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POISONS

INTRODUCTION
o Poisons have played an important part in crimes, from early times, as a
silent weapon of destroying life secretly and mysteriously. Many deaths
occur as a result of poisoning. The police are called upon to investigate
whether it is a case of suspected poisoning, to establish whether it is a
case of accidental, suicidal or homicidal poisoning.
o The investigation of cases of poisoning is one of the most difficult tasks
confronting the police, because the symptoms of different kinds of
poisoning may simulate those of various diseases. The investigation is
further complicated by the easy availability of variety of poisons ,the small
amount of poison available for examination and the difficulty in their
extraction and identification.
TERMINOLOGIES
POISON-It is a substance ,which when taken into the mouth or stomach or
when absorbed into the blood ,is capable of seriously affecting the health,
or destroying life by its action on the tissues, with which it immediately or
after absorption comes into contact.
TOXICOLOGY-It is a science of poisons .It deals with the nature,origin,
properties ,mode of administration ,physiological action, the signs and
symptoms, extraction and identification of poisons.
TOXICOLOGIST-He detects and identifies foreign chemicals in the body,
with a particular emphasis upon toxic or hazardous substances.
DESCRIPTIVE TOXICOLOGIST-He performs toxicity tests to evaluate the
risk that exposure poses to humans.
MECHANISTIC TOXICOLOGIST-He attempts to determine how substances
exert deleterious effects on living organisms.
REGULATORY TOXICOLOGIST-He judges whether or not a substance has
low enough risk to justify making it available to the public .
TOXIN-It is any material exerting a life threatening effect upon a living
organism. Poisons are a subgroup of toxins. Toxic materials exist in many

forms (gaseous, liquid, solid, animal, mineral, and vegetable), and may be
ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. Toxins work in minute
quantities or low levels, requiring sensitive analytical instruments for
detection. Some toxins have medicinal value, but many produce irreparable
damage. Some toxins have antidotes and others do not.
ACUTE POISONING-It is exposure to a poison on one occasion or during a
short period of time. Symptoms develop in close relation to the exposure. It
can be caused by less dangerous substances than those receiving the
legal classification of "poison".
CHRONIC POISONING-It is long-term repeated or continuous exposure
to a poison where symptoms do not occur immediately or after each
exposure. The patient gradually becomes ill, or becomes ill after a long
latent period. Chronic poisoning most commonly occurs following
exposure to poisons that bio-accumulate, or are biomagnified, such
as mercury and lead.
LETHAL DOSE-The amount of a toxic agent necessary to cause death is
known as lethal dose.
ACTION OF POISON ON THE BODY
POISON TAKEN ORALLY-When a poison is taken by mouth,it first
goes to the stomach , wher hydrochloric acid and some enzymes
present in the stomach acts on it. As an intermediate reaction,
vomiting and frothing may throw out the poison, and the remaining
goes to the small intestine where the substance becomes
assimilable. From there it enters into the blood circulation. It then
goes to liver where it tries to detoxify the poison. From the liver it is
sent to the kidney to be eliminated as urine in the metabolite form.
The stomach and intestine(small)form one group of organs, wherein
major part of the poison may be detected in its original form. The liver
and kidney form another group, wherein the poison, both in its
original and metabolite form, may be detected. The poison circulates
throughout the body by means of blood. The localization of poison in
tissues is not similar for all poisons.

POISON TAKEN INTRAVENOUSLY-Here poison goes into


circulation quickly.
POISON TAKEN INTRAMUSCULARLY OR SUBCUTANEOUSLY-It
goes into circulation slowly.
Poison may remain in the tissue at the site of injection for few hours.
Hence this tissue may be useful for detection of poison.
CLASSIFICATION OF POISONS
ON THE BASIS OF THEIR ACTION ON THE BODY:
1. CORROSIVES
STRONG ACIDS- eg, sulphuric acid ,nitric acid, hydrochloric acid
STRONG ALKALIES- eg, sodium-,potassium- and ammonium
hydroxides
2. IRRITANTS
INORGANIC
o Non-metallic-eg, phosphorus, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.
o Metallic-eg, arsenic, antimony, mercury, copper, lead, zinc
ORGANIC
o Vegetable-eg, castor, madar, croton oil, aloes, etc.
o Animal-eg, snake venom, cantharides, insect bites.
MECHANICAL-eg, glass powde ,diamond dust.
3. NEUROTICS
CEREBRAL
o Narcotic-eg, opium and its alkaloids
o Inebriant(intoxicant) eg ,alcohol, ether, chloroform, barbiturate
chloral hydrate ,organo-phosphorus
o Deliriant- eg, dhatura ,cannabis ,cocaine belladonna, etc,
SPINAL
o Excitant-eg,nux vomica,etc
o Depressant-eg, gelsemium
CARDIO-RESPIRATORY
o Cardiac-eg, aconite, HCN, oleander, etc
o Asphyxiants-eg,CO,CO2,H2S

