figure 19.13 stone column equilateral triangular pattern

Figure 19.14 unit cell idealization

Area Replacement Ratio
The Area Replacement Ratio ( s) defines the area of the soil replaced by the stone column as a function of the tributary area of the
unit cell to the area of the stone column. The more soil replaced by the stone column, the greater the effect on performance. Typical values of
s range from 0.10 to 0.40.

s = As / A
as = 1

/ s

Where,

s = Area replacement ratio

A = Total area within the unit cell

As = Area of the stone column

as = Area improvement ratio

Spacing and Diameter

According to Ground Improvement Methods, Stone column diameters vary between 1.5 and 4.0 feet, but are typically in the range of 3.0 to 3.5
feet for the dry method of installation, and somewhat larger for the wet method of installation.
Triangular, square or rectangular grid patterns are used with center-to-center column spacing of 5.0 to 11.5 feet. For footing support, the stone columns are
installed in rows or clusters. For both footing or wide area support, the stone columns may extend beyond the loaded area.
Stress Ratio
The transfer of the applied load to the stone columns from the in-situ soils depends on the relative stiffness of the stone column to the in-situ soils, as
well as the spacing and diameter of the stone columns. Because the stone columns and the in-situ soils deflect (strain) approximately equally, the stone
columns must be carrying a greater portion of the load (stress) than the in-situ soils. This concept has also been called the equal strain assumption. This
concept has been proven by both field measurements, as well as finite element analysis. The relationship between the stress in the stone column and the stress
in the in-situ soil is defined in the following equation.

n= s /

Where,
n = Stress ratio or stress concentration

s = Stress in the stone column

c = Stress in the surrounding soil
Measured values of n have generally been between 2.0 and 5.0. The theory indicates that n should increase with time. A high n-value (3 to 4) may be required
in very weak soils and the column spacing is tight. Lower values of n (2 to 2.5) are required when the surrounding soil is stronger and the column spacing is
wider. For preliminary design, a conservative n-value of 2.5 should be assumed.
Verification
According to Ground Improvement Methods, In-situ testing to evaluate the effect of the stone column construction on the native cohesive soil can
be also specified. However, the specified test method should be selected on the basis of its ability to measure changes in lateral pressure in cohesive soils. The
electric cone penetrometer test (CPT), the flat plate dilatometer test (DMT) and the pressuremeter test (PMT) appear to provide the best means for measuring
the change, if any, in lateral stress due to stone column construction.
Materials:
The stone is typically a graded crushed hard rock, although natural gravels and pebbles have been used. The greater the friction angle of the stone, the
greater the modulus and shear strength of the column.

Construction of stone columns:

Equipment:
When jetting water is used to advance the vibroflot, the equipment and setup is similar to VC. If jetting water is not desired for a particular
project, the dry bottom feed process can be used. A tremie pipe, through which stone is fed to the tip of the vibroflot, is fastened to the side of the vibroflot. A
stone skip is filled with stone on the ground with a front end loader and a separate cable raises the skip to a chamber at the top
of the tremie pipe.
A specific application is referred to as vibro piers. The process refers to short, closely spaced stone columns designed to create a stiff block to
increase bearing capacity and reduce settlement to acceptable values. Vibro piers are typically constructed in cohesive soils in which a full depth predrill hole
will stay open. The stone is compacted in 1 to 2 ft (0.4 to 0.8 m) lifts, each of which is rammed and compacted with the vibroflot.
Procedure:
The column construction starts at the bottom of the treatment depth and proceeds to the surface. The vibrator penetrates into the ground, assisted by
its weight, vibration, and typically water jets in its tip, the wet top feed method. If difficult penetration is encountered, predrilling through the firm soils may
also be performed. A front end loader places stone around the vibroflot at the ground surface and the stone falls to the tip of the vibroflot through the flushing
water around the exterior of the vibroflot. The vibrator is then raised a couple of feet and the stone falls around the vibroflot to the tip, filling the cavity
formed as the vibroflot is raised.
The vibroflot is then repeatedly raised and lowered as it is extracted, compacting and displacing the stone in 2 to 3 ft (0.75 to 0.9 m) lifts. The flushing
water is usually directed to a settlement pond where the suspended soil fines are allowed to settle. If the dry bottom feed procedure is selected, the vibroflot
penetrates into the ground, assisted by its weight and vibrations alone (Figure 12.11b). Again, predrilling may be used if necessary or desired. The remaining
procedure is then similar except that the stone is feed to the tip of the vibroflot though the tremie pipe. Treatment depth as deep as 100 ft (30 m) has been
achieved.

