INVERTER USING 555 TIMER

A major project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
By:
KESHAV GARG (08814804911)
ABHISHEK GARG (09114804911)
GOPAL AGGARWAL (02914804911)
Under the Guidance of
Mrs. Neelam Kassarwani

Mrs. Shashibala Agarwal

(Asst. Prof., Dept. of EEE)

(Asst. Prof., Dept. of EEE)

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology
Sector-22, Rohini, Delhi
May 2015

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation/project report entitled INVERTER USING
555 TIMER done by KESHAV GARG (08814804911), ABHISHEK GARG
(09114804911) & GOPAL AGGARWAL (02914804911), is an authentic work
carried out by them at MAHARAJA AGRASEN INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY under our guidance. The matter embodied in this project work
has not been submitted earlier for the award of any degree or diploma to the best
of my knowledge and belief.

DATE:

DR. RAJVEER MITTAL

(HOD OF EEE)

MRS. NEELAM KASSARWANI

(Asst. Prof, Dept. of EEE)

MRS. SHASHIBALA AGARWAL

(Asst. Prof, Dept. of EEE)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We take this opportunity to express our profound sense of gratitude and respect to
all those who helped us throughout the duration of this project. We wish to
acknowledge the guidance and support of the Professors and our seniors in
bringing up a real picture of the concept for which the report is prepared
especially.
We would like to make a special mention of support, help and encouragement we
received from our project guide Mrs. NEELAM KASSARWANI (Asst. Prof,
Dept. of EEE) & Mrs. SHASHIBALA AGARWAL (Asst. Prof, Dept. of EEE)
without whom we could not have been able to do this.
Our special thanks to Dr. RAJVEER MITTAL (HOD of EEE) & Mr. LP
SINGH (Asst. Prof., Dept. of EEE) and all the staff members of MAIT for
extending full support and making this whole experience enriching, informative
and facilitating the successful completion of the project.

KESHAV GARG (08814804911)

ABHISHEK GARG (09114804911)

GOPAL AGGARWAL (02914804911)

ABSTRACT
The human mind always seeks some portable device that can convert DC
voltage to AC voltage conveniently to fulfil the needs of running small loads
like CFL, tungsten filament bulb, running audio & video and Mobile Homes
etc. So, keeping this in mind, Inverter which is compact and portable using
555 timer is studied and performed in real time. Although many methods
have been devised earlier to convert DC into AC voltage, but many of those
methods have dis-advantages like portability, compactness, power losses and
requirement of high power from the source. Coming to inverter using 555
timer, all the above stated dis-advantages are absent.
Also, the demand of highly efficient and stable DC to AC inverters used in
renewable energy systems to convert DC output from green energy sources
into purely sinusoidal unwavering AC is on rise, due to low cost of energy
generation and conversion, less complexity and environmental factors.
DC-AC inverters are electronic devices used to produce mains voltage AC
power from low voltage DC energy (from a battery or solar panel). This
makes them very suitable for when you need to use AC power tools or
appliances but the usual AC mains power is not available.

CONTENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATION.1
LIST OF FIGURES..2
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO INVERTER....3
CHAPTER 2: IC 555 TIMER.....8
CHAPTER 3: MOSFET........19
CHAPTER 4: TRANSFORMER..27
CHAPTER 5: TRANSISTOR.......39
CHAPTER 6: OTHER COMPONENTS..46
CHAPTER 7: WORKING OF INVERTER.....50
CHAPTER 8: DIFFERENCE OF NORMAL & 555 TIMER
INVERTER52
CHAPTER 9: RESULTS & CONCLUSION...56
HARDWARE IMAGE...69
FUTURE SCOPE....60
REFERRENCES.....61

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

DIP: Dual Inline Package

GND: Ground

SOP: Small Outline Package

BJT: Bipolar-Junction Transistor

GTO: Gate Turn Off Thyristor

VCT: Volts Centre Tapped

PCB: Printed Circuit Board

CFL: Compact Fluorescent Lamp

IC: Integrated Circuit

MOSFET: Metal Oxide Semi-Conductor Field Effect Transistor

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1.1: Basic Block Diagram....6
FIGURE 1.2: Waveform.....6
FIGURE 1.3: Circuit Diagram7
FIGURE 2.1: IC 555 Timer...10
FIGURE 2.2: Internal Diagram of 555 timer.10
FIGURE 2.3: Astable Configuration.13
FIGURE 2.4: Mono Stable Configuration.14
FIGURE 2.5: Bi Stable Configuration...16
FIGURE 3.1: Mosfet Structure..23
FIGURE 3.2: Mosfet IRFZ4426
FIGURE 4.1: Transformer Equivalent Circuit...32
FIGURE 4.2: Primary& Secondary Centre Tap Transformer38
FIGURE 4.3: Centre Tap Transformer...................38
FIGURE 5.1: Transistor Circuit Symbol40
FIGURE 5.2: Transistor as a Switch..42
FIGURE 5.3: Transistor as a Amplifier..43
FIGURE 5.4: BC547..44
FIGURE 5.5: Physical Pin Configuration..44
FIGURE 6.1: Capacitors47
FIGURE 6.2: Resistors...47
FIGURE 6.3: Zero PCB..48
FIGURE 6.4: CFL...48
FIGURE 6.5: Battery..49
FIGURE 6.6: Battery Image...59

CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION TO INVERTER

INTRODUCION TO INVERTER
1.1 Project Type
Inverter using IC 555 timer with two Mosfets up to 50W and can be used upto
100W with high transformer rating.