ON THE BASIS OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF


POISON:
INORGANIC POISONS
METALLIC
o Arsenic-arsenic compounds are marketed as insecticides in the
form of arsenic trioxide or metallic arsenates. sometimes arsenic
compounds are administered as medicine, in small doses.
o Mercury-mercury ,mercuric chloride and many organo mercury
compounds are highly poisonous. They are used in chemical
industry and as fungicides. Of all the salts of mercury. the chlorides
and the nitrates are commony used in poisoning.
o Lead-Most of the lead compounds are poisonous and toxic in
nature. This poison is cumulative in nature, and if given in small
doses it acts slowly. Chronic lead poisoning from accidental and
industrial causes is more common. The automobile exhaust
contains an organic lead compound called tetraethyl lead.sindur
used by indian ladies is also sometimes adulterated with red oxide
of lead.
o Copper-Copper salts used in electroplating, chemical industry and
as weedicides are toxic when the doses are high.
o Thallium-Thallium salts, which are used as rat poison might be
encountered in cases of accidental poisoning in human beings.
o Antimony-It is uses for homicidal purposes.
o Radio isotopes- Those which are used for research purposes have
injurious effect on human life.
NON-METALLIC
o Cyanides- KCN and NaCN are highly poisonous even in small
quantities. The toxicity of cyanides is largely dependent on the
release of HCN in the stomach, when they react with the acid of
the gastric juice. HCN is one of the most deadly poisons known.
HCN is one of the most deadly poisons known. t paralyses the
respiratory enzymes and destroys oxyhaemoglobin. A small
quantity can result in death due to respiratoy failure.
o Yellow phosphorus-highly poisonous.

o Iodine-tincture iodine is sometimes found to be the cause of death,


either accidentally or intentionally. only elemental iodine is
poisonous. iodine is not poisonous in small quantities.
o Strong acids and alkalies-The action of sulphuric acid, HCl, nitric
acid, NaOH, KOH, ammonium hydroxide in causing death is based
on their corrosive action on skin and mucous membrane. They are
seldom used for suicide or homicide in other countries.
HOWEVER,IN INDIA SOME CASES ARE BEING REPORTED.
o Gases-CO, hydrogen sulphide, arsine, phosgene gases become
the cause of death or cause severe injury.CO is one of the major
causes of death by gas poisoning in many suicidal, some
homicidal, and accidental cases. This gas is found in automobile
exhaust gases, LPG and in fumes of heating appliances.CO also
destroys oxyhaemoglobin as a result of which death occurs by
respiratory failure. Highly dangerous gas MIC(METHYL ISO
CYNATE) has been responsible to take the toll of more than 2000
lives and invalidating several others, in a gas leak tragedy, which
took place in Bhopal in the year 1984.
ORGANIC POISONS
VOLATILE SUBSTANCES
o Ethyl alcohol-It is essentially a stimulant and an intoxicant. It is
responsible for causing more deaths than any other single poison.
o Other alcohols-methyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol and amyl alcohol
that are used in chemical industry are also poisonous. In india
death due to methanol poisoning is very common. French polish,
Methylated spirit, and Illicit liquors contain methanol in
appreciable quantities. METHANOL POISONING CAUSES
PARALYSIS,BLINDNESS AND DEATH.
o Phenol-phenol or carbolic acid is used as a disinfectant and also in
chemical industries. Most of the disinfectants contain this
substance or related substances. Due to the easy availability of
disinfectants it may be encountered in accidental or deliberate
poisoning cases. It is rarely used for suicidal purposes.
o Miscellaneous substances-a variety of organic chemicals are used
in various industries out of which many are toxic. They may cause

