Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Vo l u m e N o . 3 3
December 2009
IN THIS EDITION
Sublevel caving past and future, Page 1
In-pit risks, Page 7
Mine closure planning, Page 11
Mining-induced seismicity, Page 15
Tailings disposal, Page 17
Mine tailing solutions, Page 20
Increasing value of paste, Page 21
ACG event schedule, Page 24
www.minewaste2010.com
The views expressed in this newsletter are those of
the authors and may not necessarily reflect those
of the Australian Centre for Geomechanics.
Introduction
400
600
3100
Today,push
with
the continuing
push
to
Today, with the continuing
to increase
mining scale,
a fundamental
question is wheth
the gravity flow principles
which
servedscale,
as theadesign
basis for the small-scale sublevel
increase
mining
fundamental
caving mine designs of the past can be applied at much larger scales or whether some othe
question
is whether
gravity
flow
approach is required.
This article
will providethe
some
thinking
in that regard.
Copyright 2009. Australian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG), The University of Western Australia (UWA). All rights reserved. No part of this newsletter
may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form without the prior written permission of the Australian Centre for Geomechanics, The University of
Western Australia.
The information contained in this newsletter is for general educational and informative purposes only. Except to the extent required by law, UWA and the
ACG make no representations or warranties express or implied as to the accuracy, reliability or completeness of the information contained therein.
To the extent permitted by law, UWA and the ACG exclude all liability for loss or damage of any kind at all (including indirect or consequential loss or
damage) arising from the information in this newsletter or use of such information.You acknowledge that the information provided in this newsletter is
to assist you with undertaking your own enquiries and analyses and that you should seek independent professional advice before acting in reliance on the
information contained therein.
Caving
Mine marker studies
It is one thing to study flow principles
in a laboratory setting and quite another
to show that they apply in the reality of
a mine setting. One way of doing this is
through marker studies. Figure 4 shows
some results from the first marker studies
conducted as part of the overall KTH
sublevel caving research programme
conducted at the Grngesberg iron mine in
central Sweden in the early 1970s.
e thing to study flow principles in a laboratory setting and quite another to show that
ply in the reality of a mine setting. One way of doing this is through marker studies.
4 shows some results from the first marker studies conducted as part of the overall
ublevel caving research programme conducted at the Grngesberg iron mine in central
n in the early 1970s.
Figure 5
Table 3
.
Parameter
Sublevel drift spacing (m)
Sublevel spacing (m)
Hole diameter (mm)
Burden (m)
Sublevel drift width (m)
Sublevel drift height (m)
Front inclination (degrees)
Value
25
27
114
3
7
5
80
Value
7
13
41
1.5
3.0 slashed to 3.5
3
90
Figure 4, it appears
that Figure
the flow4,width
is of thethat
orderthe
of 5flow
m. Since the drift width is
From
it appears
the flow width to drift width ratio is 1.43. Due to the roof curvature, the effective
width is of the order of 5 m. Since the
ion width is somewhat less and the ratio would be corresponding slightly larger.
driftforwidth
ratio
is 1.43.
Due
to the
quite a long time
the next
group
of mine
marker
testsroof
to be performed. As noted by
iro et al (2001)curvature, the effective extraction width
is somewhat less and the ratio would be
ublevel caving layout used at Kiruna has reached dimensions that are far beyond those
slightly
rmed the basiscorresponding
for the development
of thelarger.
early design guidelines. Thus, there was a
It flow
tookpattern
quite for
a long
timelarge
for the
verify the gravity
this very
sublevel caving area. It was decided
all markers in the
fans
so oneofcould
ellipsoid
of extraction.
next
group
mineestimate
markerthetests
to be
Figure 6 some
Percentage
of the
recovered
5 shows the fan geometry and Table 3 summarises
of the important
parameters.
omprehensive marker studies have been carried out at the Perseverance and
height (m)
4.8
ublevel cavingSublevel
mines indrift
Australia.
At the Perseverance
Mine, the overall flow
inclination
emonstrated usingFront
the markers
is shown in Figure 8. Some of the important
(degrees)
75
are presented in Table 4.
Figure 10 Silo type of flow pattern. Kvapil (1955), Janelid and Kapil (1965)
Section showing the rings with the draw pattern superimposed (Perseverance
Table6 6AAcomparison
comparison
of marker
the marker
flow patterns
Table
of the
flow patterns
Table 4 Summary of some important
factors concerning the Perseverance
ummary of some important factors concerning the Perseverance marker testsDrift width
Level
Flow width
marker tests
Parameter
Sublevel drift spacing (m)
Sublevel spacing (m)
Hole diameter (mm)
Burden (m)
Sublevel drift width (m)
Sublevel drift height (m)
Front inclination
(degrees)
Value
14.5
25
102
3
5.1
4.8
75
interval
(Wf)
Wf/Wd
(Wd)
(m)
(m)
(m)
Grngesberg
3.5
13
4.9
1.4
Kiruna
7
27
10.3*
1.5
Perseverance
5
25
7.1
1.4
remnants. Its mobility
varies 25
with
location and10.0
with time (it changes
with the
Ridgeway
5.9
- 30
1.7
geometry).
* Arbitrarily
taken as the 30% contour
Mine
Finally,
most rock materials
The Wf /W
d ratio of 1.4 1.7 seems
upon
being
blasted
would
like
to bulk (swell) of
of the
fan which
is the
primary
provider
The
Wf/W
ratioIn
ofsublevel
1.4
1.7caving,
seems toit apply
small
scale
sublevel
geometries
dsmall
is the
sublevel
drift
located
at the
endasof th
offor
swell
space
for the
ore in caving
the
ring.bottom
As
to
apply
for50%.
scale
sublevel
caving
An example Table
showing
markersome
recovery
mine.
well as
very
large
These
results
are space
inshown
agreement
the
early
sublevel
caving
in Table
7, the
available
freeAs
swell
is
geometries
as(After
well
asscale.
veryprovider
large
scale.
5 summarises
of theat the Ridgeway
the
primary
of swell
for
thewith
ore
in
the
ring.
shown
in Table
esult from the
Ridgeway Mine marker studies is shown
in Figure
9.