1.2 Project Description

The main objective of this project is to enable a person to convert DC into AC
sine wave so that the load upto 50W can be run by applying 12Volt battery. In
this, we used IC NE555 timer which worked as astable multivibrator and 12-0-12
transformer which is a center tapped transformer.
The projects have following sections:
1. Power supply (DC 12V battery)
2. IC 555 timer
3. Mosfet IRFZ44 & Transistor
4. Tranformer (12-0-12)
DC-AC inverters are electronic devices used to produce mains voltage AC power
from low voltage DC energy (from a battery or solar panel). This makes them
very suitable for when you need to use AC power tools or appliances but the usual
AC mains power is not available. Examples include operating appliances in
caravans and mobile homes, and also running audio, video and computing
equipment in remote areas.
4

Most inverters do their job by performing two main functions: first they convert
the incoming DC into AC, and then they step up the resulting AC to mains voltage
level using a transformer. And the goal of the designer is to have the inverter
perform these functions as efficiently as possible so that as much as possible of
the energy drawn from the battery or solar panel is converted into mains voltage
AC, and as little as possible is wasted as heat. Modern inverters use a basic circuit
scheme like that shown in this project. Well see the DC from the battery is
converted into AC very simply, by using a pair of power MOSFETs (Q1 and Q2)
acting as very efficient electronic switches. The positive 12V DC from the battery
is connected to the centre-tap of the transformer primary, while each MOSFET is
connected between one end of the primary and earth (battery negative). So by
switching on Q1, the battery current can be made to flow through the top half of
the primary and to earth via Q1. Conversely by switching on Q2 instead, the
current is made to flow the opposite way through the lower half of the primary
and to earth. Therefore by switching the two MOSFETs on alternately, the current
is made to flow first in one half of the primary and then in the other, producing an
alternating magnetic flux in the transformers core. As a result a corresponding
AC voltage is induced in the transformers secondary winding, and as the
secondary has about 24 times the number of turns in the primary, the induced AC
voltage is much higher: around 650V peak to peak.
MOSFETs are used as the electronic switches, to convert the DC into AC, its
because they make the most efficient high-current switches. When they are OFF
they are virtually an open circuit, yet when they are ON, they are very close to a
short circuit (only a few milliohms). So very little power is wasted as heat.

1.3 Basic Block Diagram & Wave Form

Figure 1.1: Basic Block Diagram

Figure 1.2: Waveform

The switching MOSFETs are simply being turned on and off, this type of inverter
does not produce AC of the same pure sinewave type as the AC power mains. The
output waveform is essentially alternating rectangular pulses, as you can see from
the above figure. However the width of the pulses and the spacing between them
is chosen so that the ratio between the RMS value of the output waveform and its
peak-to-peak value is actually quite similar to that of a pure sinewave. The
resulting waveform is usually called a modified sinewave and as the RMS voltage

is close to 230V many AC tools and appliances are able to operate from such a
waveform without problems.

1.4 Circuit Diagram

Figure 1.3: Circuit Diagram

CHAPTER 2:
IC 555 TIMER

IC 555 TIMER
2.1 Description
IC 555 timer is a well-known component in the electronic circles but what is not
known to most of the people is the internal circuitry of the IC and the function of
various pins present there in the IC. Let me tell you a fact about why 555 timer
is called so, the timer got its name from the three 5 kilo-ohm resistor in series
employed in the internal circuit of the IC.
IC 555 timer is a one of the most widely used IC in electronics and is used in
various electronic circuits for its robust and stable properties. It works as squarewave form generator with duty cycle varying from 50% to 100%, Oscillator and
can also provide time delay in circuits. The 555 timer got its name from the three
5k ohm resistor connected in a voltage-divider pattern which is shown in the
figure below. A simplified diagram of the internal circuit is given below for better
understanding as the full internal circuit consists of over more than 16 resistors,
20 transistors, 2 diodes, a flip-flop and many other circuit components.
The 555 timer comes as 8 pin DIP (Dual In-line Package) device. There is also a
556 dual version of 555 timer which consists of two complete 555 timers in 14
DIP and a 558 quadruple timer which is consisting of four 555 timer in one IC
and is available as a 16 pin DIP in the market

Figure 2.1: IC 555 Timer

2.2 Internal Diagram Of 555 Timer:

Figure 2.2: Internal Diagram of 555 Timer

2.3 Functions of Different Pins:

1. Ground: This pin is used to provide a zero voltage rail to the Integrated circuit
to divide the supply potential between the three resistors shown in the diagram.
10

2. Trigger: As we can see that the voltage at the non-inverting end of the
comparator is Vin/3, so if the trigger input is used to set the output of the F/F to
high state by applying a voltage equal to or less than V in/3 or any negative pulse,
as the voltage at the non-inverting end of the comparator is Vin/3.
3. Output: It is the output pin of the IC, connected to the Q (Q-bar) of the F/F
with an inverter in between as show in the figure.
4. Reset: This pin is used to reset the output of the F/F regardless of the initial
condition of the F/F and also it is an active low Pin so it connected to high state
to avoid any noise interference, unless a reset operation is required. So most of the
time it is connected to the Supply voltage as shown in the figure.
`
5. Control Voltage: As we can see that the pin 5 is connected to the inverting input
having a voltage level of (2/3) Vin. It is used to override the inverting voltage to
change the width of the output signal irrespective of the RC timing network.
6. Threshold: The pin is connected to the non-inverting input of the first
comparator. The output of the comparator will be high when the threshold voltage
will be more than (2/3) Vin thus resetting the output (Q) of the F/F from high to
low.
7. Discharge: This pin is used to discharge the timing capacitors (capacitors
involved in the external circuit to make the IC behave as a square wave generator)
to ground when the output of Pin 3 is switched to low.
8. Supply: This pin is used to provide the IC with the supply voltage for the
functioning and carrying of the different operations to be fulfilled with the 555
timer.
11

2.4 Uses of 555 Timer

The IC 55 timer is used in many circuits, for example One-shot pulse generator in
Monostable mode as an Oscillator in Astable Mode or in Bistable mode to
produce a flip/flop type action. It is also used in many types of other circuit for
achievement of various purposes for instance Pulse Amplitude Modulatin (PAM),
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) etc.