death if inhaled or swallowed. Common examples are chlorinated


hydrocarbons, benzene, chloral hydrate and many others. Chloral
hydrates is commonly met in poisoning cases as it is mixed
indiscriminately in illicit liquors.
NON VOLATILE MATERIAL
o Alkaloids-These are substances chiefly derived from plant
materials. Many of the narcotics and vegetable poisons contain
alkaloids. Common egs, are morphine, cocaine, etc. The poisoning
due to the vegetable alkaloids in india was very common, as the
poisonous plants grow in the countryside.
o Barbiturates-These are sleep inducing synthetic drugs commonly
encountered in suicide cases.
o Glycosides-These are also of vegetable origin. They bring about
death by cardiac arrest. egs are, digitalis, oleander, aconite.
o Insecticides and pesticides-they are being abused for homicidal
and suicidal purposes. Sometimes accidental poisoning also takes
place because of negligence.
ABORTIFACIENTS
o Abortifacients are the drugs used for criminal abortions.
o Most of the drugs are required to be given in toxic doses, which at
times result in death of the mother.
o The commonly used abortifacients in INDIA are:
Ecbolics-drugs causing contraction of uterus and thereby
causing expulsion of its contents. eg, quinine, etc
Irritants-Metallic irritants(eg, salts of arsenic, mercury, lead, etc)
and vegetable irritants(eg, juice of madar, etc)
Drastic purgative- eg, castor oil, etc.
Emetics-eg, tartar emetic.
SOME OTHER POISONS
Algicide - a substance used for killing and preventing the growth
of algae
Avicide - any substance which can be used to kill birds

Biocide - a chemical substance capable of killing living organisms,


usually in a selective way
Fungicide - a chemical compound or biological organism used to kill or
inhibit fungi or fungal spores
Microbicide - any compound or substance whose purpose is to reduce
the infectivity of microbes
Germicide - a disinfectant
Bactericide - a substance that kills bacteria
Viricide - a chemical agent which "kills" viruses outside the body
Herbicide - a substance used to kill unwanted plants
Parasiticide - any substance used to kill parasites
Pesticide - a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest
Acaricide - pesticides that kill mites
Insecticide - a pesticide used against insects
Molluscicide - pesticides against molluscs
Nematocide - a type of chemical pesticide used to
kill parasitic nematodes (roundworms)
Rodenticide - a category of pest control chemicals intended to
kill rodents
Spermicide - a substance that kills sperm
EFFECTS OF POISONS
Contact or absorption of poisons can cause rapid death or impairment.
Agents that act on the nervous system can paralyze in seconds or less,
and include both biologically derived neurotoxins and so-called nerve
gases, which may be synthesized for warfare or industry.
Inhaled or ingested cyanide, used as a method of execution in gas
chambers, almost instantly starves the body of energy
by inhibiting the enzymes in mitochondria that make ATP.
Intravenous injection of an unnaturally high concentration of potassium
chloride, such as in the execution of prisoners in parts of the United
States, quickly stops the heart by eliminating the cell
potential necessary for muscle contraction.

Most biocides, including pesticides, are created to act as poisons to


target organisms, although acute or less observable chronic poisoning
can also occur in non-target organism, including the humans who apply
the biocides and other beneficial organisms. For example, the
herbicide 2,4-D imitates the action of a plant hormone, to the effect that
the lethal toxicity is specific to plants. Indeed, 2,4-D is not a poison, but
classified as "harmful" (EU).
Many substances regarded as poisons are toxic only indirectly,
by toxication. An example is "wood alcohol" or methanol, which is not
poisonous itself, but is chemically converted to toxic formaldehyde and
formic acid in the liver. Many drug molecules are made toxic in the liver,
and the genetic variability of certain liver enzymes makes the toxicity of
many compounds differ between individuals.
Here's a list of some of the common poisons and their symptoms:
Acids (nitric, hydrochloric,
sulphuric)

Burns around mouth, lips, nose

Aniline (hypnotics,
nitrobenzene)

Skin of face and neck quite


dark

Arsenic (metals, mercury,


copper, etc.)