Table
5 by Kvapil
2009)
geometry
recommended
(see
Figure
2)
which
used
1.7.
highly
mining
scale
dependent.
These
results
are
in
agreement
with
important parameters concerning the
free swell is highly mining scale dependent.
s some of the
important
parameters.
the early sublevel caving geometry
Ridgeway
marker
tests.
In retrospect, by
there are(see
three
reasons
is a7 very
logical
result:
Table
Available
free
swell for the
recommended
Figure
2) why this
Table Kvapil
7 Available
free
swell
for the
different
LKAB designs
ummary of Table
design
from the
Ridgeway Mine
different
LKAB
designs
which1.used
1.7.middle holes of the ring are fired
5 parameters
Summary of design
parameters
The
first and
can
make first use of the swell volume
In retrospect,
are underlying
three reasonssublevel drift.
from the Ridgeway Mine
offeredthere
by the
"Free"
Swell close to one
why this
a very
logical
result:
Parameter
Value
2. isThe
central
holes
are drilled subvertical,Design
fairly parallel,
and relatively
1. The middle
holesThe
of the
ring is
area fired
1963
Sublevel drift spacing (m)
14
another.
result
relatively high and
uniform specific24.0
charge compared to the
first and
can make
useround.
of the Thus, one would
Sublevel spacing (m)
30
1983
other
holesfirst
in the
expect the best, 17.9
most uniform
swell volume
offered by the underlying
Hole diameter (mm)
102
fragmentation.
2003
5.5
sublevel
drift.
Burden (m)
2.6
3. The ore material in the central part of the round can make the best use of the effect of
2. The central holes are drilled subvertical,
Sublevel drift width (m)
6
gravity
in directing
it to the drawpoint.
As the
hasclose
increased
inhas
theincreased
quest toover
reduce
As years
the scale
the the specific de
fairly parallel,
andscale
relatively
to one over the
Sublevel drift height (m)
4.7
As indicated
earlier,
small-scale
physical
model test results
have historically
played LKAB
a very d
available
free
swell
has
correspondingly
decreased.
With
the
current
years
in
the
quest
to
reduce
the
specific
another.
The
result
is
a
relatively
high
Front inclination
important
role
in
the
dimensioning
of
sublevel
caves.
In
the
construction
of
these
models,
the
available
hasthe near vicin
and uniform
specific
to at development,
(degrees)
80
about
5%. charge
Since compared
it is located
the bottom the
of the
fan, free
the swell
ore in
sand
or
other
material
is
simply
poured
into
the
forms.
As
such,
the
properties
are
uniform
correspondingly
decreased.
With
the other
holes
in the greater
round. Thus,
one to this
has
a much
access
volume and
the chance
tothe
bulk.
The ore at th
and
the mobilities
are the
same
independentcurrent
of position
model.
In 5%.
a sublevel cave,
LKAB within
design
itthe
isand
only
about
would
expect
theand
best,
most
uniform
reviewing
results
marker
g the results ofInthe
markerthe
tests
from of
thethe
Grngesberg,
Kiruna,
Perseverance
the
fan,
on
the
other
hand,
has
little
chance
to
bulk
its
mobility
is very low
isofnot
the case.
All of the material in theSince
fan itisisdrilled
blasted.
Because
locatedand
at the
bottom
of the of the fan
fragmentation.
tests from to
thenote
Grngesberg,
Kiruna,
mines, it is interesting
that they all
basically reveal athis
type
silo
flow mobility
material
alone,
one
would
expect
significant
differences
in
geometry,
the amount
explosive/unit
volume
and
fragmentation
varies the mech
fan, the
orehence
in thethe
near
vicinity of the drift
3. The
in theof
central
part of
anddrilling
Ridgeway
mines,
it is far outside
wn in FigurePerseverance
10, even if the
pattern
extends
ofore
thematerial
silo.
between
models
and
particularly
asand
the
sublevel
scaleofistheincre
throughout
the make
fan.the
The
ore material
thereality
centre
partgreater
of the fan
part
fan
has a much
access
tothe
thislower
volume
the round
can
thesand
best
use
of thein
interesting to note that they all basically
results
verythat
high
significance.
has
a much
higher
specific
at the
of the
the
and
theboundaries
chance to bulk.
The ring.
ore atFurthermore,
the
effect
ofmarker
gravity
intest
directing
itcharge
tohave
the than
reveal a type of silo flow such as shown
cave
which lies in front of the blasted slice
is an eclectic
of other
wastehand,
rock and ore
extremities
of themixture
fan, on the
drawpoint.
in Figure 9 even if the drilling pattern
extends far outside of the silo.
has based
little chance
to bulk
and its mobility
is
As indicated
earlier, small-scale
physical rules
Sublevel
cave layout
upon
marker
test input
very low. Based on material mobility alone,
model test results have historically played
one would expect significant differences
a very important role in the dimensioning
the resultsofof the four
marker
tests,
appears
in the
mechanics
of it
flow
betweenthat
the the Wf can be e
of sublevelBased
caves. Inupon
the construction
constant
times
the
width
of
the
W
.
As
a
first
approximation,
d models and reality, particularly as
sand
these models, the sand or other material is
the sublevel scale is increased. Hence,
simply poured into the forms. As such, the
properties are uniform and
Wthe
(1.4 1.7) Wthe
f = mobilities
d marker test results have very high
significance.
are the same independent of position
within the model. In a sublevel cave, this is
Some preliminary design rules Sublevel
for initialcave
planning
arerules
summarised
layout
based below:
not the case. All of the material in the fan
upon
marker
test
input
)
and
height
(H
):
determined
based on e
Sublevel
drift
size
(width
(W
d
d
is drilled and blasted. Because of the fan
Sublevel
interval (HS): theBased
theoretical
geometry, the amount
of explosive/unit
upon themaximum
results of thevalue
four is based on the
volume and hence the
fragmentation
varies This,
marker
tests,isitbased
appearson
that
Wf can
be
long,
straight holes.
in turn,
thethehole
diameter
(D). T
throughout the fan. based
The oreon
material
in theand dilution
expressedconsiderations
as a constant times
the width
of to manag
recovery
which
are due
centre part of the fan
and the lower part
the Wd. As a first approximation,
pulsation.
of the fan has a much higher specific charge
Hole diameter (D): based on the
available drilling equipment
and the a
than that at the boundaries of the ring.