figure. Installation of stone columns

Uses of stone columns:

The stone column technique of ground treatment has proven successful in
(1) improving slope stability of both eubankments and natural slopes,
(2) increasing bearing capacity,
(3) reducing total and differential settlements,
(4) reducing the liquefaction poten!:ial of sands and
(5) increasing the time rate of settlement.
Stone columns are used to support structures overlying both very soft to firm cohesive soils and also loose silty sands having greater than about 15
percent fines. At the present time, more stone column projects in the U.S. have been constructed in silty sands rather than cohesive soils; worldwide the
reverse is true.

Applications

Stone columns have been used successfully in the U.S. before 1982 on 21 projects including the following applications [68]:
1. Embankment Fill Support - for highways, interchanges and bridge approaches.
2. Miscellaneous Highway Facilities - hospitality station, box culvert.
3. Structures - seven-story concrete library, two-story medical building, warehouses, shipbuilding facility, sewage treatment plant, parking garage,
miscellaneous office buildings.
4. Tanks - LGN storage tank, five million gallon water storage tank.
5. Miscellaneous - railroad and wharf structure.
Important potential uses of stone columns for highway applications are as follows:
1. Embankments.
The use of stone columns (or sand compaction piles) offers a practical alternative for the support of highway embankments where conventional
embankments cannot be constructed due to stability considerations. Potential applications include moderate to high fills on soft soils and for fill, perhaps of
Reinforced Earth, constructed on slopes where stability cannot otherwise be obtained.
A considerable amount of widening and reconstruction work will be done in future years. Some of this work will involve building
additional lanes immediately adjacent to existing highways constructed on moderate to high fills over soft cohesive soils such as those found in marsh areas.
For this application differential settlement between the old and new construction is an important problem in addition to embankment stability. support of the
new fill on stone columns offers a viable design alternatives to conventional construction.
2. Bridge Abutment and Foundation Support.
Stone columns can be used to support bridge abutments at sites which are not capable of
supporting abutments on conventional shallow foundations. At such sites an important additional application involves the use of a
Reinforced Earth abutment supported on stone columns as was done at Rouen, France [63]. Of course, conventional reinforced concrete
abutments can also be supported on stone columns as has sometimes been done in England. These abutments may or may not support the
bridge superstructure. Another potentially cost effective alternative to pile foundations for favorable site conditions is to support on stone columns, single
span bridges, their abutments and, if required, the approach fills. This technique minimizes the differential settlement between the
bridge and approach fill. At bridge sites underlain by marginal soils, piles are normally used rather than conventional spread footings. An economical
alternative is to use stone columns to support the spread footings rather than piles.
3. Liquefaction.
In earthquake prone areas stone columns can be used To reduce the liquefaction potential of cohesionless soils supporting
embankments, abutments and beneath shallow foundations. Stone columns can also be used to reduce the liquefaction potential
of cohesionless soils surrounding existing or proposed pile foundations. Stone columns have been used, for example, at Santa
Barbara, California [30,81] to reduce the liquefaction potential and also decrease foundation settlement. Stone columns have also
been used at Kavala, Greece [126] to reduce liquefaction potential.

