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Module 1
(Lecture 3)
GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL AND OF
REINFORCED SOIL
Topics
1.1 CAPILLARY RISE IN SOIL
1.2 CONSOLIDATIONS-GENERAL
1.3 CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT CALCULATION
1.4 TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATION
= 0
(for z hc )
[1.52]
Where
In the field, when the stress on a saturated clay layer is increased-for exam by the
construction of a foundation-the pore water pressure in the clay increase. Because the
hydraulic conductivity of clays is very small, sometime be required for the excess pore
water pressure to dissipate and the stress increase to be transferred to the soil skeleton
gradually. According to figure 1.16 if a surcharge at the ground surface over a very
large area, the increase of total structure , at any depth of the clay layer will be equal
to , or
=
(at time = 0)
Theoretically, at time = , when all the excess pore water pressure in the clay layer has
dissipated as a result of drainage into the sand layers,
= 0
at time = )
This gradual increase in the effective stress in the claylayer will cause settlement over a
period of time and is referred to as consolidation.
Laboratory tests on undisturbed saturated clay specimens can be conducted (ASTM Test
Designation D-2435) to determine the consolidation settlement caused by various
incremental loadings. The test specimens are usually 2.5 in. (63.5 mm) in diameter and 1
in. (25.4 mm) in height. Specimens are placed inside a ring, with one porous stone at the
top and one at the bottom of the specimen (figure 1.17a). Load on the specimen is then
applied so that the total vertical stress is equal to . Settlement readings for the specimen
are taken for 24 hours. After that, the load on the specimen is doubled and settlement
readings are taken. At all times during the test the specimen is kept under water. This
procedure is continued until the desired limit of stress on the clay specimen is reached.
Figure 1.17 (a) Schematic diagram of consolidation test arrangement; (b) log curve
for a soft clay from East St. Louis, Illinois
= 10(1.111.62)
[1.53a]
Where
Where
= moisture content
[1.53b]
= plastic limit
log =
kN/m2
kN/m2
0.188
[1.54]
Where
= void ratio
(%)
100
[1.55]
2
= log 1 log
=
1 2
log 2
[1.56]
where 1 and 2 are the void ratios at the end of consolidation under stresses 1 and 2 ,
respectively
The compression index, as determined from the laboratory log curve, will be
somewhat different from that encountered in the field. The primary reason is that the soil
remolds to some degree during the field exploration. The nature of variation of the
log curve in the field for normally consolidated clay is shown in figure 1.19. It is
generally referred to as the virgin compression curve. The virgin curve approximately
intersects the laboratory curve at a void ratio of 0.42 (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967). Note
that is the void ratio of the clay in the field. Knowing the values of and you can
easily construct the virgin curve and calculate the compression index of the virgin curve
by using equation (56).
Figure 1.19 Construction of virgin compression curve for normally consolidated clay
The value of can vary widely depending on the soil. Skempton (1944) has given am
empirical correlation for the compression index in which
= 0.009( 10)
[1.57]
Where
= liquid limit
Besides Skempton, other investigators have proposed correlations for the compression
index. Some of these correlations are summarized in table 14.
3. The swelling index, , is the slope of the unloading portion of the log
curve. In figure 1.17b, it can be defined as
=
3 4
log 4
[1.58]
In most cases the value of the swelling index ( ) is 14 to 15 of the compression index.
Flowing are some representative values of / for natural soil deposits. The swelling
index is also referred to as the recompression index.
/
Description of soil
Boston Blue clay
0.24-0.33
Chicago clay
0.15-0.3
0.15-0.28
0.05-0.1
Correlation
= 0.01
(Chicago clay)
= 0.208 + 0.0083
= 0.0115
(Chicago clay)
= 0.0046( 9)
(Brazillian clay)
Rendon-Herrero (1980)
0.14112
1 + 2.38
= 0.2343
100
= 0.5
100
= plasticity index
= sensitivity
Figure 1.20 Construction of field consolidation curve for over consolidated clay
Nagaraj and Murthy (1985) expressed the swelling index as
= 0.0463 100
[1.59]
It is essential to point out that any of the empirical correlations for and given in the
section are only approximate. It may be valid for a given soil for which the relationship
was developed but may not hold good for other soils. As an example, figure 1.21 shows
the plots of and with liquid limit for soils from Richmond, Virginia (Martin et al.,
1985). For these soils,
Figure 1.21 Variation of and with liquid limit for soils from Richmond, Virginia
(after Martin et al., 1995)
= 0.0326( 43.4)
[1.60]
And
= 0.00045( + 11.9)
[1.61]
The / ratio is about 251 ; whereas, the typical range is about15 to 101 .
CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT CALCULATION
The one-dimensional consolidation settlement (caused by an additional load) of a clay
layer (figure 1.22a) having a thickness may be calculated as
= 1+
[1.62]
Figure 1.22 One-dimensional settlement calculation: (b) is for equation (64); (c) is for
equations (66 and 68)
Where
= settlement
1+
= = vertical strain
For normally consolidated clay, the field log curve will be like the one shown in
figure 1.22b. If = initial average effective overburden pressure on the clay layer and
= average pressure increase on the clay layer caused by the added load, the change of
void ratio caused by the load increase is
[1.63]
[1.64]
For overconsolidated clay, the field log curve will be like the one show figure
1.22c. In this case, depending on the value of , two conditions may at. First, if
+ < ,
= log
[1.65]
= 1+
log
[1.66]
= 1 + 2 = log + log
[1.67]
= 1+
log + 1+
log
[1.68]
Figure 1.23 (a) Derivation of equation (71); (b) nature of variation of with time
()
2 ()
[1.69]
Where
= coefficient of consolidation
=
Where
(1+ )
[1.70]
Equation (69) can be solved to obtain as a function of time t with the following
boundary conditions:
2( )
[1.71]
Where
= [(2 + 1)]/2
= an integer = 1, 2,
= nondimensional time factor = ( )/ 2
[1.72]
[1.73]
Where
Figure 1.25 Drainage condition for consolidation: (a) two-way drainage; (b) oneway drainage
0 ( ) 0 ()
2
0 ( )
[1.74]
Or
=
( )20 ()
( )2
=1
0 ()
2( )
[1.75]
= 1
=0 2
[1.76]
The variation of with can be calculated from equation (76) and is plotted in
figure 1.26. Note that equation (76) and thus figure 1.26 are also valid when an
impermeable layer is located at the bottom of the clay layer (figure 1.25b). In that
case, excess pore water pressure dissipation can take place in one direction only.
% 2
= 4 100
(for = 0 60%)
[1.77]
[1.78]
And
Sivaram and Swamee (1977) have also developed an empirical relationship between
and that is valid for U varying from 0 to 100%. It is of the form
=
% 2
4 100
0.357
% 5.6
1
100
[1.79]
In some cases, initial excess pore water pressure may not be constant with depth as
shown in figure 1.25. Following are a few cases of those and the solutions for the average
degree of consolidation.
z
Figure 1.28 Sinusoidal initial excess pore water pressure distribution
= 2
[1.80]
= 4
[1.81]
The variations of with for these two cases are shown in figure 1.29
Figure 1.29 Variation of with sinusoidal variation of initial excess pore water
pressure distribution
Triangular Variation Figures 1.30 and 1.31 show several types of initial pore water
pressure variation and the variation of with the average degree of consolidation.
z
Figure 1.30 Variation of with triangular initial excess pore water pressure
distribution
Example 9
A laboratory consolidation test on normally consolidated clay showed the following
Load, (kN/m2 )
140
0.92
212
0.86
The specimen tested was 25.4 mm in thickness and drained on both sides. The time
required for the specimen to reach 50% consolidation was 4.5 min.
A similar clay layer in the field, 2.8 m thick and drained on both sides, is subjected to
similar average pressure increase (that is, = 140 kN/m2 and po + p = 212kN/m2 ).
Determine the
a. Expected maximum consolidation settlement in the field
b. Length of time required for the total settlement in the field to reach 40 mm
(assume uniform initial excess pore water pressure increase with depth)
Solution
Part a
For normally consolidated clay [equation 56]
=
1 2
2
1
0.920.86
= 1+
Part b
212
140
= 0.333
(0.333)(2.8)
1+0.92
212
40
(0.197)(12.7)2
4.5
% 2
45.7 2
=
Or
0.164
2.81000 2
7.061