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invited review
Myogenic satellite cells: physiology
to molecular biology
THOMAS J. HAWKE1 AND DANIEL J. GARRY1,2
1
Department of Internal Medicine and 2Department of Molecular Biology,
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390
Hawke, Thomas J., and Daniel J. Garry. Myogenic satellite cells:
physiology to molecular biology. J Appl Physiol 91: 534551,
2001.Adult skeletal muscle has a remarkable ability to regenerate
following myotrauma. Because adult myofibers are terminally differentiated, the regeneration of skeletal muscle is largely dependent on a
small population of resident cells termed satellite cells. Although this
population of cells was identified 40 years ago, little is known regarding
the molecular phenotype or regulation of the satellite cell. The use of cell
culture techniques and transgenic animal models has improved our
understanding of this unique cell population; however, the capacity and
potential of these cells remain ill-defined. This review will highlight the
origin and unique markers of the satellite cell population, the regulation
by growth factors, and the response to physiological and pathological
stimuli. We conclude by highlighting the potential therapeutic uses of
satellite cells and identifying future research goals for the study of
satellite cell biology.
skeletal muscle; stem cells; regeneration; aging; transgenic models
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opment, size, number, and expression of myosin heavychain isoforms (123, 175).
The discovery of satellite cells in the early 1960s
demonstrated the existence of yet an additional population of proliferative cells that contributed to postnatal growth, the maintenance of adult skeletal muscle,
and the repair of damaged myofibers. Myogenic satellite cells are present in the limbs of midgestational
mouse embryos after E15 (35). After birth, the satellite
cell population accounts for 30% of sublaminar muscle nuclei in neonatal hindlimb skeletal muscle (12).
These neonatal satellite cells fuse to growing myofibers
to contribute additional nuclei during postnatal growth
of skeletal muscle.
SOMITIC VS. NONSOMITIC ORIGIN OF SATELLITE
CELLS
Anatomic identification. Resident within adult skeletal muscle is a pool of undifferentiated mononuclear
cells termed satellite cells because of their anatomic
location at the periphery of the mature, multinucleated
myotube. The defining characteristic of the satellite
cell is that the basal lamina that surrounds the satellite cell and the associated myofiber is continuous
(167). As shown in Fig. 2, the identification of this cell
population has historically utilized ultrastructural
techniques (66, 161). Other distinguishing morphological features of the satellite cell population include a
relatively high nuclear-to-cytoplasmic ratio with few
organelles, a smaller nuclear size compared with the
adjacent nucleus of the myotube, and an increase in
the amount of nuclear heterochromatin compared with
that of the myonucleus (167). These morphological
features are consistent with the finding that satellite
cells are relatively quiescent and transcriptionally less
active. These distinguishing features are absent following activation or proliferation of the satellite cells in
response to growth, remodeling, or muscle injury. After
activation, the satellite cells are more easily identified
as they appear as a swelling on the myofiber with
cytoplasmic processes that extend from one or both
poles of the cell (Fig. 2; Ref. 167). Associated with the
increase in mitotic activity, there is a reduction in
heterochromatin, an increase in cytoplasmic-to-nuclear ratio, and an increase in the number of intracellular organelles (167).
Satellite cell markers. The profile of gene expression
of the quiescent satellite cell as well as their activated
and proliferating progeny is largely unknown. The
quiescent satellite cells do not express myogenic regulatory factors of the MyoD or MEF2 families or other
known markers of terminal differentiation (33, 119,
201). Through the identification of satellite cell markers, biologists will be able to address issues related to
the developmental origin of the satellite cell, the cell
cycle control, and the molecular regulation of this
unique cell population during growth and regeneration. Several satellite cell markers have been identified
and are restricted to either the quiescent, activated, or
proliferative state or are expressed more broadly (Table 1).
We have previously determined that myocyte nuclear factor (MNF or Foxk1), a member of the winged
helix transcription factor family, is localized to the
quiescent satellite cell in adult skeletal muscle (64).