Severe, unexplained diarrhea

Atropine (Belladonna),
Scopolamine

Pupil of eye dilated

Bases (lye, potash, hydroxides)

Burns around mouth, lips, nose

Carbolic acid (or other phenol) Odor of disinfectant


Carbon monoxide

Skin is bright cherry red

Cyanide

Quick death, red skin, odor of


peach

Food poisoning

Vomiting, abdominal pain

Metallic compounds

Diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal


pain

Nicotine

Convulsion

Opiates

Pupil of eye contracted

Oxalic acid (phosphorous)

Odor of garlic

Sodium fluoride

Convulsion

Strychnine

Convulsion, dark face and neck

Toxic effects are the undesirable results of a direct effect. They occur in a
number of ways, most often produced by a dangerous metabolit .
Toxic reactions often depend on how metabolites are processed by an
individual's body, how proteins build up and bind at effector sites in the
body. Some metabolites destroy liver cells, others brain tissue, and still
others operate at the DNA level.
Toxic reactions are classified as one of three (3) reactions:
pharmacological -- injury to the central nervous system (CNS)
pathological -- injury to the liver
genotoxic -- creation of benign or malignant neoplasms or tumors
If the concentration of toxin doesn't reach a critical level, the effects will
usually be reversible.
Pharmacological reactions, for example, are of this type. In order to sustain
permanent brain damage, dosages must be above a standard critical level.
Pathological reactions can be repaired if discovered early enough, but most
liver damage occurs over a period of few months to a decade.
Genotoxic or carcinogenic effects may take 20-40 years before tumors
develop.
Most of the time, toxic metabolites are activated by enzymatic
transformation, but a few are activated by light.
o This means that exposure of the skin to sunlight produces a photoallergic
reaction or phototoxic reaction within 24 hours.

o It's important to understand that the target organ of toxicity is not the site
where toxin accumulates.
o Lead poisoning, for example, results in an accumulation of lead in bone
marrow, but the toxic effect is the creation of lesions on skin and soft
tissue.
o Carcinogenesis is even more complicated, involving the creation of
promotor electrophiles which serve to activate or potentiate the growth
of latent tumors given some biological trigger or subsequent
environmental attack.
o Different people, of course, have chemical allergies (as well as food
allergies), depending upon the serology of their allergen-antigen history.
In such people, toxic reactions take different forms.
o Other people have what are called idosyncratic reactions, which means
they have certain unique genetic triggers.
o Furthermore, people exposed to multiple toxins can have synergistic
reactions, which means that two or more toxins interact at the metabolic
level to be greater or less than the effects of the individual toxins.
ISOLATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF POISON The forensic laboratory adopts several methods to isolate, identify
and estimate poisons.
INORGANIC POISONS from tissues,stomach contents,and other
material are isolated by number of methods.
VOLATILE ORGANIC POISONS are first extracted by steam
distillation and later identified by chemical tests or by gas
chromatograph
NON VOLATILE ORGANIC POISONS are first extacted by suitable
solvents and later identified by the thin layer chromatography or gas
chromatography.
Most modern methods like like high performance liquid
chromatography, gas chromatography coupled with mass
spectroscopy(GC-MS) are in use.

More sophisticated techniques of Radio-immunoassay(RIA),enzyme


linked immunosorbent assay are employed for quick and reliable
assay of drugs and other toxic substances in blood,urine, saliva,etc.
METHODS OF DECONTAMINATING AND EXCRETION OF POISONS
FROM THE BODY AND THEIR ANTIDOTES
Initial management

Initial management for all poisonings includes ensuring


adequate cardiopulmonary function and providing treatment for any
symptoms such as seizures, shock, and pain.

Poisons that have been injected (e.g. from the sting of poisonous
animals) can be treated by binding the affected body part with a pressure
bandage and by placing the affected body part in hot water (with a
temperature of 50C). The pressure bandage makes sure the poison is not
pumped troughout the body and the hot water breaks down the poison.
This treatment however only works with poisons that are composed of
protein-molecules
Decontamination

Treatment of a recently ingested poison may involve gastric


decontamination to decreased absorption. Gastric decontamination can
involve activated charcoal, gastric lavage, whole bowel irrigation,
ornasogastric aspiration. Routine use of emetics (syrup of
Ipecac), cathartics or laxatives are no longer recommended.

Activated charcoal is the treatment of choice to prevent poison


absorption. It is usually administered when the patient is in the emergency
room or by a trained emergency healthcare provider such as a Paramedic
or EMT. However, charcoal is ineffective against metals such
as sodium, potassium, and lithium, and alcohols and glycols; it is also not
recommended for ingestion of corrosive chemicals such
asacids and alkalis.