Lime columns:
Lime and lime/cement columns, where quicklime and/or dry cement are mixed in situ with soft soil as shown in Figure 8.1, are common in Sweden
and Finland, to stabilize soft clay and silt as well as organic soils. The method has gradually been improved and new applications have been found. Lime and
lime/cement columns have mainly been used to increase the stability and to reduce the settlements of road and railroad embankments and to increase the
stability of trenches for sewer lines, water mains and heating ducts. New efficient machines have been developed for the installation of the columns. The
diameter and the length have gradually increased and the time required for the installation of the columns has been reduced significantly as well as the costs.
New methods have been introduced to check insitu the shear strength, the bearing capacity and the stiffness of the columns.
Lime/cement columns have also been used to stabilize organic soils, where unslaked lime alone has not been effective. Lime columns have the
advantage that the permeability and the ductility are normally high. In addition the ground temperature is increased by the heat generated during the slaking.
The increase of the shear strength, caused by the reduction of the water content, is usually significant.
Since a large number of factors affect the behaviour of lime and lime/ cement columns, it is necessary to determine for each site the effect of different
stabilizers (e.g. lime, cement, gypsum, industrial waste and different ashes) on compressibility, shear strength and permeability of the stabilized soil.
Extensive field and laboratory tests are usually required.
The stabilized soil has a high angle of internal friction even at undrained conditions since the stabilized soil is only partially saturated. The bearing capacity
and the shear resistance of the columns are to a large extent governed by the axial load and by the confining pressure.

Design of lime and lime/cement columns

Ultimate and serviceability limit states (ULS and SLS)
In the design of lime, cement and lime/cement columns it is important to consider,
. that the ultimate bearing capacity and the stability of the stabilized embankments, trenches and slopes are adequate (ULS) as well as the bearing capacity of
the columns and of the unstabilized soil between the columns;
. that the total and the differential settlements as well as the lateral deformations are not excessive at the working load (SLS);
. that nearby buildings as well as buried services and other structures are not damaged during and after the installation of the columns.
The environmental impact of the columns should also be considered. The environmental impact is usually small for lime, lime/cement and
cement columns compared with many other soil stabilization and soil improvement methods.