2.5 Working with Different Operating Modes

Multivibrators find their own place in many of the applications as they are one of
the most widely used circuits. The application may be household (domestic),
industrial, access control, communication etc anyone. The multivibrators are used
in all such applications as oscillators, as digital flip-flop, as pulse generator
circuit, as delay generator circuit, as a timer and many more.
There are three types of multivibrators:
1. Astable multivibrator- It has no stable state. It has two quasi stable states that
automatically changes from one to another and back. So actually it changes from
high to low state and low to high state without any trigger input after pre
determine time.
For astable operation of IC555 we have two design equations
f = 1.44 / (R1+2*R2)*C, and
% duty cycle = (R1+R2) / (R1+2*R2)

12

Here frequency and duty cycle are the design parameters and we have to find out
three unknowns R1, R2 & C. For given values of design parameters, we have to
find out these three unknown

Figure 2.3 Astable Configuration

2. Monostable multivibrator- it has one stable state and one quasi stable state. It
jumps into quasi stable state from stable state when trigger input is applied. It
comes into stable state from quasi stable state after pre determine time
automatically.

13

Figure 2.4: Monostable Configuration

Connections:
Instead of connecting one resistor in between threshold and discharge pin, they
are shorted here as shown. One resister R is connected between Vcc pin and
discharge pin. The capacitor C is connected as shown in between threshold pin
and ground. External trigger is applie at trigger input pin. This pin is kept high at
Vcc by connecting it to Vcc through 1K resistor. Control voltage input pin (no. 5)
is connected to ground through 0.1F capacitor. The output is taken from pin no.
3. Reset input pin (no. 4) is connected to Vcc to enable internal flip-flop
operation. Pin no. 8 is connected to Vcc for +Ve bias and pin no. 1 is connected to
ground for Ve bias
Operation:
In this mode the state of output will only change from low to high (and then back
to low) if external negative trigger pulse is applied. The trigger input and the
output pulse is as shown in figure.
14

 Before trigger is applied, the capacitor charges to Vcc through R1\

When it reaches to 2/3 Vcc the threshold comparator gives high output. That
will set flip-flop. So output is low and discharge transistor is ON
So capacitor discharges and thats why output is low.
When negative trigger pulse is applied, the trigger comparator gives high output.
This will reset the flip-flop.
So output becomes high and discharging transistor becomes off.
So again capacitor starts charging towards Vcc. When it reaches 2/3 Vcc, flip
flop sets and output automatically becomes low.
So the output becomes high only when trigger is applied and remain high till
capacitor charges to 2/3 Vcc.
3. Bistable multivibrator- It has both stable states. Two different trigger inputs
are applied to change the state from high to low and low to high.
All these three kinds of multivibrators can be easily made using transistors. But
one IC is available that can be used as astable, monostable or bistable
multivibrator and that is IC555.
IC 555 is the most versatile chip and it is (can be) used in all most every kind of
application because of its multi functionality. Its 8 pin DIP or SOP package type
chip with 200 mA direct current drive output. Its called mixed signal chip
because there are analog as well as digital components inside. Its main
15

applications are to generate timings, clock waveform, generate synchronizing

signals, square wave oscillator, in sequential circuit and many more.

Figure 2.5: Bistable Configuration

Connections:
Because there is no self triggering now the capacitor is excluded from the circuit.
One 1K resistor is connected between threshold pin and ground as shown and
another 1K resistor is connected between Vcc and trigger pin. Other connections
are common and similar to astable and monostable multivibrators.
Operation:
Bistable multivibrator requires two different triggers pulses as shown in figure.
One positive pulse at threshold pin and second negative pulse on trigger pin.
16

Initially the output is low. As shown in waveforms, when negative pulse (< 1/3
Vcc) is applied immediately the output becomes high. And it continues to remain
high.
Then after when positive pulse (> 2/3 Vcc) is applied on threshold pin, the output
becomes low and remains low afterward.
Thus the width of output pulse is determined by the time delay between two
pulses.
There are no any design equations or no any unknown component values to find
out because entire operation depends upon external pulses.
Use of Control Input Pin:
In all above modes the control input pin (no. 5) is always grounded through 0.1F
capacitor. As shown in the internal diagram of IC555, this pin is connected to
inverting terminal of threshold comparator (which is fixed at 2/3 Vcc). So by
changing the voltage at this input will change 2/3 Vcc limit and it will change
charging time of capacitor. By changing the control input voltage the charging
time of capacitor can be increased or decreased. And thus the output pulse width
will increase or decrease. Thus control voltage input is used to increase / decrease
output pulse width.
Use of Reset Input Pin:
In almost all the 555 timer circuits reset input pin is connected to Vcc. This is
actually active low input that enables or disables internal flip-flop operation. As
per the internal diagram this pin drives one PNP transistor that is connected to
preset input of flip-flop. So

17

 If

this pin is given low logic (connected to GND), the PNP transistor becomes

ON and flip flop presets. That means the discharging transistor is ON and output
is low. There is no any effect of input from threshold pin or trigger pin.
If

this pin is given high logic (connected to Vcc), the PNP transistor becomes

OFF. There is no effect on flip-flop and output becomes high or low as per input
from threshold pin or trigger pin.
So

the reset input pin actually works as ON / OFF switch for IC555 operation. If

reset pin is ON (given high logic) the IC555 operation is ON and vice versa.