Whole bowel irrigation cleanses the bowel, this is achieved by giving
the patient large amounts of a polyethylene glycol solution. The
osmotically balanced polyethylene glycol solution is not absorbed into the
body, having the effect of flushing out the entire gastrointestinal tract. Its
major uses are following ingestion of sustained release drugs, toxins that
are not absorbed by activated charcoal (i.e. lithium, iron), and for the
removal of ingested packets of drugs (body packing/smuggling).

Gastric lavage, commonly known as a stomach pump, is the


insertion of a tube into the stomach, followed by administration of water or
saline down the tube. The liquid is then removed along with the contents
of the stomach. Lavage has been used for many years as a common
treatment for poisoned patients. However, a recent review of the
procedure in poisonings suggests no benefit.
It is still sometimes used if it can be performed within 1 hour of ingestion
and the exposure is potentially life threatening.

Nasogastric aspiration involves the placement of a tube via the nose


down into the stomach, the stomach contents are then removed via
suction. This procedure is mainly used for liquid ingestions where
activated charcoal is ineffective, e.g. ethylene glycol poisoning.

Emesis (i.e. induced by ipecac) is no longer recommended in


poisoning situations, because vomiting is ineffective at removing poisons.

Cathartics were postulated to decrease absorption by increasing the


expulsion of the poison from the gastrointestinal tract. There are two types
of cathartics used in poisoned patients; saline cathartics
(sodiumsulfate, magnesium citrate, magnesium sulfate) and saccharide
cathartics (sorbitol). They do not appear to improve patient outcome and
are no longer recommended.
Antidotes
Poison/Drug

Antidote

paracetamol (acetaminop N-acetylcysteine


hen)
vitamin K
anticoagulants, e.g.
warfarin

vitamin K

opioids

naloxone

Iron (and other heavy


metals)

desferrioxamine, Deferasirox orDefe


riprone

benzodiazepines

flumazenil

ethylene glycol

ethanol or fomepizole, and thiamine

methanol

ethanol or fomepizole, and folinic


acid

Cyanide

amyl nitrite/sodium nitrite/sodium


thiosulfate or hydroxocobalamin

Organophosphates

Atropine and Pralidoxime

Magnesium

Calcium Gluconate

Calcium Channel
Blockers
(Verapamil,Diltiazem)

Calcium Gluconate

Beta-Blockers
(Propranolol, Sotalol)

Calcium Gluconate and/or Glucagon

Isoniazid

Pyridoxine

Atropine

Physostigmine

Thallium

Prussian blue

Hydrofluoric acid

Calcium Gluconate

Anticholinergics

Cholinergics (and vice-versa)

Enhanced excretion

In some situations elimination of the poison can be enhanced


using diuresis, hemodialysis, hemoperfusion, hyperbaric
medicine, peritoneal dialysis, exchange transfusion or chelation. However,
this may actually worsen the poisoning in some cases, so it should always
be verified based on what substances are involved.
Further treatment
In the majority of poisonings the mainstay of management is providing
supportive care for the patient, i.e. treating the symptoms rather than the
poison
SOME STANDARD LABORATORY TESTS FOR TOXIN DETECTION
SCREENING TESTS

Physical tests -- boiling point, melting point, density, and refractive index
Crystal tests -- treatment with a chemical reagent to produce crystals
Chemical spot tests -- treatment with a chemical reagent to produce color
changes
Chromatography (thin-layer or gas) -- used to separate components of a
mixture
CONFIRMATION TESTS
Mass spectrometry -- this is a combination of gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry which is generally accepted as the confirmation test of choice. Each
toxin has a known mass spectra, or "fingerprint", which is infallible proof of its
presence at the chemical level
Drug overdoses and alcoholic poisonings will provide most of the work for
toxicologists, hence a couple of allied subfields may be drawn upon: (1) a field
inhabited by what are called Drug Recognition Experts (DRE); and (2) alcohol
intoxication measurement (a subject talked about in a previous lecture). Both are
sought-after areas of police training. Another related subfield involves carbon
monoxide poisoning, which may involve an automobile engineer or fire safety
specialist.
The Drug Recognition Expertise evolved out of experiments in California with
the LAPD during the 1970s in which police officers were trained to identify and
recognize certain types of drugs based upon the impairments and physiological
symptoms. The examination that such specially trained police officers conduct
goes beyond normal Nystagmus testing and more closely resembles the taking of
vital signs by a nurse or paramedic, combined with structured interviewing and
observation. DRE's opinions are limited by law to identification of a class or