Design of lime and lime/cement columns, Fsi > 1.2

The bearing capacity and the undrained shear strength of soil stabilized by lime and lime/cement are usually estimated from the peak
resistance of the columns and of the unstabilized soil between the columns when the shear strength of the columns is less than 100 to 150 kPa and the
required increase of the stability is small. Under favourable conditions a characteristic shear strength of 150 kPa can be used in design, when the global factor
of safety without the columns is larger than 1.2 (Fs > 1.2). An effective stress analysis is used to evaluate the long-term bearing capacity with _0
col of 30_ for lime columns, 35_ for lime/cement columns and 40_ for cement columns. The pore water pressure in the columns ucol
could then be as high as the pore water pressure in the surrounding unstabilized soil. A circular slip or failure surface through the columns is normally
used to determine the factor of safety. The load distribution between the columns and the unstabilized soil corresponds to the modulus of elasticity for the
columns and to the compression modulus for the unstabilized soil, Ecol and Msoil, respectively. The required global factor of safety is 1.5 according to the
Swedish Road Board and the Swedish National Rail Administration. Single or double rows with overlapping columns are usually required to
stabilize slopes, excavations and embankments. The required overlap is 50mm for columns with 0.6m diameter. The individual columns should
extend into a layer with a high bearing capacity to prevent failure along a slip surface below the columns.
Design of lime and lime/cement columns, Fsi < 1.2
Columns with an unconfined compressive strength exceeding 200300 kPa are used to increase the stability when the initial factor of safety without the
columns is less than 1.2. It is proposed that the stability could be evaluated from the unconfined compressive strength of the columns up to 1.0MPa,
when a large increase of the stability is required, by considering the reduction of the stability of the columns and of the
unstabilized soil by progressive failure;
. by locating the columns in the active zone below an embankment or a fill;
. by designing the columns to carry the full weight of the embankment or the fill;
. by ensuring that the weight of the embankment or the fill is transferred to and from the columns without excessive settlements;
. by replacing the soft or loose soil above the columns and the weak upper part of the columns by compacted granular material;
. by resisting the lateral earth pressure in the embankment by geofabric or geo-anchors;
. by checking that the columns do not contain weak layers or lenses which could reduce the bearing capacity of the columns.
It is proposed to calculate the settlements with a modulus of elasticity of
150qu,col up to an equivalent pre-consolidation pressure p0 c 1:7qu;col and a maximum creep strength of 1.0 MPa.
Limitations of presently used design methods
Slope and bearing capacity failures have occurred, which indicate that the stability could be overestimated for single columns, when an average
shear strength is used to estimate the stability of slopes and of embankments. Even a small lateral displacement could fail the columns when the shear
strength of the columns is high and the ductility is low. A 0.6mdiameter lime/cement and cement column could fail when the lateral displacement is only 20 to
30mm. The shear resistance of column rows could be less than the peak shear strength. The shear resistance can also be low for floating column rows
when the slip surface is located just below a column row with point-bearing columns. The column rows could also fail by overturning, translation, separation
or by internal shear along the overlap at the centre of the column row.
Total and effective stress analysis
The bearing capacity and the shear resistance of lime, lime/cement and cement columns are governed by the drained shear strength,
depending on the loading rate and the permeability of the columns. The undrained shear strength usually governs the shear strength of the unstabilized soil.
The pore
water pressure in the unstabilized soil around the columns could govern the shear resistance of lime/cement columns in an effective stress analysis if
calculations or measurements dont indicate otherwise since the hydraulic lag can be large in the columns. The shear strength of lime/cement and cement
columns increases with time as the excess pore water pressure in the columns dissipates during the consolidation. The lowest shear strength is expected just
below the dry crust where the effective overburden pressures and the shear strength of the unstabilized soil are low.
The undrained shear strength, _fu,col of the soil stabilized by lime/cement or cement, which governs the stability of embankments, slopes,
trenches and excavations, increases with increasing confining pressure when the stress level is low. The drained shear strength is evaluated by the following
equation.(8.24)
where _d,col is the drained angle of internal friction of the stabilized soil, which varies with soil type, the confining pressure and with the water
content, cd,col is the drained cohesion and _f is the total normal pressure on the failure plane through the columns. The shear strength usually increases
with increasing clay content and with increasing plasticity index.The short-term bearing capacity depends on the confining pressure _h,
which can be estimated by the following equation.(8.25)
where _ho is the initial total lateral earth pressure, cu,soil is the undrained shear strength of the unstabilized soil, Esoil, is the modulus of elasticity and
_soil is Poissons ratio. The term Ksoilmo,soil qo is the increase of the effective lateral earth pressure caused by the applied unit load qo, mo,soil, is the stress
factor for the unstabilized soil and Ksoil is the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, which is assumed to be at least 1.0 due to the volume increase
during the slaking of the lime. At Eu,soil200cu,soil and _soil0.5
Global factor of safety
The variation of the shear strength of the stabilized soil is often large across the diameter and along the length of the columns. It is therefore difficult to
determine a characteristic shear strength and a characteristic compression modulus by unconfined compression or by triaxial tests. A single global factor of
safety, Fs2.0 to 3.0, is generally used in Sweden to determine the allowable load. A minimum factor of safety of 1.2 to 1.5 is usually required for
embankments and slopes, respectively, for both short and long-term conditions. The factor of safety should be at least 1.5 according to the Swedish Road
Board .The required factor of safety with respect to bottom heave is 1.3.The bearing capacity of buildings and of other structures, which are
supported by lime or lime/cement columns as well as the stability of embankments, deep excavations and shallow trenches are calculated by an
effective stress analysis for the columns and by an undrained analysis for the unstabilized soil between the columns. The bearing capacity of the columns
as determined by an effective stress analysis depends on the pore water pressure in the columns. Due to the high hydraulic lag in the columns, the
pore water pressure could be as high as the pore water pressure in the surrounding unstabilized soil. The shear resistance of the columns is
increased when the excess pore water pressure is reduced. A high factor of safety is required for column rows due to the often low
shear strength of the stabilized soil in the overlapping zone between adjacent columns and the small contact area. The shear force between adjacent
columns is high at the centre of a column wall, when the number of overlapping columns in the column rows is large.
It is important that the long-term bearing capacity of the columns is sufficient. The Swedish National Rail Administration requires that the life
expectancy of lime and lime/cement columns should be at least 100 years. In sand and silt the shear strength could be reduced with lime when the pHvalue
of the ground water is low, less than 5.0 and there is a flow of ground water through the columns.
It is expected that the reduction of the long-term bearing capacity will be lower for lime/cement and cement columns than for lime columns due
to the low permeability of the stabilized soil with cement or lime/cement. The long-term bearing capacity of lime columns could decrease with time
for fibrous peat due to the low pH-value and the relatively high permeability of the stabilized soil. Additional columns could in that case be required.
The lateral displacements of the columns could be excessive for high embankments when the global factor of safety is less than 1.5 to 2.0.
An
even higher factor of safety might be required for organic soils where the lateral displacement can be large due to creep. Lime/cement and lime
columns could be combined with berms at the toe of a slope or of an embankment if the estimated factor of safety is not sufficient.
Coefficient of variation
The coefficient of variation can for lime columns be as high as 30 to 70 per cent. The coefficient of variation has also a tendency to increase with increasing
water/cement ratio from about 25 per cent at w/c1.0 to 40 per cent at w/c2.0