18

CHAPTER 3:
MOSFET

19

MOSFET
3.1 Introduction
Bipolar semiconductor devices (i.e., diode, transistor, thyristor, thyristor,
GTO etc) have been the front runners in the quest for an ideal power
electronic switch. Ever since the invention of the transistor, the development
of solid-state switches with increased power handling capability has been of
interest for expending the application of these devices. The BJT and the
GTO thyristor have been developed over the past 30 years to serve the need
of the power electronic industry. Their primary advantage over the thyristors
have been the superior switching speed and the ability to interrupt the
current without reversal of the device voltage. All bipolar devices, however,
suffer from a common set of disadvantages, namely, (i) limited switching
speed due to considerable redistribution of minority charge carriers
associated with every switching operation; (ii) relatively large control power
requirement which complicates the control circuit design. Besides, bipolar
devices can not be paralleled easily.
The reliance of the power electronics industry upon bipolar devices was
challenged by the introduction of a new MOS gate controlled power device
technology in the 1980s. The power MOS field effect transistor (MOSFET)
evolved from the MOS integrated circuit technology. The new device
promised extremely low input power levels and no inherent limitation to the
switching speed. Thus, it opened up the possibility of increasing the
operating frequency in power electronic systems resulting in reduction in
size and weight. The initial claims of infinite current gain for the power
MOSFET were, however, diluted by the need to design the gate drive circuit
to account for the pulse currents required to charge and discharge the high
20

input capacitance of these devices. At high frequency of operation the

required gate drive power becomes substantial. MOSFETs also have
comparatively higher on state resistance per unit area of the device cross
section which increases with the blocking voltage rating of the device.
Consequently, the use of MOSFET has been restricted to low voltage (less
than about 500 volts) applications where the ON state resistance reaches
acceptable values. Inherently fast switching speed of these devices can be
effectively utilized to increase the switching frequency beyond several
hundred kHz.
From the point of view of the operating principle a MOSFET is a voltage
controlled majority carrier device. As the name suggests, movement of
majority carriers in a MOSFET is controlled by the voltage applied on the
control electrode (called gate) which is insulated by a thin metal oxide layer
from the bulk semiconductor body. The electric field produced by the gate
voltage modulate the conductivity of the semiconductor material in the
region between the main current carrying terminals called the Drain (D) and
the Source (S). Power MOSFETs, just like their integrated circuit
counterpart, can be of two types (i) depletion type and (ii) enhancement
type. Both of these can be either n- channel type or p-channel type
depending on the nature of the bulk semiconductor.

3.2 Constructional Features of Mosfet

MOSFET is a device that evolved from MOS integrated circuit technology.
The first attempts to develop high voltage MOSFETs were by redesigning
lateral MOSFET to increase their voltage blocking capacity. The resulting
technology was called lateral double diffused MOS (DMOS). However it
was soon realized that much larger breakdown voltage and current ratings
could be achieved by resorting to a vertically oriented structure. Since then,
21

vertical DMOS (VDMOS) structure has been adapted by virtually all

manufacturers of Power MOSFET. A power MOSFET using VDMOS
technology has vertically oriented three layer structure of alternating p type
and n type semiconductors as shown in Fig 6.2 (a) which is the schematic
representation of a single MOSFET cell structure. A large number of such
cells are connected in parallel to form a complete device. The two n + end
layers labeled Source and Drain are heavily doped to approximately the
same level. The p type middle layer is termed the body (or substrate) and
has moderate doping level (2 to 3 orders of magnitude lower than n + regions
on both sides). The n- drain drift region has the lowest doping density.
Thickness of this region determines the breakdown voltage of the device.
The gate terminal is placed over the n- and p type regions of the cell
structure and is insulated from the semiconductor body be a thin layer of
silicon dioxide (also called the gate oxide). The source and the drain region
of all cells on a wafer are connected to the same metallic contacts to form
the Source and the Drain terminals of the complete device. Similarly all gate
terminals are also connected together. The source is constructed of many
(thousands) small polygon shaped areas that are surrounded by the gate
regions. The geometric shape of the source regions, to same extent,
influences the ON state resistance of the MOSFET.

22

Figure 3.1: Mosfet Structure

3.3 Operating Principle of Mosfet

At first glance it would appear that there is no path for any current to flow
between the source and the drain terminals since at least one of the p n
junctions (source body and body-Drain) will be reverse biased for either
polarity of the applied voltage between the source and the drain. There is no
possibility of current injection from the gate terminal either since the gate
23