Wf = (1.4 1.7) Wd
(1)
long
holes.
Furthermore, the cave which lies in front
isSpacing
of mixture
the sublevel
drifts
of the blasted slice
an eclectic
of
Some(S
preliminary
design rules for initial
d):
waste rock and ore remnants.SIts
mobility
planning
are
summarised
below:
=
(2.4
2.7)
W
d
d
varies with location
and
with
time
(it
Sublevel
drift
size
(width
(Wd) radius
and
Ring spacing (burden (B)): based upon the damage
(Rd) concep
changes with the extraction geometry).
height (Hd): determined based on
Hustrulid and Johnson (2008):
Finally, most rock materials upon being
equipment.
blasted would like to bulk (swell) of the
Sublevel interval (HS): the theoretical
B it= is2 the
Rd
order of 50%. In sublevel caving,
maximum value is based on the ability
Where
sublevel drift located at the bottom end
Rd / rh = 20
4
Pe Exp
2.65
Pe ANFO
rock
available free swell has correspondingly decreased. With the current LKAB design it is only
about 5%. Since it is located at the bottom of the fan, the ore in the near vicinity of the drift
has a much greater access to this volume and the chance to bulk. The ore at the extremities of
the fan, on the other hand, has little chance to bulk and its mobility is very low. Based on
material mobility alone, one would expect significant differences in the mechanics of flow
between the sand models and reality particularly as the sublevel scale is increased. Hence, the
marker test results have very high significance.
Caving
Where
B = 2 Rd
Rd / rh = 20
(3)
Pe Exp
2.65
Pe ANFO
rock
(4)
(4)
RRd ==damage
damage radius
radius (m)
(m)
rhr =d =hole
radius
(m)
hole
radius
(m)
h
PPe Exp ==explosion
pressure for the explosive
explosion pressure for the
e Exp
Pexplosive
e ANFO = explosion pressure for ANFO = 1600 MPa
rock = rock density (g/cm3)
Pe ANFO = explosion pressure for ANFO =
Figure 10 Silo design with super-scale extraction
1600 MPa
drifts, patterned after Kvapil (1992)
rock = rock density (g/cm3)
3
2.65 = density of typical rock (g/cm )
This has advantages with respect to the
Hole toe spacing (ST): based upon the
silo shape and the parallel hole drilling.
burden
However, one must be concerned with
ST = 1.3 B
geomechanics issues (drift and brow
stability). Furthermore, the draw must be
Spacing for parallel holes (SP): based
well controlled over the entire face.
upon the burden
If one wants to preserve the specific
development ratios in place today, one
SP = B
(5)
would need to increase the sublevel
height. However, this has problems with
Front inclination: 7080 degrees
hole deviation, maintenance of long holes,
(forward)
charging of very long holes, and dealing
If it is assumed that:
with ore/waste pulsation over a much
D = 115 mm
longer draw duration. This seems like a
Drift dimensions: 7 m wide by 5 m high
very difficult alternative to achieve on a
Explosive: emulsion (Pe Exp = 3900 MPa)
day-to-day basis. On this basis, it would
Rock density = 4.6 g/cm3
seem that in the future mining companies
Sublevel interval: 25 m based on drilling
will be looking toward smaller scale designs
ability and control of pulsation
than today and not larger. The current very
One finds that the remaining dimensions
large-scale designs may actually be too
are:
large-scale.
Sublevel drift spacing: 1719 m
Burden: 2.7 m
Front caving implications
Toe spacing (fanned): 3.5 m
Toe spacing (parallel): 3 m
This article has only dealt with standard
Front inclination: 80o selected
sublevel caving. There are a number of
variants, however. Front caving is a variety
It is noted that the new sublevel drift
of the sublevel caving technique which is
spacing rule has very limited basis and must
quite often used. It is, for example, a very
be carefully complemented with further
interesting technique for the creation of
testing.
the undercut required in block and panel
th
International Seminar on
Deep and High Stress Mining
2010
Future studies
Acknowledgement
William Hustrulid
University of Utah; and
the Colorado School of
Mines, USA
CAVING
2010
Second International
Symposium on Block and
Sublevel Caving
2022 April 2010,
Novotel Langley Hotel,
Perth, Australia
The growing popularity of caving
methods around the world is largely
due to the very low production cost
and the intrinsic safety associated
with this mining approach. More
than 50 technical papers are
expected to be presented at this
three day event.
www.caving2010.com
Collaborating Organisations
Open pit
Introduction
Risk, risk assessment and risk analysis
have a number of meanings across a range
of disciplines. At the most fundamental,
risk is simply a combination of uncertainty
in an outcome and consequences for that
outcome. Risk analysis or risk assessment
is the process of identifying, quantifying,
and communicating those uncertainties
and outcomes. In geological engineering,
risk has traditionally been tied to the
calculation of a factor of safety of a slope,
or potential failure geometry, and has
historically been a qualitative assessment
of a calculated value. Advances in the
computational power of stability analysis
software programs have set the stage for
more quantitative assessments. Depending
on the scale of the slope under evaluation,
and given the variation inherent in earth
materials in general, almost every input
can be considered to vary over a range of
potential values.
As such, risk assessment in geological
engineering often considers both aleatory
uncertainty - the variability inherent to
natural materials, and epistemic uncertainty
- the variability related to the ability to
model a phenomenon. It is uncommon,
however, that risk assessment considers a
temporal element, i.e. how the inputs, and
therefore the associated risk, change with
time. To an extent this is to be expected
as many inputs do not significantly change
over the course of a project life. However,
elements such as pore pressure, the surface
topography of an excavation, the weight
distribution on a potential failure plane,
the probability of a seismic event and the
properties of low strength materials can
all change to a magnitude that materially
affects the outcome of a risk analysis. No
attempt has been made in this assessment
to look at equipment or personnel
temporal exposure.