cofferdams:
A cofferdam is a temporary construction method used in order to do construction in wet excavations. It is installed in the work area and
water is pumped out to expose the bed of the body of water so that workers can construct structural supports, perform repairs and any other
types of work using construction equipment. A coffer dam is also called as caisson in some parts of world.
Working inside a coffer dam can be dangerous if it is not installed properly or not safely pressurized. Various materials are used for its
construction and its design must be compatible with weather conditions, waves, currents, construction equipment, construction methods, internal
permanent structures and ground conditions. There are various types of cofferdams such as braced, earth type, timber crib, double walled sheet pile and
cellular which are discussed below.
Generally, major loads imposed on cofferdams are hydrostatic forces of water and dynamic forces due to current and waves and heavy equipment
is used for its construction such as pile drivers, cranes with clamshell buckets, concrete pumps trucks as well as pumps for dewatering are used in the
construction process. The effective management of equipment on site as well as workers is an important step in cost control and maintaining efficient
productivity.
TYPES OF COFFERDAMS
The construction process for each type is different based on whether it is used on land or in water, as illustrated in figure 1. In general there are five types of
coffer dam and they are as follow
Braced
Earth-Type
Timber Crib
Double-Walled Sheet Pile
Cellular

Figure 1
Types of cofferdams. For use on land:
(a) cross-braced sheet piles; (b) cast-in-place concrete cylinder;
(c) anchored sheet piles; (d) braced vertical piles with horizontal sheeting. For use in water:
(e) cross-braced sheet piles; (f) earth dam; (g) tied sheet piles; (h) anchored sheet piles with earth berm;
(i) steel sheet-pile cellular cofferdam; (j) rock-filled crib.
Braced Cofferdams
Braced cofferdam is formed from a single wall of sheet piling. It is constructed by driving sheet piles into the ground to form a box around the excavation site
and then this box is braced on the inside of it. Interior is dewatering using pumps. They are primarily used for bridge piers in shallow water around 30-35ft
depth.
Earth-Type Cofferdams
It is simplest type of cofferdam, consists of an earth bank with a clay core or vertical sheet piling enclosing the excavation. Used for low-level waters with
low velocity and can be easily scoured by water rising over the top.
Timber Crib Cofferdam
It is one of the kinds of cellular-type cofferdam. It is first constructed on land and then floated into required place. The lower portion of each cell matched
with contour of river bed. It uses rock ballast and soil to decrease seepage and sink into place. It is also known as Gravity Dam. In general it consists of
12 x 12 cells. It is used in rapid currents or on Rocky River beds. It should be properly designed to resist two lateral forces i.e tipping/overturning and
sliding.
Double-Walled Cofferdam
In this type of cofferdam, two-parallel rows of steel sheet piles are driven into the ground and tied together with anchors and wales then filled with soil. There
are three principle types:
Box: Consists of straight flush walls
Semicircular cells connected by diaphragms
Circular cells connected with tie-rods or diaphragms
Cellular Cofferdam
There are two main types of cellular cofferdam they are circular and segmental. It can be used on a temporary or permanent basic. In this type of cofferdam
force are resisted by the mass of the cofferdam.

