A Course in English Morpho-Syntax

Syllabi for the Lectures

Examples and Exercises

Ludmila Veselovsk and Joseph Emonds

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 1
1

PARTS OF SPEECH / WORD CATEGORIES ................................................................................... 3

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9

THE NATURE OF CATEGORIES .......................................................................................................... 3

SEMANTIC-NOTIONAL CRITERIA FOR ESTABLISHING A CATEGORY (OFTEN IMPRECISE) ................... 4
MORPHOLOGICAL CRITERIA FOR ESTABLISHING AN ITEM'S CATEGORY (VERY RELIABLE) ............... 4
Derivational Morphology ........................................................................................................... 4
Inflectional Morphology ............................................................................................................. 5
Grammaticalisation .................................................................................................................... 5
Types of Features ........................................................................................................................ 6
EXERCISES ........................................................................................................................................ 7
SYNTACTIC CRITERIA FOR ESTABLISHING A CATEGORY (RELIABLE BUT NOT ALWAYS EASY) .......... 8
HEADS AND PHRASES ....................................................................................................................... 8
CATEGORIAL PROTOTYPICALITY ...................................................................................................... 9
SOME NON-LEXICAL CATEGOIRES OR MINOR PARTS OF SPEECH ...................................................... 10
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 10

SEMANTICS AND MORPHOLOGY OF NOUNS..................................................................................... 14

1.10
CASE .............................................................................................................................................. 14
1.10.1 The Repertory and Realization of Morphological Case ............................................................ 14
1.10.2 The Source and Function of Case ............................................................................................. 15
1.11
COUNTABILITY AND NUMBER: COUNT VS. MASS ........................................................................... 17
1.11.1 Countability .............................................................................................................................. 17
1.11.2 Singular vs. Dual vs. Plural Number ........................................................................................ 18
1.12
DETERMINATION ............................................................................................................................ 19
1.12.1 Classification of Determiners w.r.t. Distribution ...................................................................... 19
1.12.2 Articles ...................................................................................................................................... 20
1.12.3 Types of Reference .................................................................................................................... 20
1.13
ANIMACY AND GENDER ................................................................................................................. 21
1.13.1 Animacy .................................................................................................................................... 21
1.13.2 The Gender Category ................................................................................................................ 22
1.14
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 24
2

SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NOUN ..................................................................... 29

2.1
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF NOUN PHRASES ..................................................................................... 29
2.1.1
N-premodifiers .......................................................................................................................... 29
2.1.2
N-postmodifiers ......................................................................................................................... 30
2.2
DISTRIBUTION AND FUNCTIONS OF NOUN PHRASES ....................................................................... 30
2.3
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 31

PRONOUNS .......................................................................................................................................... 36
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.4

PERSONAL PRONOUNS .................................................................................................................... 36

Interpretation of Personal Pronouns ........................................................................................ 36
Pronoun Function and Form .................................................................................................... 37
The Pro-N One .......................................................................................................................... 38
RELATIVE PRONOUNS ..................................................................................................................... 38
The form of the relative Pronouns ............................................................................................ 39
Omitting the relative Pronoun .................................................................................................. 39
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS ........................................................................................................... 40
The form of the interrogative Pronouns .................................................................................... 40
The position of the WH-Pronouns ............................................................................................. 40
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 42

ANAPHORS (REFLEXIVES AND RECIPROCALS) ...................................................................... 45

4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.3
4.4

REFERENCE .................................................................................................................................... 45
Co-reference (Antecedents and Indices) ................................................................................... 45
The linear position of an antecedent (above all with pragmatic anaphors) ............................. 46
THE FORM AND INTERPRETATION OF ENGLISH BOUND ANAPHORS ................................................ 46
Antecedents of anaphors ........................................................................................................... 46
Binding of Anaphors ................................................................................................................. 47
Reciprocals ............................................................................................................................... 47
THE DISTRIBUTION/ USE OF REFLEXIVE/ RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS ................................................ 48
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 48

MODIFIERS IN GENERAL................................................................................................................ 50
5.1
SEMANTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ADJECTIVES/ ADVERBS .............................................................. 50
5.2
ADJECTIVAL / ADVERBIAL MORPHOLOGY...................................................................................... 50
5.2.1
Derivational Morphology ......................................................................................................... 50
5.2.2
Inflectional Morphology ........................................................................................................... 51
5.3
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 51

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES................................................................................................................ 52
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.5
6.6
6.6.1
6.7

ADVERBS.............................................................................................................................................. 60
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

SEMANTIC SPECIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATIONS ......................................................................... 64