We have identified two alternatively spliced isoforms
for MNF and termed them MNF- and MNF- (64,
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MNF
Pax7
c-Met
M-cadherin
NCAM
VCAM-1
Desmin
myf5
MyoD
BrdU
PCNA
[3H]thymidine
Reference
64
169
33
33
39
89
15
33
33, 124
163
90
128
growth deficit, a marked impairment in muscle regeneration (63), and a decreased number of satellite cells
in adult MNF mutant skeletal muscle (Hawke and
Garry, unpublished observations). Additional winged
helix family members have also been identified in stem
cells or regenerating cells including Genesis (Foxd3;
Ref. 83), which is expressed selectively in embryonic
stem cells, and a protein related to hepatocyte nuclear
factor-3 (HNF3/forkhead homolog 11), which has been
identified in regenerating hepatocytes (206).
Utilizing single cell RT-PCR analysis, Cornelison
and Wold (33) characterized the satellite cells as a
heterogeneous population based on their profile of
gene expression. Additionally, they identified c-Met,
the receptor for hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), as a
marker of quiescent satellite cells. HGF is a potent
mitogen for satellite cells and has been shown to be
important in the migration of the myogenic precursor cells from the somite to the developing limb (5,
14). Moreover, c-Met deficient embryos fail to form
limb skeletal muscle due to a lack of myogenic precursor cells (14, 112).
Irintchev and colleagues (87) identified M-cadherin,
a calcium-dependent cell adhesion molecule, as a
unique marker of the satellite cell pool. M-cadherin is
only expressed in a subpopulation of the quiescent cell
pool; however, its expression is increased when the
satellite cells become activated in response to a stimulus (9, 33). Recent studies suggest that other cell
adhesion molecules, neural cell adhesion molecule
(NCAM) and vascular adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1),
are also potential markers of quiescent satellite cells
(39, 89). The role of these adhesion molecules is unclear
but collectively (NCAM, VCAM-1, and M-cadherin)
may function in the adhesion of the satellite cell to the
basal lamina of the myofiber and may participate in
the migratory capacity of this cell population in response to stimuli. NCAM is expressed in both myofibers and satellite cells, whereas VCAM-1 is broadly
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expressed during embryogenesis but limited to satellite cells in adult muscle (39). Furthermore, VCAM-1
has been shown to mediate satellite cell interaction
with leukocytes following injury (89).
Recent work from the Rudnicki laboratory (169)
identified the paired box transcription factor, Pax7,
expressed selectively in quiescent and proliferating
satellite cells. Analysis of the Pax7 mutant skeletal
muscle revealed a complete absence of satellite cells.
This novel finding supports the hypothesis that Pax7 is
essential for the specification of the satellite cell population. Future studies will be important in the definition of Pax7 downstream target genes in the satellite
cell population and may provide insight into the regulation of this cellular pool.
Identification of other satellite cell markers is the
focus of current research efforts. Emerging candidates
include the cell surface antigen Sca-1 (stem cell antigen-1; Refs. 88, 177), the glycoprotein Leu-19 (94, 162),
the anti-apoptotic factor Bcl-2 (106, 123), CD34 (9), and
interferon regulatory factor-2, which is a transcription
factor that mediates VCAM-1 expression in skeletal
muscle (89).