To evaluate the effect of the aleatory,
epistemic and temporal variation, research
was conducted at the Rio Tinto Minerals
Boron Operations open pit mine near
Boron, California. The purpose of this
At this beginning stage, ore (blue and green units) is close to the toe of potential
failure and subject to burial should failure occur. Failure volume is relatively high, but
the probability of failure is relatively low. The probability of a seismic event occurring is
relatively low.
At this final stage, failure volume increased by approximately 40%, but the probability of
failure increased, on average, to approximately 60%. The potential for a seismic event has
increased as well, but the ore zone is farther away from the toe of slope and is less likely to
be covered by a slope failure.
Results
The ratio of the clean-up area to the post-failure area is 18.5%. The runout was contained
to some extent by the concave geometry of runout area resulting in a low overall angle of
repose.
Open pit
High demand for commodities, record fuel prices and a scarcity of skilled personnel
have been replaced and surpassed by the recent global financial crisis as the primary
issues facing the mining industry. As demand for commodities improves the incentive
to continue to drive operational and safety improvements will become paramount.
The Seventh Large Open Pit Mining Conference 2010 (LOP 2010) will provide the
opportunity to chart that progress in large open pit mines around the world
The conference will provide the forum for operations with major achievements, along
with those operators implementing changes, the chance to outline their innovations
and to share and explore experiences with others. Consistent with the aims of The
AusIMM, the Conference will allow members and the industry to keep abreast of
technical developments and provide a forum to share views and opinions within the
large open pit sector.
For more information, please contact:
Please visit,
www.acg.uwa.edu.au/events_courses
10
PUBLISHING
Mine closure
Mine closure planning in South America
by Hugo Rojas,Teck Resources, Chile; and Roger Higgins, Teck Resources, Canada
The Chilean town of Andacollo and Teck's Carmen de Andacollo mine are close neighbours.This leads to a very close relationship between the community, for both
operations and closure planning
Introduction
Mining is an important activity in
the economy of many South American
countries. It is predominantly a formal
sector, regulated and facilitated by laws and
regulations; it is also a leading contributor
of export earnings that is integrated into
the global economy. The contribution of
the mining sector can represent up to
10% of the gross domestic product and
over 50% of the value of all exports of a
country with a strong and predominant
mining sector. Mining has a multiplier effect
- generating synergies with other economic
and social sectors in the community and
region where it was developed.
However, society does not always have a
good perception of the mining industry. In
part, this may be due to the environmental
liabilities left behind by legacy mining
sites that date back to times when there
was neither awareness of the impact that
mining can have, nor a modern legal
and supervising framework. Until recently,
regulations requiring companies to prepare
abandonment and closure plans were
largely absent.
The world has changed and the
requirements for mining projects are
evolving. Compliance with international
agreements, such as those of biological
diversity, community engagement,
climate change, and the struggle against
Argentina
Chile
On 7 February 2004, modifications to
mining safety regulations came into force
in Chile, establishing an obligation for all
mines to prepare closure plans within
five years. The objective is to prevent,
minimize and/or control the risks and
negative effects that might result from or
continue to take place after the cessation
of the operations of a mine site, in the
life and integrity of the people working
there, and of those who, under defined and
specific circumstances, are related to the
operation and are within the influence of
its facilities and infrastructure.
In 2009, draft law addresses the closure
scope of mine facilities and sites of the
extractive mining industry. This draft
legislation differentiates between those
projects that have an environmental
resolution and those that do not. The
second group are those mines that
11
12
Observations
The legal norms of closure plans in
South America differ in their scope,
depth and citizen involvement. This leads
to different requirements for mining
operations of similar characteristics.
The review and update of closure plans
is a matter of interest for governments,
as well as for organised communities and
mining companies.
Even where there is a deficiency in the
law regarding mine site closure, there are
companies that progressively design and
apply high quality closure plans.
The design of closure plans in
engineering stages prior to the
construction of projects and their
application from the beginning of the
operations, represent an advantage
for companies and should be seen as
an opportunity to prevent, minimise
and control risks and negative effects
that might occur after the end of the
operations.
The globalisation of markets,
the requirement to comply with
international norms and standards,
the exchange and development of
technical knowledge, together with open
communication channels worldwide,
will result in the further evolution of
mine closure regulations, both legal and
self-imposed. This will improve mining
processes and practices, environmental
stewardship and the efficient use of
resources.
The voices and actions of communities
that feel affected by mining will continue
to grow, and constructive relationships
with communities will be vital.
A good closure plan will contribute to
obtaining and maintaining the social
licence to operate.
Hugo Rojas,
Teck Resources, Chile
www.acg.uwa.edu.au/shop
www.mineclosure2010.com
Underground
The student chosen to undertake the project was Natalie Kari, a 3rd year mining engineering
student at Laurentian University. While Marty provided supervising guidance from afar, a site
based introduction to the use of MS-RAP was provided by Johan Wesseloo, ACG. Natalie
was technically an employee of Allstate Explorations NL during her time at Beaconsfield, and
as such she technically reported to myself.
Natalie provided the Beaconsfield Gold Mine with a substantial analysis of its seismic data,
particularly
that
collected
overBCD
the 18
month period
to June 2009
by Peter Hills,Tasmania
Mine
Joint
Venture,
Resources
(Operations)
NL when stoping had
recommenced in earnest following the 2006 accident. The database remained live for much
of her stay, allowing Natalie to observe and understand all the aspects of data capture
through
the ISSI
system,
its software
transfer MS-RAP
to MS-RAP,
and
analysis as
immediate
Management
Plan.
The ACG
offered
theitsopportunity
to an
enhance
the tool
through Omori Analysis after stope blasts, and as a longer term management tool in updating
management of seismicity in the day-to-day operation of the mine.
EVP maps. She expended a significant effort in analysing data to assist in the refinement of
Following
an accident
the mine
in early
2006,ofallher
aspects
of the mining
operation
were
re-entry
protocols,
and theatlatter
formed
the basis
final report.
A synopsis
of that
report
redesigned
under the
of a Case to Manage
Underground
Safety
(oranalysis
Case forsuch as
follows
this article.