VERBAL PARADIGM (INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY ON VERBS) .................................................... 65
TENSE ............................................................................................................................................. 66
ASPECT ........................................................................................................................................... 66
COMBINATIONS OF ASPECT & TENSE ............................................................................................. 67
MOOD, SENTENCE MODALITY ........................................................................................................ 68
VOICE (ACTIVE OR PASSIVE) .......................................................................................................... 69
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT .......................................................................................................... 69
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 70

SYNTAX OF VERBS............................................................................................................................ 73
9.1
9.2
9.3

10

VERBAL, TEMPORAL, SENTENTIAL, AND GRADING ADVERBS .......................................................... 61

NEGATIVE, PARTIAL NEGATIVE, AND POSITIVE ADVERBS ............................................................... 61
ADVERBIALS AS COMPLEMENTS, ADJUNCTS, AND DISJUNCTS ....................................................... 62
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 62

SEMANTICS AND MORPHOLOGY OF VERBS ............................................................................ 64

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9

ADJECTIVE PHRASE INTERNAL STRUCTURE .................................................................................... 52

DISTRIBUTION/ FUNCTIONS OF ADJECTIVE PHRASES ...................................................................... 53
PREDICATE FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVES (I) ...................................................................................... 53
ADJECTIVE PRE-/POST-MODIFIERS OF A NOUN: FUNCTION (II) ....................................................... 54
Pre-modifying Adjectives .......................................................................................................... 54
Post-modifying Adjectives ......................................................................................................... 54
SUBJECT/OBJECT ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS (SECONDARY PREDICATES): FUNCTION (III) ............ 55
CENTRAL VS. PERIPHERAL ADJECTIVES ......................................................................................... 56
Secondary Adjectives ................................................................................................................ 56
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 57

VERB PHRASE ................................................................................................................................. 73

DISTRIBUTION AND FUNCTIONS OF VP ........................................................................................... 75
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 75

AUXILIARIES AND MODALS: CLASSIFICATION...................................................................... 76

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5

SEMANTIC SPECIFICATION .............................................................................................................. 76

TWO KINDS OF SEMANTIC MODALITY AMONG THE MODALS ......................................................... 76
PHONETIC REDUCTIONS OF AUXILIARIES, MODALS AND LEXICAL VERBS ...................................... 77
MORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES ....................................................................................................... 77
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 78

11

SYNTAX OF AUXILIARIES, MODALS AND VERBS .................................................................. 80

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5

12

THE ENGLISH VERBS DO, BE AND HAVE ............................................................................... 86

12.1
12.2
12.3

13

QUESTION FORMATION: MODAL/*VERB - SUBJECT - ... .................................................................. 80

SENTENCE NEGATION (POSITION OF NOT/ -N'T) ............................................................................... 81
QUESTION TAGS, SHORT ANSWERS, QUESTIONS OF SURPRISE ....................................................... 81
NEGATIVE QUESTIONS; TESTING THE PROPOSED VERBAL STRUCTURE ........................................... 82
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 83

SPECIFICITY OF BE ......................................................................................................................... 86
SPECIFICITY OF HAVE ...................................................................................................................... 87
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 89

APPENDIX TO SECTION 1 ON GRAMMATICALISTION ...................................................... 93

13.1.1
13.1.2

14

Grammaticalisation (repeats some material from section 1.3.3.) ............................................. 93

A detailed examople of grammaticalisation in English............................................................. 93

RELATED LITERATURE .................................................................................................................. 94