COFFERDAM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The following are some of the design considerations which should be checked before the construction and during the design of cofferdam.
Scouring or undermining by rapidly flowing water
Stability against overturning or tilting
Upward forces on outside edge due to tilting
Stability against vertical shear
Effects of forces resulting from:
Ice, Wave, Water, Active Earth and Passive Earth Pressures
An important consideration in the design of cofferdams is the hydraulic analysis of seepage conditions and erosion of the bottom when in
streams or rivers. Significant deformations of elements may occur at different stages of construction because of the typical construction of coffer dam under
adverse conditions in a marine environment, thus it is difficult to maintain close tolerances. Provisions must be made for deviations in dimensions so
that the finished structure may be constructed according to plan.
Deconstruction of the cofferdam must be planned and executed with the same degree of care as its installation, on a stage-by-stage basis. The
effect on permanent structure due to the removal of coffer dam must be considered. Due to this reason, sheet piles extending below the permanent structure
are often cut off and left in place, because their removal may affect the foundation soils adjacent to the structure.
Where the cofferdam structure can be built on a layer of impervious soil, the area within the cofferdam can be completely sealed off. Where the
soils are pervious, the flow of water into the cofferdam cannot be completely stopped economically, and the water must be pumped out periodically and
sometimes continuously.
A dewatered area can be completely surrounded by a cofferdam structure or by a combination of natural earth slopes and cofferdam structure. The
type of construction is dependent upon the depth, soil conditions, fluctuations in the water level, availability of materials, working conditions desired inside
the cofferdam, and whether the structure is located on land or in water.
FORCES ACTING ON COFFERDAM
A cofferdam involves the interaction of the structure, soil, and water. The loads imposed include the following:
Hydrostatic pressure
Forces due to soil loads
Current forces on structure
Wave forces
Ice forces
Seismic loads
Accidental loads
Mooring forces
Scour
The loads imposed on the cofferdam structure by construction equipment and operations must also be considered during installation of the cofferdam a well
as during construction of the structure itself.
Hydrostatic pressure
Two factors must be considered they are the maximum probable height outside the cofferdam during construction and the water height inside the cofferdam
during various stages of construction. The hydrostatic pressure for partially dewatered cofferdam is shown in figure.

Forces due to Soil Loads

The soils impose forces acts locally on the wall of the cofferdam and globally upon the structure as a whole. Local forces are main component of the lateral
force on sheet-pile walls, causing bending in the sheets, bending in the wales, and axial compression in the struts. These forces are added to the hydrostatic
forces. Active pressure and passive pressure due to soil load is shown in the figure

Current Forces on Structure

In a cofferdam, the current force consist not only the force acting on the normal projection of the cofferdam but also on the drag force acting along the sides.
With flat sheet piles, the latter may be relatively small, whereas with z-piles it may be substantial, since the current will be forming eddies behind each
indentation of profile, as shown in figure

Wave forces
Waves acting on a cofferdam are usually due to local winds acting over a restricted fetch and hence are of short wavelength and limited to height. Waves can
also be produced by passing boats and ships, especially in a restricted waterway.
Ice forces
These are of two types, that is the force exerted by the expansion of a closed-in solidly frozenover area of water surface which is called as static ice force and
the forces exerted by the moving ice on breakup which is called as dynamic ice force.
Seismic Loads
In most of the projects, they are not considered in design of temporary structures. But for very large, important, and deep cofferdams in highly seismically
active areas, seismic evaluation should be performed.
Accidental loads
Accidental loads are the loads usually caused by construction equipment working alongside the cofferdam and impacting on it under the action of waves.
Mooring forces
They are derived from two separate actions. The first is the impact of the barge and tugboats as they moor to the cofferdam or the waves are produced as they
move the barges while moored. The other force is the wind pressure on the total sail area of the barge. Gale force wind is a common occurrence along most
coasts and on large lakes. The combination of high wind and waves will cause major damage to the cofferdam and equipment if no preparation is made to
accommodate those events.
Scour
Scour of the river bottom or seafloor along the cofferdam may take place due to river currents, tidal currents, or wave-induced currents. Some of the most
serious and disastrous cases have occurred when these currents have acted concurrently. A very practical method of preventing scour is to deposit a blanket of
crushed rock or heavy gravel around the cofferdam, either before or immediately after the cofferdam sheet piles are set. A more sophisticated method is to lay
a mattress of filter fabric, covering it with rock to hold it in place.
EQUIPMENTS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED FOR INSTALLATION
Equipments:
Pile driving hammer
- Vibratory or Impact
Crane of sufficient size- clamshells and draglines
Concrete pumps trucks
Dewatering pumps
Barges may be required
Dozer, loader, backhoe, trucks be may required
Materials:
Steel sheet piles are typically used
H-piles and/or wide-flange beams for wales and stringers
COFFERDAM COMPONENTS
The following are 4 types of components in braced type cofferdam:
Sheet piling
Bracing frame
Concrete seal
Bearing piles
The typical cofferdam, such as a bridge pier, consists of sheet piles set around a bracing frame and driven into the soil to sufficient depth to develop vertical
and lateral support and to cut off the flow of soil or water.
SHEET PILE COFFERDAM CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE:
For a typical cofferdam, such as for a bridge pier, the construction procedure follows the listed pattern.
Step 1 - Pre-dredge to remove soil or soft sediments and level the area of the cofferdam