Theumbrella
key to understanding
the basis
of a detailed
data
Safety).
The Casecan
for only
Safetybewas
developed
in four tranches
by Coffey from
Mining,
and covered
Natalie
performed
gained
by observing
the environment
which
the data is
obtain.
Consequently,
she went
underground
to (Pfitzner,
inspect 2006),
the geotechnical
environment
mining of
capital and operating
access
development
sill driving (Sidea,
Scott
regularly,
and2007),
everystoping
effort inwas
made toaseismic
introduce
facets
of mining
and Reeves,
the generally
east her
zonetoof as
the many
mine (King,
Thomas
geomechanics
at Beaconsfield
possible.
Asactive
a result,
report
she
produced
and Scott, 2007),
and stoping inasthe
seismically
westthe
zone
where
theultimately
most significant
has real practical application in the ongoing management of seismicity at the mine.
changes were required (Scott and Reeves, 2007). A key requirement of the Case for Safety
was the establishment of protocols to manage seismicity, and MS-RAP was a key tool in that
The experience of hosting a project focused summer vacation student was a positive one for
endeavour.
the Beaconsfield Gold Mine. Our continued use of MS-RAP as a tool in the management of
Hills and
(2008) describe
the management
of seismicity
at thevacation
Beaconsfield
seismicity
hasPenney
been enhanced
as a result.
The fact that
the summer
student came
Mine when
in some
detail. was
Of particular
utilityofwithin
MS-RAP
ability to
implement
in Gold
the winter
vacation
not the focus
mine staff
was isa the
significant
factor
in ensuring
Omori
Analysis
(Figure
1) to
re-entry
times into
areas excluded
after to
that
maximum
benefit
could
bemonitor
obtainedand
bymanage
all parties
concerned.
In particular,
the benefit
thestope
students
ofSeismic
early career
international
cannot
be over-emphasised.
blasts.
analysis
is coupled experience
with intensive
monitoring
(Figure 2) (Penny, Hills
and Walton, 2008), including stress change using H1 cells, and the impact of that change
Article
onsupport
requestusing SMART instruments. Stope blasting is a
on thereferences
rock mass are
and available
the installed
key trigger for stress change (Figure 3), and as a consequence it is the primary trigger for
seismic activity.
Figure1.
1 Omori
following
a stopeablast
Figure
Omorianalysis
Analysis
following
stope blast
Figure 2 Intensive monitoring at Beaconsfield showing the SMART cables (grey) and stress monitoring
(HI cells) (yellow)
13
14
months.
The student chosen to undertake
the project was Natalie Kari, a 3rd year
mining engineering student at Laurentian
University. While Marty provided
supervising guidance from afar, a site
based introduction to the use of MS-RAP
was provided by Johan Wesseloo, ACG.
Natalie was technically an employee of
Allstate Explorations NL during her time
at Beaconsfield, and as such she technically
reported to myself.
Natalie provided the Beaconsfield Gold
Mine with a substantial analysis of its
seismic data, particularly that collected
over the 18 month period to June 2009
when stoping had recommenced in earnest
following the 2006 accident. The database
remained live for much of her stay, allowing
Natalie to observe and understand all
Peter Hills,
Tasmania Mine Joint Venture,
BCD Resources (Operations)
NL
Underground
Understanding mining-induced seismicity
at Beaconsfield Gold Mine
by Natalie Kari, Laurentian University, Canada
15
Acknowledgments
Figure 2 Location of the blasts for which the re-entry analysis was conducted
Natalie Kari,
Laurentian University,
Canada
16
Tailings
the runout distances and consequences of
failure need careful consideration. These
considerations also apply to in-pit storages.
if there are underground workings below
them.
The risk of
tailings disposal
Low strength
Strength influences runout distances
and the assessed consequences of failure.
In addition, it also relates directly to
bearing capacity and the safe access over
the tailings for activities including raising
and capping. The strength of geotechnical
materials is tricky to define. It varies
with time and is dependent on the rate
of loading. Almost all tailings start out as
slurries, i.e. liquid. After deposition, some
tailings progress towards the solid state
faster than others. But this does not mean
that any tailings dam can be treated like a
waste dump.
Introduction
Management of risk
Fundamental hazards
There are at least four fundamental
hazards that need to be considered for all
tailings storages.
Potential energy [Gravity is a bitch]
All above ground storages place tailings
in an elevated location relative to some
position around the storage. In the event
of a breach, this potential energy may
convert to kinetic energy. This means that
Geochemistry/acid potential
Many types of tailings contain a
proportion of sulphur, which may oxidise
to form sulphuric acid. This in turn has the
potential to mobilise trace heavy metals,
and make even small amounts of seepage
a very undesirable consequence. Little can
be done to eliminate this basic hazard; the
geochemistry of the orebody is not open
to negotiation. However, in the future
possibly more attention will be given to
attempts to remove sulphides as part
of the process, and reduce the residual
hazard in the tailings. The potential for acid
production impacts both on operations
and on closure requirements for a storage.
It needs to be evaluated during the design
of all tailings dams, and may need to be
monitored routinely over the mine life.
Process chemistry
The tailings solids may prove to be
relatively benign, but it is necessary
to consider the process and how this
influences the chemistry of the decant
water. This includes processes that use
cyanide (gold tailings), high pH (bauxite
red-mud), and low pH (laterite nickel), and
elevated levels of salinity should also be
included.
Many of the decisions relating to
process chemistry are fundamental to the
feasibility and design of the whole mine
and concentration / beneficiation process,
and may be considered as constraints to
the tailings dam designer. However, when
these conditions occur, they are likely to be
powerful drivers of the subsequent design.
The author is looking forward to the day
17
18
Tailings
cases these sites are dictated by existing
topography and/or lease boundaries, and
are often the result of choosing the least
bad option. It is important to appreciate
that even if the starter dam is relatively
modest, the final storage may grow to be a
major structure. A full and comprehensive
geotechnical and hydrogeological
investigation should be carried out as part
of the initial feasibility studies to enable
the viability of the final structure to be
established.