oxide is a very good insulator. However, application of a positive voltage at

the gate terminal with respect to the source will covert the silicon surface
beneath the gate oxide into an n type layer or channel, thus connecting the
Source to the Drain as explained next. The gate region of a MOSFET which
is composed of the gate metallization, the gate (silicon) oxide layer and the
p-body silicon forms a high quality capacitor. When a small voltage is
application to this capacitor structure with gate terminal positive with
respect to the source (note that body and source are shorted) a depletion
region forms at the interface between the SiO2 and the silicon as shown in
the figure. The positive charge induced on the gate metallization repels the
majority hole carriers from the interface region between the gate oxide and
the p type body. This exposes the negatively charged acceptors and a
depletion region is created.
Further increase in VGS causes the depletion layer to grow in thickness. At
the same time the electric field at the oxide-silicon interface gets larger and
begins to attract free electrons as shown in the figure. The immediate source
of electron is electron-hole generation by thermal ionization. The holes are
repelled into the semiconductor bulk ahead of the depletion region. The
extra holes are neutralized by electrons from the source.
As VGS increases further the density of free electrons at the interface
becomes equal to the free hole density in the bulk of the body region beyond
the depletion layer. The layer of free electrons at the interface is called the
inversion layer and is shown in figure. The inversion layer has all the
properties of an n type semiconductor and is a conductive path or channel
between the drain and the source which permits flow of current between the
drain and the source. Since current conduction in this device takes place
through an n- type channel created by the electric field due to gate source
voltage it is called Enhancement type n-channel MOSFET. The value of
VGS at which the inversion layer is considered to have formed is called the
24

Gate Source threshold voltage VGS. As VGS is increased beyond VGS the
inversion layer gets somewhat thicker and more conductive, since the
density of free electrons increases further with increase in VGS. The
inversion layer screens the depletion layer adjacent to it from increasing VGS.
The depletion layer thickness now remains constant.

3.4 Mosfet IRFZ44N

N-channel enhancement mode standard level field-effect power transistor in
a plastic envelope using (trench) technology. The device features very low
on-state resistance and has integral zener diodes giving ESD protection up to
2kV. It is intended for use in switched mode power supplies and general
purpose switching applications. There are various advantages of this type of
Mosfet those are:
Advanced Process Technology
Ultra Low On-Resistance
Dynamic dv/dt Rating
175C Operating Temperature
Fast Switching
Fully Avalanche Rated

25

3.4 Diagram of Mosfet IRFZ44N

Figure 3.2: Mosfet IRFZ44

26

CHAPTER 4:
TRANSFORMER

27

TRANSFORMER
4.1 Basic Description
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction.
A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a
varying magnetic flux in the core and a varying magnetic field impinging on
the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary induces
a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding.
Making

use

of Faraday's

Law in

conjunction

with

high magnetic

permeability core properties, transformers can thus be designed to efficiently

change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power
networks.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic
centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing
hundreds of tons. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in
electronic and electric power applications. Since the invention in 1885 of the
first constant potential transformer, transformers have become essential for
the AC transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy.

4.2 Types of Transformer According To Principle

28

 Ideal Transformer:
It is very common, for simplification or approximation purposes, to
analyze the transformer as an ideal transformer model as represented
in

the

two

images.

An

ideal

transformer

is

theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled;

that is, there are no energy losses and flux is completely confined
within the magnetic core. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high
core magnetic permeability and winding inductances and zero
net magneto motive force.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a

varying magnetic flux in the core and a varying magnetic field
impinging on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at
the secondary induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage
in the secondary winding. The primary and secondary windings are
wrapped around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so
that all of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and
secondary windings. With a voltage source connected to the primary
winding and load impedance connected to the secondary winding, the
transformer currents flow in the indicated directions.

According to Faraday's law of induction, since the same magnetic flux

passes through both the primary and secondary windings in an ideal
transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding, in the secondary
winding case, in the primary winding case. The primary EMF is
sometimes termed counter EMF. This is in accordance with Lenz's
law, which states that induction of EMF always opposes development
29

of any such change in magnetic field. The transformer winding

voltage ratio is thus shown to be directly proportional to the winding
turns ratio.
According to the law of Conservation of Energy, any load impedance
connected to the ideal transformer's secondary winding results in
conservation of apparent, real and reactive power.
The ideal transformer identity shown in is a reasonable approximation
for the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and
winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the
corresponding current ratio.
By Ohm's Law and the ideal transformer identity:

The secondary circuit load impedance can be expressed as eq. (6)

The apparent load impedance referred to the primary circuit is to

be equal to the turns ratio squared times the secondary circuit load
impedance.

Real Transformer:

The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear

aspects in real transformers.
Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consist of

Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage

applied in the transformer core, and

Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are
proportional to the square of the transformer's applied voltage.
30

Whereas windings in the ideal model have no resistances and infinite

inductances, the windings in a real transformer have finite non-zero
resistances and inductances associated with:

Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary

windings

Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one
winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive
impedance.

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the
primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself.
In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings.
Such

flux

is

termed leakage

inductance in series with

the

flux,
mutually

and

results

coupled

in leakage
transformer

windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in

and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power
supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage
regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be directly
proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load.
In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic
paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be
introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it
will supply. Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that
exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor
lamps, and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become
periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.

31

Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating,

especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC
component flowing in the windings.
Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers
are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent
impedance and associated winding leakage reactance-to-resistance
(X/R) ratio of two transformers were hypothetically exactly the same,
the transformers would share power in proportion to their respective
volt-ampere ratings (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA
unit, the larger unit would carry twice the current). However, the
impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant.
Also, the Z impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity
transformers tends to vary, corresponding 1,000 kVA and 500 kVA
units' values being, to illustrate, respectively, Z 5.75%, X/R 3.75
and Z 5%, X/R 4.75.