family of drugs, not to a specific drug. Standardized checklists and computer


programs exist to make this a growing area of modern drug testing.
DRUG TESTING
o The traditional field testing methods run the gambit of color to crystalline
tests, and consist of a variety of names, the controversial Nalline test being
the most well-known, which presumably indicates recent use of narcotics.
o Here's a list of some common drugs and specific tests for them:
Opium

Marquis test (formaldehyde/sulfuric acid)

Marijuana

Duquenois-Levine test (vanilla/hydrochloric


acid/chloroform)

LSD

Van Urk test (pdimethylaminobenoldesone/hydrochloric acid)

Cocaine

Scott test (cobalt thiocyanate/hydrochloric


acid/chloroform)

Barbiturates

Dillie-Koppanyi test (cobalt


acetate/isoprophylamine)

Opium is a true narcotic, providing an euphoric escape from reality.


o It is derived from the milky secretions of the poppy bulb before
flowering. In raw form, it turns dark brown and stays moist.
o The most common type of opiates are:
Morphine -- a natural alkaloid that makes up 10% of poppy juice
Paregoric -- morphine mixed with an alcohol solution
Codeine -- alcoholized poppy juice crystals
Heroin -- poppy juice treated with hydrochloric acid; 3x more powerful than

morphine
Demerol and Methadone -- synthetic opium-like substances made in
laboratories
Marijuana is technically a hallucinogen but has been thrown in with
narcotics since Reyna v. State 1968.
o It tends to make a person lethargic rather than euphoric (an effect
like alcohol but without the aggression).
o It's active ingredient is THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) which is
contained mostly in the flower tops and to a lesser extent in stems and
seeds.
o One particular species, Cannabis Sativa, as opposed to other species,
e.g. Cannabis Indica, Cannabis Ruderalis, tends to contain more
THC (Delta-9-THC) as the main cannabinoid, than the other species,
if "species" is the right word since Small & Cronquist's (1976) study
found only one single species with two subspecies (Sativa & Indica),
each divisible into a cultivated and wild variety.
o Cannibis Indica has a significant amount of THC as well, along with
several other cannabinoids.
o The THC content is heavily affected by the sex of the plant, with
female plants generating substantially more resin than their male
conterparts.
o Toward this end, during plant growth, males are generally removed
before pollination occurs.
o The average marijuana cigarette contains only 1% THC while
hashish (made from ground flower tops) is 10% THC.
o Other hallucinogens include:
Peyote -- green, mushroom-like buttons on cactus plants
Psilocybin -- naturally-growing mushrooms

Mescaline -- the active ingredient in peyote, synthetically produced


LSD -- 400 times stronger than mescaline
PCP -- animal tranquilizer
Nutmeg and Jimson Weed -- other naturally-growing plants
Cocaine is technically a stimulant, but has been thrown in with narcotics
since too many cases to remember.
o It's a natural alkaloid found in coca leaves (C17 H22 CLNO4).
o For making what is called freebase or crack, it's melting point needs
to be lowered, and this is done by releasing the hydrochloride in it
(HCL) through mixing it with a sodium substance like baking soda,
adding water, letting it cook slowly, and then letting it cool off.
o The crystal residue or pellets are called "crack" which is a widely
abused drug.
o Other stimulants range from the least powerful (benzedrine and
dexedrine) to the most powerful (methamphetamine).
Barbiturates are known by the color of their tablets: Nembutal (yellow
jackets); Seconal (reds); Tuinal (Christmas trees); and Amytal (blues).
o Steroids are another group or family of drugs, and the anabolic ones
(that promote muscle growth) exist in about 80 different varieties.
o So-called designer or "rave" drugs are hallucinogens, mostly, which
have been chemically altered in some way to as not to be placed on the
controlled substances list.
o However, under emergency measures, the DEA can put anything on
the list they want.
o Such drugs are: MDMA, XTC, Ice, and Nexus.

o Here's the controlled substances list and some sample penalties for
trafficking:
Schedule I
(no medical use)