Construction issues
Construction control, or the lack of it,
can have a major impact on the adequacy
of tailings dams. This applies particularly to
raises, where both the construction and
supervision may be largely undertaken
by the mine. The design will have been
prepared on the expectation of certain
standards of foundation preparation,
material selection and placement etc. It
is important that these standards should
be achieved, and close and continued
involvement by the designer throughout
construction is essential. Many regulatory
authorities recognise this and include a
requirement for an acceptable sign off
of construction, and also of design changes
during construction.
Other operational issues
Other items that impact on safety and
risk are:
Tailings deposition management: this is
Closure planning
Eventually, all tailings storages have to
be closed, and the costs of closure can
be significant, especially when the time is
now, not still 10 years down the track.
Keith Seddon,
ATC Williams
19
20
Environmental Inorganic
Geochemistry Group, Curtin
University of Technology
EIGG comprehensively examines acid
mine drainage one of the greatest
hazards facing more than 60% of gold
mining operations, as well as coal and
metalliferous mines.Via its designated
analytical facilities and innovative testing,
EIGG is able to characterise waste and to
provide a comprehensive picture of current
environmental quality, as well as predictive
analysis of potential acid mine drainage
and pollution risk offering avoidance and
remediation strategies.
EIGG has direct experience of assisting
industry with tailings and waste rock
management protocols for mine closure.
EIGG was established in 1998 and is
directed by Associate Professor Ron
Watkins. It researches the geochemical
background and pollution of the natural,
mining and built environment. It focuses on
assessing the geochemical environment and
providing solutions to current and potential
pollution problems.
EIGG has an international profile with
research projects undertaken in 10
countries, as well as WA and Victoria.
It has active research programmes
in a range of fields of environmental
geochemistry, including mining pollution
and rehabilitation, hydrogeology, urban
geochemistry, geochemistry and health
(medical geology), past environments and
climate change.
It has comprehensive facilities for the
Ron Watkins
Department of Applied
Geology, Curtin University
Andy Fourie
The University of
Western Australia
Paste
Increasing value in mining operations
through the application of paste
by Nick Slade and Stephen Wilson, Golder Paste Technology (Europe) Ltd; Florencio Felipe,
Xstrata Copper, Mount Isa Copper Operations; Frank Palkovits, Golder Paste Technology Ltd
Introduction
Mineral waste
The creation of mineral waste by
metaliferous mining is inevitable and in
most situations leads to 90 to 99% of the
amount of material extracted from the
ground requiring disposal. Many years ago
waste may have been disposed of without
controls, creating what we would describe
as environmental and health hazards.
Mining companies face a range of factors
which form a very different environment
in which to manage the same waste today.
These include more ethical operating
practices towards the environment and
local communities, increasing regulation
with respect to the environment, scarcity
and cost of water and a realisation that
longer term liabilities are therefore higher
than they once were for remediation of a
mining project.
More recently, waste has been disposed
of in a fashion aimed at reusing whatever
can be beneficial to the mine. Examples
include reusing process water and using
tailings to form backfill in underground
mines. Scientific and engineering advances
have lent themselves to helping manage the
mining waste streams more efficiently and
productively.
to the beneficiation of the ore into a saleable product beyond the mill. This often means
more effort and money is spent on analysis and investment in the process of getting the ore
out of the ground and through the mill, with less emphasis and consideration of the waste
management options.
Often capital cost constraints can limit the resources available to develop or improve an
operation. Consequently, it is not uncommon that management of a milled waste is often
undertaken by conventional slurries tailings disposal and where it is used as backfill is often
through conventional cemented hydraulic fill. This is the simpler and more conventional
option but does not necessarily afford the best value for the business.
Financial analysis
Given that discounted cash flow and Net Present Value (NPV) are the most commonly
used indicators of a projects financial strength, a thorough financial examination of waste
management solutions for a project should be undertaken. This is important as the lowest
capital cost option may not be the most value adding option to the project or operation.
The merits of analysing a project over its lifecycle can be said to be a more strategic
assessment than that purely focused on operating cost or technical simplicity.
A financially favourable alternative to conventional slurry disposal and hydraulic backfill is
to engineer the material to a paste for both applications.
Slurry
Figure 1 shows what the slump looks like for the differing natures of material and as this
is the most simple and common test for evaluation it is worthy of note.
Slurry no slump
Figure 1 Examples of the slump cone test for differing tailings slumps
For a typical metaliferous tailings the main differences in solids and water content are indicated in Table 1.
For a typical metaliferous tailings the main differences in solids and water content are
indicated in Table 1.
Table 1 Indicative solids and water parameters for slurry and paste materials
Table 1 Indicative solids and water parameters for slurry and paste materials
Material Type
Slurry
Paste
Principal Sponsor
Backfill benefits
22
Conclusions
As indirect and direct costs to mining
operations become greater and the focus
on delivery of sustainable projects is
linked to business success, the case for
paste applications is clear in a variety of
situations. Consideration of a range of
key internal and external factors clearly
suggests whether the application of paste
is warranted for analysis and study on a
new project or existing operation. Strategic
perspectives of the project and business
must also be examined to ensure value is
maximised.
Nick Slade,
Golder Paste Technology
(Europe) Ltd, UK
Mine closure
Corporate (ir)
responsibility: what is it
really worth when times
are tough?
23
Preconditioning Workshop
Rheology Workshop
Ground Support for Underground and Open Pit Mines (Basic Level) Short Course
Tailings Workshop
Perth, 29 September
1 October 2010
* The ACG event schedule is subject to change. For event updates, please visit www.acg.uwa.edu.au/events_and_courses
The ACG invites your organisation to sponsor this new training DVD. Contact the ACG for more information.
For many mining companies, ACG training products have become an integral and essential component of their training programmes. For the full list of the
ACGs successful suite of geotechnical mine worker training DVDs, please visit www.acg.uwa.edu.au/training_products.