Figure 4.1: Transformer Equivalent Circuit

32

4.3 Basic Transformer Parameters

Effect Of Frequency
By Faraday's Law of induction transformer EMFs vary according to
the derivative of flux with respect to time. The ideal transformer's
core behaves linearly with time for any non-zero frequency. Flux in a
real

transformer's

core behaves

non-linearly

in relation to

magnetization current as the instantaneous flux increases beyond a

finite linear range resulting in magnetic saturation associated with
increasingly large magnetizing current, which eventually leads to
transformer overheating.
The EMF of a transformer at a given flux density increases with
frequency. By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be
physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more
power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to
achieve the same impedance. However, properties such as core loss
and conductor skin effect also increase with frequency. Aircraft and
military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core
and winding weight. Conversely, frequencies used for some railway
electrification systems were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz)
than normal utility frequencies (5060 Hz) for historical reasons
concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction
motors. As such, the transformers used to step-down the high overhead line voltages (e.g. 15 kV) were much heavier for the same power
rating than those designed only for the higher frequencies.
Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher
frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At
33

a lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase. Operation of

a transformer at other than its design frequency may require
assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe
operation is practical. For example, transformers may need to be
equipped with 'volts per hertz' over-excitation relays to protect the
transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency.
One example is in traction transformers used for electric multiple
unit and high-speed train service operating across regions with
different electrical standards. The converter equipment and traction
transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and
voltage (ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up
to 25 kV) while being suitable for multiple AC asynchronous motor
and DC converters and motors with varying harmonics mitigation
filtering requirements.
Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to
transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in
switching or by lightning.

Energy Losses
Real transformer energy losses are dominated by winding resistance
joule and core losses. Transformers' efficiency tends to improve with
increasing transformer capacity. The efficiency of typical distribution
transformers is between about 98 and 99 percent. As transformer
losses vary with load, it is often useful to express these losses in terms
of

no-load

loss,

full-load

loss,

half-load

loss,

and

so

on. Hysteresis and eddy current losses are constant at all load levels
and dominate

overwhelmingly

without load, while variable

34

winding joule losses dominating increasingly as load increases. The

no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer
constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing energy efficient
transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon
steel, or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire,
increasing initial cost. The choice of construction represents a tradeoff between initial cost and operating cost.

Transformer losses arise from:

Winding joule losses
Current flowing through a winding's conductor causes joule heating.
As frequency increases, skin effect and proximity effect causes the
winding's resistance and, hence, losses to increase.
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is
lost due to hysteresis within the core. According to Steinmetz's
formula, the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by
, and,
Hysteresis loss is thus given by

where, f is the frequency, is the hysteresis coefficient and max is the

maximum flux density, the empirical exponent of which varies from
about 1.4 to 1.8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron.

35

Eddy current losses

Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made
from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn
throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within
the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive
heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex
function of the square of supply frequency and Inverse Square of the
material thickness. Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the
core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather
than a solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use
laminated or similar cores.

Magnetostriction related transformer hum

Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it
to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the
magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional
energy of which produces an audible noise known as mains
hum or transformer

hum. This

transformer

hum

is

especially

objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies and

in high-frequency flyback

transformers associated

with

PAL

system CRTs.

Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied
to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next halfcycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive
materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to

36

eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses
due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small.

4.4 Transformer Used In Project

Center Tapped Transformer:
In electronics, a center tap (CT) is a contact made to a point halfway
along a winding of a transformer or inductor, or along the element of
a resistor or a potentiometer. Taps are sometimes used on inductors
for the coupling of signals, and may not necessarily be at the half-way
point, but rather, closer to one end. A common application of this is in
the Hartley

oscillator.

transformation

of

Inductors
the

with

taps

amplitude

also

permit

the

of alternating

current (AC) voltages for the purpose of power conversion, in which

case, they are referred to as autotransformers, since there is only one
winding. An example of an autotransformer is an automobile ignition
coil. Potentiometer tapping provides one or more connections along
the device's element, along with the usual connections at each of the
two ends of the element, and the slider connection. Potentiometer taps
allow for circuit functions that would otherwise not be available with
the usual construction of just the two end connections and one slider
connection.

Volts Center Tapped(12-0-12):

Volts center tapped (VCT) describes the voltage output of a center
tapped transformer. For example: A 24 VCT transformer will measure
24 VAC across the outer two taps (winding as a whole), and 12 VAC
37

from each outer tap to the center-tap (half winding). These two 12
VAC supplies are 180 degrees out of phase with each other, thus
making it easy to derive positive and negative 12 volt DC power
supplies from them.

Figure 4.2: Primary and Secondary of Center Tapped Transformer

4.5 Diagram of a Center Tapped Transformer

Figure 4.3 Centre Tap Transformer

38

CHAPTER 5:
TRANSISTOR

39

TRANSISTOR
5.1 Description:
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the
small output current from a logic chip so that it can operate a lamp, relay or
other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the
changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used
to amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current,
or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).
The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.

5.2 Types of Transistors

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the
small output current from a logic chip so that it can operate a lamp, relay or
other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the
changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used
to amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current,
or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).
The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol hFE.

Figure 5.1: Transistor circuit symbol

40

5.3 Operation:
There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they
are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled
base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is,
flowing between the base and the emitter) can control or switch a much
larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect
transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at
the gate can control a current between source and drain.
The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit.
Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the
current in the base. Because internally the base and emitter connections
behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base
and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage
depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.

5.3.1 Transistor as a switch

Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, both for high-power
applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power
applications such as logic gates.
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit
shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise
exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance
from collector to emitter. If the voltage difference between the collector and
emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be limited only
by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called

41

saturation because current is flowing from collector to emitter freely. When

saturated, the switch is said to be on.