Step 2 - Drive temporary support piles and temporarily erect bracing frame on the support piles.

Step 3 - Drive sheet piles to grade and ties are provided for sheet piles at the top as necessary.

Step 4 Excavate slightly below grade, while leaving the cofferdam full of water and drive bearing piles. Place rockfill as a leveling and support course.

Step 5:

Step 6: Check blocking between bracing and sheets and dewater

Step 7: Remove sheet piles and bracing, as well as backfilling and construct new structure

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION METHOD

As we know, cofferdam is a kind of water tight construction which is designed to facilitate construction projects where the particular area is
normally submerged. For the construction of a coffer cam we have various kinds of materials and equipments which enable us to perform the
work at a faster rate. Cofferdams are rarely installed as easily as they are planned and designed. You must expect and anticipate problems that will require
redesign and innovative solutions. However, it is rewarding to solve the demanding construction and knowing it will help successfully complete the project.
The construction of a coffer dam completely relies on following the exact process and sequence involved. And also the builder and designer should possess
proper understanding of the project. In general, the cofferdams are limited to 60 foot long sheet piles because if these sheets are made longer than 60 foot then
it would cause difficulties in transporting, handling, threading and manufacturing.
The first step in construction is to place the wale system after the access is worked out. The wales are placed over a barge and floated to the
position. Along with this to grip the wale system in place, guide piles and support frames are installed. When the barge floods partially and towed
from under the suspended whale frame, then using cranes the wale frame is lowered to elevation. After that the wales are used as a guide to thread and drive
the sheet piling. Normally at least two layers of wales are placed where the top and bottom layers will be perform as a stabilizing template to control the sheet
piles. Generally in marine environment we will be observing some waves, current, and wind. So to guide the sheet piles a supporting template is used as it is
almost impossible to maintain the vertical and horizontal alignment which is necessary to close the cofferdam and prevent the interlocks from splitting open.
But if the sheet piles are not kept plumb, then the interlocks will split apart in tension or the closing pair can bind up due to compressive friction and refuse to
be driven.
During cofferdam installation a driving template is used. Usually the wale system is used as a driving template. The template wales should be
marked with the proper location of every sheet pile pair interlock that touches the wale. Special care should be taken to ensure that the first pair is set plumb
in the proper location because it will be acting as a guide for the rest of the sheet piles.
In final closure, it should never be made at a corner as this corner works in both directions. If either sheet wall line is out of plumb, the sheet
interlock will probably split open. The other reason to be careful in initial alignment is that this will largely define the direction the piles will take as they
continue to penetrate the ground. If the interlock is started off tight and out of line, it will likely split apart as it is being driven. This will damage the pile and
may require very expensive and time consuming repair procedures. When the sheet piles are fully in place and driven to the top of the upper template, the
template wales can be lowered, if needed. The pairs of sheet piles should be advanced in about five foot increments. With the sheets carefully driven and the
wale in position, often the sheets are welded or bolted to the top wale to provide cofferdam stability during excavation operations. A crane and a clam bucket
usually perform the excavation, although in some instances a backhoe can be effective.
Excavation should be carried out along the sheet piles first, keeping a low hump in the middle. This allows the clam bucket to rest against the
sheets and stays upright so it can stuff the bucket. If a depression is created in the middle of the excavation, the bucket will roll on its side and it
will not be able to excavate the wedge of soil adjacent to the sheet piles. When the excavation is nearly complete, a steel beam spud is placed between the
wales and the sheet pile alcoves. After the above process, tremie concreting is carried out so as to minimize the flowing concrete contact with the water. The
method is to induce the fresh concrete under the previously placed concrete and pillow it up and out. The tremie placement is a continuous operation until
completed, going 24 hours a day without interruption. Tremie pours usually involve large volumes of concrete, often several thousand cubic yards of
concrete. When the concrete has cured enough to gain enough strength to withstand the dewatering forces (about two or three days), dewatering can begin.
DEWATERING:
In dewatering process, the pumping out of water from the interior of a cofferdam is carried out in such a manner that it prevents the possibility of
water moving through uncured concrete. A proper sump is placed outside below the elevation of the work which is placed and the pumped water should be
properly discharged according to the regulations. The most important aspect during dewatering is that the underwater concrete should set so that it can
withstand hydrostatic pressure created by pumping. After the cofferdam is dewatered, the clean \up process can begin. The surface will be rough and
undulating. There will be layers of mud, debris, and dead fish that must be cleaned up. Once the cleanup is done, the top of the tremie concrete will have
about six inches of laitance. The laitance is a weak layer of nearly pure cement that has been washed to the surface of the concrete by the dynamics of the
concrete tremie placement. While the cleanup and laitance removal is progressing, the cofferdam will continue to leak and require substantial
pumping.
The leakage water will be contaminated by the mud and debris in the cofferdam until all remedial work and cleanup is completed. All water
removed from the cofferdam during this stage probably will have to be processed before returning the water to the river, lake, or bay. At this point, a safety
precaution is inserted. No gas-powered machinery should ever be allowed inside a cofferdam. The danger for explosion and carbon monoxide poisoning is
too great. Even the use of diesel powered equipment in the cofferdam should be kept to an absolute minimum. Whenever it is possible, engines outside the
cofferdam should power all machinery. These actions will both reduce congestion in the cofferdam and provide for safer working conditions.