Festive Greetings
24
Australian Centre for Geomechanics PO Box 3296 Broadway, Nedlands, Western Australia, AUSTRALIA 6009
Ph + 61 8 6488 3300 Fax +61 8 6488 1130 acginfo@acg.uwa.edu.au www.acg.uwa.edu.au
Australian Centre for Geomechanics December 2009 Newsletter
by William Hustrulid, University of Utah; and the Colorado School of Mines, USA, and Rudolph Kvapil, USA
Bullock, R.L., and Hustrulid, W.A. (2001), Planning the underground mine on the basis of mining method, Underground Mining
Methods: Engineering Fundamentals and International Case Studies (Ed. W.A. Hustrulid and R.L. Bullock), SME, Littleton,
Colorado, pp 29-48.
Coates, D.F. (1981), Rock Mechanics Principles, Monograph 874 (revised), CANMET Energy, Mines and Resources.
Hollins, B., and Tucker, J. (2004), Drawpoint analysis using a marker trial at the Perseverance nickel mine, Leinster, Western
Australia, Proceedings, MassMin 2004, Santiago, Chile, pp
Hustrulid, W., and Johnson, J. (2008), A gas pressure-based drift round blast design methodology, Proceedings, MassMin 2008,
Lule, Sweden
Janelid, I. (1961), Introductory speech, Sublevel Caving Discussion Meeting, Series B, Number 32, March 29, 1962, pp 3-7.
Janelid, I. (1972), Study of the gravity flow process in sublevel caving. International Sublevel Caving Symposium, Stockholm,
September.
Janelid, I., and Kvapil, R. (1965), Sublevel caving, Int. Jour. Rock Mech. and Min. Sci. vol. 3, pp 129-153.
Johansson, C.H. and Persson, P-A (1970), Detonics of High Explosives, Academic Press, London, 330pp.
Kvapil, R. (1955), Theory of the Flow of Granular and Coarse Materials in Hoppers (In Czech), State Technical Literature
Publishing Company (SNTL), Prague.
Kvapil, R. (1982), The mechanics and design of sublevel caving systems, Underground Mining Methods Handbook (Ed W.A.
Hustrulid), SME, AIME, New York, pp 880- 897.
Kvapil, R. (1992), Sublevel caving. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition (Ed H.L. Hartman), SME, Littleton, Colorado,
pp 1789-1814.
Kvapil, R. (2004), Gravity Flow in Sublevel and Panel Caving - A Common Sense Approach. Book/CD published with very limited
circulation.
Larsson, L. (1996), Personal communication.
Larsson, L. (2007), Personal communication.
Marklund, I., and Hustrulid, W. (1995), Large-scale underground mining, new equipment and a better underground environment
result of research and development at LKAB, Sweden, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, V104, pp A164-A168.
September- December.
McCormick, R.J. (1968), How wide does a drawpoint draw? Engineering and Mining Journal, 169(6):106-116.
Minelco (2007), From the Minelco selection, www.minelco.com
Newman, T. (1997), Blasting of intact ore against caved waste rock at Kiruna, Senior Thesis, University of South Australia.
Newman, T., Hustrulid, W., and Quinteiro, C (2008), Sublevel caving trial - blasting of an ore slice against caved rock at the Kiruna
mine, Proceedings, MassMin 2008, Lule, Sweden
Nordqvist, a (2007), Personal communication.
Ohlsson, K. (1961), Summary of contributions regarding sublevel caving in Sweden in 1960, Sublevel Caving Discussion Meeting,
Series B, Number 32, March 29, 1962, pp 8-15
Peele, R. (1918), Mining Engineers Handbook. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Quinteiro, C., Hustrulid, W., and Larsson, L. (2001), Theory and practice of very large scale sublevel caving, Underground Mining
methods Engineering Fundamentals and International Case Studies (Ed: Hustrulid and Bullock: pp381-384), SME,
Littleton,Colorado.
Redaelli, L.L. (1963), Sublevel caving at Koskullskulle, Mine and Quarry Engineering, June, pp 261-264.
Sandstrm, P.O. (1972), Application and optimization of sublevel caving techniques, Engineering and Mining Journal, 173(6):112
- 125.
Simetric (2007), Density of materials, www.simetric.co.uk/si_materials.htm
Szwedzicki, T., and Cooper, R. (2007), Ore flow and fragmentation at Perseverance mine, Proceedings, 1st International
Symposium on Block and Sub-Level Caving, Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, pp 133 146.
A-Grivas, D. and Harr, M. E., 1979, A Reliability Approach to the Design of Soil Slopes, Design Parameters in Geotechnical
Engineering, Proceedings of the 7th European Conference, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, pp. 95-100.
Brox, D. R., and Newcomen, H. W., 2004, Utilizing Strain Criteria to Predict Highwall Stability Performance, Society of Mining and
Metallurgical Engineering Annual Meeting, Denver, CO.
Call, R. D., Savely, J. P., and Nicholas, D. E., 1977, Estimation of Joint Set Characteristics from Surface Mapping Data: Monograph
1 on Rock Mechanics Applications in Mining. Papers presented at the 17th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics (Snowbird,
Utah, August, 1976), pp. 65-73, New York; Society of Mining Engineers.
Chowdhury, R. N. and A-Grivas, D., 1982, Probabilistic Model of Progressive Failure of Slopes, Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, Division American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 108, pp. 803-819.
Chowdhury, R. N., 1984, State of the Art Report on Probabilistic Methods in Landslide Studies, IV International Symposium on
Landslides, vol. 1, pp. 209-228.
Chowdhury, R. N. and Derooy, E. R., 1985, Progressive Reliability of a Strain-Softening Slope, Transactions of the Institution of
Engineers, Australia, vol. CE27, pp. 79-94.
Cooper, D. M. 1962, Slope Stability (June 13th Slide), internal memorandum
Cooper D. M. 1963, Comparison of Major Slides (June, 1962 and April, 1963), internal memorandum.
Cooper, D. M. 1964, Slope Stability, South Wall (Continuation of the June 1962 Slide) EP-0543, internal memorandum
Cooper, D. M. and Paulsen, J. C. 1963, Handling of the April, 1963 Slide, Report Number BE-75, internal memorandum.
Cooper, D. M. and Paulsen, J. C. 1965, South Wall Remedial Action (Meeting, March 10,1965), internal memorandum
Eisebraun, G. F., 1970, Unloading of the Northeast Pit Wall (Extension 17), internal memorandum.