Heroin, Opium,
Mescaline, Psilocybin,
LSD, Marijuana,
Hashish

15 years/$125,000
5 years/$50,000
(marijuana)

Schedule II
(some medical use)

Methadone, Morphine,
Cocaine,
Amphetamines,
Methamphetamine,
PCP

15 years/$125,000

Schedule III
(moderate dependence)

Codeine, Steroids

5 years/$50,000

Schedule IV
(limited dependence)

Barbituates, Lithium,
Valium

3 years/$25,000

Schedule V

Cough Syrups

1 year/$10,000

o Quite a few interesting defenses exist to a drug charge. With marijuana, for
example, one could raise the "species defense" and then the plant would
have to be proved to be Cannibus Sativa.
o With steroids, one could raise the "roid rage" defense, that their behavior
was out of control.
o A basic defense is that the person was not trying to feel good, but feel
better, a "medical necessity" defense.
o It's unconstitutional to make the status of being an addict a crime in itself
(Robinson v. California 1962).
o Drug charges can also be challenged on scientific grounds, as follows:
Sampling method -- is the fraction tested representative?
Usable vs. Measurable Quantity Rule -- sometimes just a trace is found (as on
pipe or bong scrapes) and case law varies with some states requiring a
"usable quantity"

Pure vs. Aggregate Weight Rule -- pure is the uncut amount, but most states
follow an aggregate weight rule so, for example, 10 pounds might refer to the
blotter paper the LSD is on

Case reports
Two of these cases involved poison. In Essex, James Emery
had given his pregnant lover twelve poisonous pills, hoping to
cause a miscarriage. Evidence that her death was due to
arsenic was given by Mr Tomkin, a surgeon, and Mr Baker, an
operative chymist.9 In Yorkshire, the court accepted that Ann
Barber's husband James had also died from arsenic poisoning,
a fact to which the surgeon and apothecary John Hindle
testified. He was firm in his conclusions, but was forced to admit
that although he had made certain tests for arsenic, it was the
first time he had done so. According to the newspaper report, he
stated that Mr Postuett, a medical person was also present
when the autopsy and chemical tests were performed.10 The
two correspondents, almost certainly reflecting the progress of
the trials themselves, did not linger on the evidence of
poisoning, being far more concerned by the motives of the two
accused and the details of their private lives. If these reports
can be taken as accurate reflections of the issues that most
concerned the court, then it would appear that the medical and
scientific evidence of poisoning was not contentious. There was
no clash of opinion, legal or medical, or difficulty in convincing
the jurors that death was due to arsenic poisoning. Although
Ann Barber had a barrister, his cross-examination of Hindle was
based on a brief he received on the morning the trial began.
James Emery had no lawyer.
In one of the illicit liquor tragedies, about hundred people started
vomiting and became unconscious after drinking illicit liquor

,known as khopdi.Many lost their eyesight and some died


within a couple of days. Methyl alcohol was found in the vomits,
viscera and liquor samples.
A boy was found in an unconscious state near a railway yard.
He was removed to the hospital where he died. The viscera of
the boy was collected and sent to the laboratory for chemical
examination. The viscera showed the presence of dhatura
alkaloids. A sadhu who was seen offering the boy prasadam
was held. some PRASADAMWAS SEIZED FROM HIS
POSSESSION. The prasadam on examination showed the
presence of dhatura alkaloids. Based on the laboratory findings
the sadhu was prosecuted for murder of the body.
A woman aged 24 was admitted to a hospital with the history of
attempted suicide. Her stomach was washed and she was
progressing. She gave a statement later that she consumed
bed-bug poison because of unbearable stomach pain. After 2
days her condition took a violent turn. She gave dying
declaration that her husband with the help of 2 other persons
forcibly poured bed-bug poison into her mouth. The stomach
wash and viscera of the victim were analysed, and parathion
and malathion were detected in them. A small empty bed-bug
poison bottle was recovered from a brush nereby the house
where the lady lived. The examination of its contents revealed
presence of parathion and malathion which are insecticidal
poisons.A charge of conspiracy and murder was leveled against
herv husband and his friends.
A lady was found dead in her bead. Her nightgown and the
bedsheet bore brown strains probably from the tea.The
examination of thes stains showed presence of barbiturate.
Barbiturate and ethanol were also detected in the viscera and
the postmortem blood.

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