Figure 5.2: Transistor as a Switch

Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of bipolar
transistors as switches. The transistor provides current gain, allowing a
relatively large current in the collector to be switched by a much smaller
current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending
on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type, varies depending on
the collector current. In the example light-switch circuit shown, the resistor
is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor will be
saturated.
In any switching circuit, values of input voltage would be chosen such that
the output is either completely off, or completely on. The transistor is acting
as a switch, and this type of operation is common in digital circuits where
only "on" and "off" values are relevant.

5.3.2 Transistor as an amplifier

The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that a small change in voltage
(Vin) changes the small current through the base of the transistor; the
transistor's current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit
mean that small swings in Vin produce large changes in Vout.
42

Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with some

providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both.
From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include
amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal processing.
The first discrete-transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied a few hundred
milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better
transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved.
Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are
common and relatively inexpensive.

Figure 5.3: Transistor as an amplifier

5.4 BC 547 Transistor

In our inverter, we use BC 547 transistor. Basically, A BC547 transistor is a
negative-positive-negative (NPN) transistor that is used for many purposes.
Together with other electronic components, such as resistors, coils, and
capacitors, it can be used as the active component for switches and
amplifiers. Like all other NPN transistors, this type has an emitter terminal,
a base or control terminal, and a collector terminal. In a typical
configuration, the current flowing from the base to the emitter controls the
43

collector current. A short vertical line, which is the base, can indicate the
transistor schematic for an NPN transistor, and the emitter, which is a
diagonal line connecting to the base, is an arrowhead pointing away from
the base.

Figure 5.4: BC547

There are various types of transistors, and the BC547 is a bipolar junction
transistor (BJT). There are also transistors that have one junction, such as
the junction field-effect transistor, or no junctions at all, such as the metal
oxide field-effect transistor (MOSFET). During the design and manufacture
of transistors, the characteristics can be predefined and achieved. The
negative (N)-type material inside an NPN transistor has an excess of
electrons, while the positive (P)-type material has a lack of electrons, both
due to a contamination process called doping.

Figure 5.5: Physical Transistor

44

The BC547 transistor comes in one package. When several are placed in a
single package, it is usually referred to as a transistor array. Arrays are
commonly used in digital switching. Eight transistors may be placed in one
package to make layout much easier.
To make use of a transistor as an audio preamplifier, a direct current (DC)
source is needed, such as a 12-volt (V) power supply. In a common emitter
configuration, the negative side of the power supply is alternating current
(AC)-coupled to the emitter via a capacitor. There is also a small resistance
connecting the power supply to the emitter. The power supply is then
connected to the collector via a resistor, which may be referred to as a
limiting resistor. When the collector-to-emitter current flows, there will be
a voltage drop in the limiting resistor, and in the idle state, the collector
voltage is typically 6 V.
Transistor circuit design requires a thorough understanding of currentvoltage ratings of various components, such as transistors and resistors. One
goal is to keep the components from burning up, while another is to make
the circuit work. Saving electricity is also important, such as in the case of
battery-operated devices.

45

CHAPTER 6:
OTHER COMPONENTS

46

OTHER COMPONENTS
Besides components like IC 555 timer, mosfets, transformer and transistor,
the following other components are also used in this project.

6.1 Capacitors
Standard electrolytic capacitors of various ratings are used in this project.
The role of the capacitors is to absorb the spike energy or can be used to
correct the power factor.

Figure 6.1: Capacitors

6.2 Resistors
Standard carbon resistors of various values and 0.25W rating are used in this
project.

Figure 6.2: Resistors

47

6.3 Zero PCB

Zero Printed circuit board is used in this project to design this circuit. The
manual soldering connections are done through the multi strand wire.

Figure 6.3: Zero PCB

6.4 CFL
CFL 5W (Compact Fluorescent Lamp) is used to test the output of the
circuit. It is connected directly connected to the transformer secondary as
shown in the practical diagram

Figure 6.4: CFL

48

6.5 Connecting Wires

In this project, mainly multi-strand wire is used, as the operating voltage is
12V, Single strand can also be used but for using it with Mosfets, multi
strand is more preferable.

6.6 Battery
Battery is the most important part of this project. The 12V, 7mah battery is
used in this project. It must be accurately charged upto 12V or more than
that. So, the rechargeable battery is mostly preferred. If the voltage of the
battery is less than the rated voltage that is required for the operation to be
performed then the CFL will not glow. In this projects these type of batteries
are used as battery banks. These are mobile battery as they can easily be
carried for the use anywhere.

Figure 6.5: Battery

49

CHAPTER 7:
WORKING OF INVERTER

50

WORKING OF INVERTER
In this project basically DC voltage is converted to AC voltage hence the
name given to this project is Inverter as conversion from DC to AC is the
work of an inverter. In this firstly a 12V DC voltage is taken from a battery
of rating 12V and 7.5 Ah and then it is given to IC-NE555 timer which is a
square wave frequency generator output of 50Hz and can be used as the
driver in PWM technique for the Mosfets. The frequency is determined from
resistor and capacitor which we have set to 50Hz output. Then we use both
N-type Mosfet IRF Z44N (Q2, Q3) as to drive the transformer coil (primary
winding).These two MOSFETS are arranged in such a way that one of the
Mosfet is directly connected to the 555 Timer IC and another is connected to
the 555 Timer IC via Transistor .Here the Mosfets will function like
Transistors only as Mosfet also has three terminals i.e. Gate, Source and
Drain. The positive pulse coming from 555 Timer IC drives the Mosfet
which is directly connected to it and during the negative pulse first Mosfet
will be OFF and second Mosfet will conduct. Now the current of Pin 3 of
IC1 will flow two ways, first through R3 to gate of Q2 and, second ways
will flow to Q1-transistor BC547 as inverter logic form to reverse signal
difference first ways. Next current flow to gate of Q3 to also drive the
transformer. Then because of this AC voltage of 220V is achieved at the
output.