Fell, R., 1994, Landslide Risk Assessment and Acceptable Risk, Canadian Geotechnical Journal, vol. 31, pp. 261-272.
GAB Robins, 2000, re: Open it Wall Failure - Fourteenth Report, fax to Royal & Sun Alliance, April 12, 2000.
Glass, C. E., Savely, J. P., and Call, R. D., 1978, Determining Seismic Risk for Economic Optimum Slope Design, 19th U.S.
Symposium on Rock Mechanics, Nevada, pp. 1-6.
Hachich, W. and VanMarcke, E. H., 1983, Probabilistic Updating of Pore Pressure Fields, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering,
Division American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 109 (3), pp. 373-387.
Heslop, T.G. and Milne, P. R. G., 2003, A Practical Example of a Risk-Based Approach to the Design of an Open Pit, Fifth Large
Open Pit Mining Conference, Kalgoorlie, Australia, p. 215 224.
Krahn, J., 2004, Stability Modeling with SLOPE/W: An Engineering Methodology, GEO-SLOPE International Ltd. Calgary, Alberta,,
Canada.
Li, K. S., 1991a Fallacies of Current Probabilistic Approaches to Progressive Slope
Failure, Sixth International Conference
on Applications of Statistics and
Probability in Civil Engineering, vol. 2, pp 784-791.
Li, K. S., 1991b Some Common Mistakes in Probabilistic Analysis of Slopes, Landslides: Proceedings of the Sixth International
Symposium, Christchurch, vol. 1, pp. 475-480.
Maddocks, C. A., 1981, Extensions 22S and K-1 Design, internal memorandum.
Maddocks, C. A., 19872, July 1984 East Wall Slide, internal memorandum.
Marek, J. M. and Savely, J. P., 1978, Probabilistic Analysis of the Plane Shear Failure Mode: 19th US Symposium on Rock
Mechanics, Nevada.
McMahon, B. K., 1971, Statistical Method for the Design of Rock Slopes, Proceedings of the First Australian New Zealand
Conference for Geomechanics, Melbourne, Australia.
Miller, S.M., Whyatt, J. K., McHugh, E. L., 2004, Applications of the Point Estimation Method for Stochastic Rock Slope
Engineering, in Gulf Rocks 2004: Rock Mechanics Across Borders and Disciplines, Proceedings of the 6th North American
Rock Mechanics Conference, Huston, TX.
Morriss, P. and Stoter, H. J., 1983, Open-cut Slope Design Using Probabilistic Methods, Proceedings of the Fifth Congress,
International Society of Rock Mechanics, Section C, pp. 107 112.
National Research Council (NRC), 1995, Probabilistic Methods in Geotechnical Engineering, The National Academy of Sciences,
Washington D.C.
Norrman, J. 2004, On Bayesian Decision Analysis for Evaluating Alternative Actions at Contaminated Sites, Rapport 67, Swedish
Geotechnical Institute, Goteberg,
Sweden, 266 pgs.
Siefke, J. W., 1970, Geological Aspects of Slope Failure in Extension 17, internal memorandum.
Siefke, J. W., 1982, Slope Stability, internal memorandum.
Stacey, T. R., Terbrugge, P. J., Keyter, G. J., and Xianban, Y., 2003, Extension Strain A New Concept in Open Pit Slope Stability
and its Use in the Explanation of Two Slope Failures, Fifth Large Open Pit Mining Conference, Kalgoorlie, Austraila,
p. 259 266.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), 1995, Introduction to Probability and Reliability Methods for Use in Geotechnical
Engineering, Department of the Army, Washington D.C., Technical Letter No. 1110-2-547
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), 1999, Risk-Based Analysis in Geotechnical Engineering for Support of Planning Studies,
Department of the Army, Washington, D.C., Technical Letter No.1110-2-556
Vanmarcke, E. H. 1980, Probabilistic Stability Analysis of Earth Slopes, Engineering Geology, vol. 16, pp. 29-50.
Zavodni, Z. M., 2001, Time-Dependent Movement of Open Pit Slopes, Slope Stability in Surface Mining, Society for Mining,
Metallurgy and Exploration, pp. 81-87.
Hills, P.B. & Penney, A.R., 2008. Management of seismicity at the Beaconsfield Gold Mine, Tasmania. In, Proceedings of the
Tenth AusIMM Underground Operators Conference 2008. The Australasian Institute of Mining & Metallurgy: Melbourne.
Pp. 157-170.
Hills, P.B., Mills, J., Penney, A.R., & Arthur, S., (2008). The development and implementation of a fully remote stoping method at
Beaconsfield Gold Mine, Tasmania. In, Proceedings of the Narrow Vein Mining Conference 2008. The Australasian Institute
of Mining & Metallurgy: Melbourne. Pp. 199-206.
King, R., Thomas, S. & Scott, C., 2007. Geotechnical assessment resumption of ore production (East Zone). Coffey Mining P/L
Report No. HZ00054.01.BH.
Penney, A.R., Hills, P.B. & Walton, R.J., (2008). The use of geotechnical instrumentation to optimise an engineered mine design
at Beaconsfield Gold Mine, Tasmania. In, Proceedings of the Narrow Vein Mining Conference 2008. The Australasian
Institute of Mining & Metallurgy: Melbourne. Pp. 165-172.
Pfitzner, M., 2006 Geotechnical assessment resumption of decline developments. Coffey Mining P/L Report No.
HZ00054.01.A1.
Scott, C. & Reeves, I., 2007. Geotechnical assessment resumption of ore production (West Zone). Coffey Mining P/L Report
No. HZ00054.01.BY.
Sidea, D., Scott, C. & Reeves, I. 2007. Geotechnical assessment resumption of ore driving development. Coffey Mining P/L
Report No. HZ00054.01.AT.
Australian National Committee on Large Dams Guidelines on Tailings Dam Design Construction and Operation October 1999.
Safety of Tailings Dams http://www.wise-uranium.org/mdas.html
Standards Australia AS/NZS 4360:2004 Risk Management.