SATELLITE CELL QUANTITATION AND DISTRIBUTION
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Rat
Mouse
Mouse
Quail
Muscle
TA
Soleus
Diaphragm
LD
Soleus
Soleus
Soleus
EDL
EDL
EDL
EDL
EDL
EDL
Levator ani
Levator ani
Soleus
Soleus
Gastroc
Gastroc
LD
LD
Human
Human
Human
Pig
Lizard
Trapezius
Trapezius
Biceps brachii
Biceps brachii
Sartorius
PL
Tail
Tail
%SC
79 wk
79 wk
79 wk
adult
1 mo
1 yr
2 yr
1 mo
1 yr
2 yr
4 mo
Hypothyroid
Hypothyroid; chronic stimulation
4 mo
32 mo
8 mo
30 mo
710 days
Pax 7/
6 wk
Stretched
Control patients
DMD patients
Control (38 yr)
Resistance trained
30 mo
Werdnig-Hoffman infants
64 wk
64 wk
Lygosoma species
Anolis species
4
11
8
4.5
9.6
6.6
4.7
7.0
2.9
1.9
3.8
3.8
7.913.8
1.9
1.2
4.6
2.4
25
0
15.6
16.7
15
25
3.7
5.4
8.4
14.4
1.1
4.3
7.5
4.8
SC#/muscle
5.2 105
7.3 105
5.4 105
3.1 105
2.1 105
1.3 105
Reference
161
161
161
2
66
66
66
66
66
66
146
146
146
135
135
176
176
169
169
198
198
190
190
94
94
158
158
21
21
95
95
Satellite cell (SC) content in various species under varying physiological and pathological conditions. TA, tibialis anterior; LD, latissimus
dorsi; Gastroc, gastrocnemius; EDL, extensor digitorum longus; PL, peroneus longus; DMD, Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
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Growth Factor
Chemotactic
Ability
Proliferation Differentiation Reference
1
1
1
FGF
NE
1
1
HGF
IGF-I
The process of muscle regeneration requires the influence of growth factors and a sequence of cellular
events, which results in the regulation of the satellite
cell population (Table 3, Fig. 3; Refs. 73, 168). Many of
the studies that have examined the effect of growth
factors on satellite cell biology have utilized satellite
cell cultures. These studies have defined the effect of
growth factors alone or in combination and have provided valuable insight into the regulation of the satellite cell. Admittedly, in vitro studies are limited due to
the lack of permissive and repressive factors that are
present in vivo and may influence cellular activity.
Currently, most satellite cell cultures are derived from
neonatal skeletal muscle due to the abundance of satellite cells in these tissues compared with older animals (30% in young animals vs. 5% in older animals; Ref. 143). The population and age of the satellite
cell is an important consideration in cell culture preparations as the response of aged, quiescent satellite
cells to growth factor stimulation differs compared
with young, proliferating satellite cells (182). This section will provide a brief introduction of growth factors
that are important in the regulation of satellite cell
proliferation, differentiation, and motility (for review,
see Table 3).
Insulin-like growth factors. Skeletal muscle secretes
insulin-like growth factors I and II (IGF-I and IGF-II),
which are known to be important in the regulation of
insulin metabolism (3, 109, 186). In addition, these
growth factors are important in the regulation of skeletal muscle regeneration. IGF-I and IGF-II increase
satellite cell proliferation and differentiation in vitro
(Table 3). The importance of these growth factors was
demonstrated with the intramuscular administration
of IGF-I into older, injured animals. In this study,
IGF-I administration (using an osmotic minipump) resulted in enhanced satellite cell proliferation and increased muscle mass (26). Moreover, skeletal muscle
overload or eccentric exercise results in elevated IGF-I
levels, increased DNA content (suggesting an increase
in satellite cell proliferation), and a compensatory hypertrophy of skeletal muscle (1, 202).
IGF-I appears to utilize multiple signaling pathways
in the regulation of the satellite cell pool. The calcineurin/NFAT, mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, and phosphatidylinositol-3-OH kinase (PI-3K)
pathways have all been implicated in satellite cell
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IGF-II
TGF-
1
1
Macrophages
NE
Crushed muscle/
plateletderived
extract
LIF
IL-6
PDGFAA/AB
PDGFBB
EGF
1
1
NE
1
NE
NE
2
1
1
1
1
79
3
54
13
152
13
4
124
182
79
3
54
26(t)
79
54
79
152
3
13
208
152
121
13
86(t)
79
1
1
NE
1
NE
NE
1
13
7
152
7
152
54
152
13
13
*54
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1*
2
1
1
2
2
A number of factors affect satellite cell proliferation, differentiation, and chemotaxis. All studies were performed using cell culture
techniques except those denoted with a (t), which were performed
using skeletal muscle tissue. NE, no effect. FBF, HGF, IGF, TGF,
PDGF, and EGF, fibroblast, hepatocyte, insulin-like, transforming,
platelet-derived, and endothelial growth factor, respectively. LIF,
leukemia-inhibitory factor. * Stimulation of satellite cell proliferation in the presence of serum but no effect in serum-free medium. 1
and 2, Increase or decrease in effect, respectively.