51

CHAPTER 8:
DIFFERENCE OF NORMAL
&
555 TIMER INVERTER

52

DIFFERENCE OF NORMAL & 555 TIMER

INVERTER
8.1 Difference Between regular inverter and inverter using 555
timer
A home UPS/inverter system has a system of inverter and batteries that is
connected to the home power connection. When the power is coming from
the grid, the UPS/inverter system charges the batteries using the power
coming from the grid. When the power is off, the inverter takes the DC
power from the batteries and converts it into AC used by appliances. There
is an automated switch in the system that senses if the grid is not supplying
power and switches the UPS into battery mode.
This type of inverter is quite bulky, costly, not portable, and also require
large space for installation.
But inverter using 555 timer is cheap, less bulky, small in size, portable and
require small space for installation. Due to these features, now a days
requirement of this type of inverter increases and according to the required
load capacity can be increased. The efficiency of this type of inverter is also
high.
It has also advantages because of transisitor, earlier vaccum tubes were used
which are bulky and less efficient.

8.2 Advantages

No power consumption by a cathode heater; the characteristic orange

glow of vacuum tubes is due to a simple electrical heating element, much
like a light bulb filament.
53

Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of

miniaturized electronic devices.

Low operating voltages compatible with batteries of only a few cells.

No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power

application.

Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.

Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.

Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service

for more than 50 years.

Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of

complementary-symmtery circuits, something not possible with vacuum
tubes.

Greatly reduced sensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus

reducing the problem of microphonics in sensitive applications, such as
audio.

8.3 Limitations

Silicon transistors can age and fail.

High-power, high-frequency operation, such as that used in over-theair television broadcasting, is better achieved in vacuum tubes due to
improved electron mobility in a vacuum.

Solid-state devices are more vulnerable to electrostatic discharge in

handling and operation

A vacuum tube momentarily overloaded will just get a little hotter;

solid-state devices have less mass to absorb the heat due to overloads, in
proportion to their rating

Sensitivity to radiation and cosmic rays (special radiation-hardened

chips are used for spacecraft devices).
54

Vacuum tubes create a distortion, the so-called tube sound, which

some people find to be more tolerable to the ear.

55

CHAPTER 9:
RESULTS & CONCLUSION

56

9.1 RESULTS
The Inverter using 555 timer IC is performed successfully on the zero printed
circuit board. It is practically performed & run in real time. Proper working of
inverter is studied and observed.
In this hardware, basically the output is shown by the Compact Fluorescent Lamp
(CFL) i.e. 5 watt rating. The Supply is given through the DC 12V battery which is
a rechargeable battery and can easily be carried to the remote location. This
particular hardware can take the load upto 20-25watt but not higher than that as
the transformer used in this has the maximum output of the 25W.
Yes, we can say that higher rating load upto 100 Watt can be carried by the same
circuit as shown in this project, if we replace the transformer by higher ratings.
The output waveform is partially sinusoidal & partially rectangular, it do contains
harmonics in the waveform, but it easily carry the low load without any hindrance
or glitches.
There is a finite possibility that the circuit may not run in the case if the voltage of
the DC 12V battery even slightly drop down from 11.7V. So it is highly preferable
and recommended that one should be having rechargeable battery and it should be
charged properly time to time. Refer Fig for the picture of the tested circuit.

9.2 CONCLUSION
57

This report presents a method to convert DC to AC using 555 timer and Mosfets,
when the user connects the specified load where AC supply is not accessible, the
user can easily run that load using this circuit as DC supply through 12V battery
is converted to 220V AC which is the main requirement for the load to run.
We learned a lot in the process of doing this project and writing this report and we
hope it will encourage many of you to consider this type of mobile inverter for
running low rating loads. I admit the dis-advantage that if battery is slightly
discharged or less than 11.7V volt, the load will not run and it is not appropriate
of the high rating loads.
The main advantage of this project in day to day life is that it is very handy and
can be carried to the remote location for use. Another, it is efficient way to covert
the power with very minimum loses.

HARDWARE IMAGE
58

Figure 7: Hardware Image

FUTURE SCOPE
59

There are mainly following future scope which can extensively be used:
This project can further be extended by using solar panel which is used to
charge the battery and can be the source of renewable energy.
This is further extended to meet the requirements to run heavy loads with
high transformer rating.

REFERNCES
60

BOOKS & RESEARCH PAPERS:

1. P.S. Bimbhra, Power Electronics, 4th Edition, Khanna Publishers.
2. MD Singh & KB Khanchandani, Power Electronics, 3 rd Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited.
3. PC Sen, Power Electronics, 30th Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited.
.
4. Zeeshan Shahid, Sheroz Khan, AHM Zahirul Alam and Musse Muhamod
Ahmed, LM555 Timer Based Inverter Low Power Pure Sinusoidal AC Output,
World Applied Sciences Journal 30, IDOSI Publications, 2014.
5. Himani Goyal, Understanding of IC 555 Timer and IC 555 Timer Tester,
International Journal of Inventive Engineering and Sciences, Blue Eyes
Intelligence Engineering & Sciences Publication Pvt. Ltd.

WEBSITES:
http://www.engineersgarage.com
http://www.engineering.electrical-equipment.org
http://www.eleccircuit.com
http://www.datasheetcatalog.com
http://www.electusdistribution.com.au
http://circuitstoday.com
61