APPLICATION OF COFFER DAM:

A nautical application of the term cofferdam is a watertight structure used for making repairs below the waterline of a vessel. The name also is applied to void
tanks which protect the buoyancy of a vessel. Cofferdam are constructed to permit dewatering an area and facilitate the construction of foundations, bridge
piers, dams, dry docks, and like structures in the open air.
The following are some of its major applications:
Hydroelectric Dam Construction Cofferdams are used to divert water away from the shoreline of a river to allow for the foundations of a dam to be
constructed. In this application, generally one half of the river width is enclosed by the cofferdam at a time to maintain overall flow.
Bridge Construction Cofferdams are used to divert water away from bridge foundation positions, either on the shore or within the waterway.
Ship repair Sometimes cofferdams are used to generate a dry dock condition for a ship in order for repairs to proceed. This generally occurs when the
ship cannot be moved to an actual dry dock, and it can also be more cost effective in some cases.
Oil Rig and Dam Construction This is the primary reason why coffer dams exist. They are quick to build and use welded steel and other metals; they
provide a temporary and dry platform to work freely.
Sunken Vessel Recovery: Cofferdams can be used to expose a sunken vessel in shallow waters to allow for recovery and repair if appropriate.
Ship Recovery: A very rarer use of a Coffer dams is to help in recovery missions for ships that have sunk in shallow water. They can be built quickly and
aid removal in certain circumstances. In the past coffer dams have helped recover ships such as the USS Maine, a ship which sunk
in 1898 played an important part in Spanish-American history. By using a coffer dam to pull up this ship from the sea bed it helped give researchers an insight
into the history of this boat.
ADVANTAGES OF COFFERDAMS
Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise poor environment

 Provides safe environment to work

Contractors typically have design responsibility
Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed
Materials can typically be reused on other projects
DISADVANTAGES OF COFFERDAMS
Special equipment required
Relatively expensive
Typically very time consuming & tedious
If rushed, sheets can be driven out of locks or out of plumb
When in flowing water log jams may occur creating added stress on structure