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A number of gene knockout mouse models and experimental methods are available for studies of muscle
regeneration and satellite cell biology. Although the
mdx mouse, which lacks dystrophin, has provided important insights into the pathophysiology of DMD, the
myopathy in these animals does not represent the
myopathic process of DMD in humans (75). The mdx
mice have a normal life span, a temporally restricted
myofiber degeneration, and adapt to muscle degeneration with an expansion of the satellite cell pool and
muscle hypertrophy, thereby avoiding the compro-
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to study satellite cell biology. Perhaps the most extensive and reproducible muscle injury is the delivery of
cardiotoxin (purified from the venom of the Naja nigricollis snake) into the hindlimb skeletal muscle of the
mouse (53, 63, 134). The intramuscular injection of 100
l of 10 M cardiotoxin into the gastrocnemius muscle
results in 8090% muscle degeneration (Fig. 5). After
cardiotoxin-induced injury, satellite cells become activated within 6 h of injury (Garry, unpublished observations). In response to locally released growth factors
from injured myotubes and macrophages, the satellite
cells proliferate extensively within 23 days of injury
(63, 64). Approximately 5 days after injury, the satellite cells withdraw from the cell cycle and either selfrenew or form differentiated myotubes that contain a
central nucleus (63, 64). With the use of this cardiotoxin-induced injury protocol, the architecture of the
injured muscle is largely restored within 10 days after
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Myogenic satellite cells have a tremendous proliferative capacity and are capable of self-renewal. These
tissue-specific progenitor cells or satellite cells are important in the maintenance and regeneration of skeletal muscle. Progenitor cells that are resident in other
adult tissues have stem cell characteristics, as they are
capable of self-renewal and multilineage differentiation along a specified molecular pathway (61, 194, 195).
For example, Clarke et al. (28) revealed that neural
stem cells isolated from the adult mouse brain had a
very broad developmental capacity and could contribute to virtually all tissues when delivered into the
developing embryo. These results suggest that adult
stem cells or progenitor cells are capable of dedetermination and/or transdifferentiation to adopt alternative
lineages in a permissive environment. Unlike the neural stem cell population, the potential of the satellite
cell pool in adult skeletal muscle remains incompletely
defined. Further definition of the gene expression profile of the satellite cell population and an enhanced
understanding of the molecular events responsible for
satellite cell development, activation, proliferation,
and self-renewal will define the stem cell characteristics of the satellite cell.
SIDE POPULATION CELLS
Recent studies have identified a population of pluripotent stem cells from adult skeletal muscle termed
side population (SP) cells. Skeletal muscle- and bone
marrow-derived SP cells are isolated using a DNAbinding dye (Hoechst 33342) and dual-wavelength flow
cytometric analysis (67, 68, 77). This method, which
relies on the differential ability of the SP cells to efflux
the Hoechst dye, defines a small and homogeneous
population of cells that can adopt alternative fates in
permissive environments (77, 88). For example, Gussoni et al. (77) demonstrated that SP cells isolated from
adult bone marrow were able to reconstitute the irradiated mdx mouse bone marrow, and later these cells
were recruited from the bone marrow to participate in
muscle repair. Furthermore, Jackson et al. (88) utilized
the same protocol to isolate muscle SP cells from adult
mice and observed that as few as 100 SP cells could
reconstitute the entire bone marrow of a lethally irradiated mouse. These results demonstrate that adult
skeletal muscle contains a stem cell population that
J Appl Physiol VOL
Since the initial description of the satellite cell approximately 40 years ago, a number of anatomic and
physiological studies have established the importance
of this cellular pool in the growth, remodeling, and
regeneration of adult skeletal muscle. The profile of
gene expression that regulates the cell cycle progression of the satellite cell from a quiescent to an activated
and proliferating state remains ill-defined. Despite its
complexity, future challenges for this field will include
the definition of the development, maintenance, selfrenewal, and potentiality of the satellite cell population. These challenges will require an integration of
each of the biological disciplines, including the use of
increasingly powerful molecular biological tools.
The authors recognize the research efforts of those included and
those omitted (due only to space considerations) who have contributed to this field of study. Special thanks to Drs. M. I. Lindinger, P.
Mammen, and R. S. Williams for critical review of this manuscript.
The authors work is supported by grants from the Muscular
Dystrophy Association, March of Dimes, Doris Duke Charitable
Foundation, Texas Advanced Research (Technology) Program, and
the Donald W. Reynolds Foundation.
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