INTRODUCTION
Working with this text
This text has been written to assist students of English in their work in courses on
Morphology and Morpho-Syntax in the programme of English philology. It assumes a solid
knowledge of English grammar and of traditional grammar at the level assumed for the
grammar school courses of Czech language.
This text, however, is in no way intended to replace any textbook specified in a course
description, nor does the amount of material cover all of what students need to read for their
exams. Instead, it provides syllabi for the lectures with many schemata and examples
commented on and discussed in the course. Without careful attention to the general
prsentations in the lectures, some of them may be difficult to understand. The students are
strongly encouraged to make their own notes and remarks during the lectures and seminars;
enough space is given between the paragraphs and in the margins to make possible such
additions. Some students may still have problems with English terminology and with
structuring of their studythis text should also provide them with the main terms used. The
sections basically follow a pattern that can be used in preparing for English grammar exams,
though not all topics are covered to the same extent and some require more individual
reading.
Apart from syllabi, the following text also contains a number of exercises. The function
of the exercises is twofold. First, they introduce some new aspects or problems of the
proposed analyses not mentioned in detail during the lectures. Second, they allow students to
test their understanding of the topics under discussion. In some cases, however, there is no
generally agreed solution to a problem, and the exercise provides more data for discussion of
alternatives rather than being a simple minded test of knowledge.
The Topics and Background Philosophy
The course concentrates in detail on the characteristics of the main lexical categories
(and also the Pronouns) in English. Special attention is given to the forms and functions of
Nouns, Adjectives, Prepositions and Verbs, including Auxiliaries and Modals. In this part
many syntactic terms are introduced in as much as they are relevant for the categorial
characteristics. Because the assumed readers are Czechs and many of them intend to translate
or interpret in their future careers, English grammar is often compared with its Czech formal
and/or pragmatic equivalents. Some other languages are also occasionally mentioned, to
provide a more universal background for the topic under discussion.
The volume is divided into sections which can be covered in some 10-13 two-hour
classes (in the existing system in a semester). Each main part of a Chapter contains an
introductory Revision section testing the assumed preliminary knowledge and a final
Revision section which summarizes the basic topics covered in the course.
The text concentrates on topics which the authors find most important, most interesting
and sometimes neglected in other study materials. To complement these individual choices, at
the beginning of most sections there are some bibliographical references to the literature
which are recommended as study material for the course. The students are expected to go
through at least some of these materials. A student who does no serious supplementary
reading will almost certainly not do well in their final marks.
The authors of the following text believe that linguistics, above all its grammar, is an
autonomous science. In fact, the daily unconscious use of ones native grammar is
thought by leading researchers to underlie all human science and calculation. Therefore
the analyses here assume that human language is a system which can be studied applying

scientific methods with the result of acquiring some descriptively adequate and as
explanatory as possible generalized hypotheses. Empirical data and argumentation are thus
strongly preferred to the memorizing of any listed classifications, and no a priori analysis or
theory is taken for granted or as definitive. Nonetheless, the presentation and hypotheses
here, such as in the choices of categories, are based on traditional functional and structuralist
grammar (which the students have used during their pre-university education) only slightly
influenced by current theoretical proposals.
Recent functional and generative approaches typically present themselves as returning
to the empirical concerns of traditional grammar and at the moment provide a wide range of
plausible frameworks. The grammatical analyses introduced in this course assume the need
for empirical and scientific understanding of human language and although it concentrates on
formal grammar, it assumes interactions with other disciplines such as a theory of
communication, literary study, psychology, sociology, anthropology, etc. The authors hope
that discussing and trying to understand basic grammar in a more universal and open-minded
way turns out to be useful for all students of English language, who can then go on in their
studies in whichever field or framework suits their fancy.
Ludmila Veselovsk
Joseph Emonds

PARTS OF SPEECH / WORD CATEGORIES

Huddleston & Pullum (2002) pp. 22; Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 188-203
1.1

T he Natur e of C ategor ies

The label for a part of speech expresses a number of properties shared by specific groups
of words. Many specific structural relations can be derived from the categorial status of a
given word. Therefore from the beginning of the theoretical study of language in ancient
Greece, words were grouped into several categories according to various properties.
(1)

CRITERIA FOR ESTABLISHING PARTS OF SPEECH

1. SEMANTIC or notional -

based on the meaning of words and/or their

function in a larger group of words

2. MORPHOLOGICAL -

based on the internal word-structure;

each category has some typical morphology:
(a) derivational morpheme(s)
(b) inflectional morpheme(s)

3. SYNTACTIC -

(a) based on distribution in well-formed sentences

(b) co-occurrence restrictions (includes modification)

4. PHONETIC - complementary criteria mentioning e.g. a particular stress pattern or

some specific phoneme. E.g. in Classical Greek Nouns had variable stress, while Verbs
and Adjectives had a fixed rule for penult/final stress placement. In Igbo (Nigeria),
Verbs begin with consonants while Nouns typically begin with vowels.
In an ideal case all the criteria applied to one lexical item agree, but they need not. In this
situation some of the criteria are taken for more important, according to the kind of
grammatical theory used and specific characteristics of the studied language. The definitions
of word categories may therefore vary in different theoretical frameworks.
In traditional grammar the notional and morphological criteria prevailed over the
syntactic. In Czech traditional grammar , the following word categories are used: Nouns,
Adjectives, Pronouns, Numerals, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Particles
and Interjections, and for English the categories of Articles (more generally, Determiners)
and Modals could be added. The criteria for inflecting words (word categories) are mainly
morphological, while with non-inflecting word categories, syntactic and semantic criteria are
often used.
The notion of a word category is closely related to the notion of word and its
definition may differ in different languages as well.
MAJOR or OPEN CLASS or LEXICAL CATEGORIES:
N (Nouns...) A (Adjectives, certain classes of Adverbs...) V (Verbs...) P? (Prepositions taken
in a broad sense). Unlimited number of items; productive formations of new items
MINOR or CLOSED CLASS CATEGORIES: P? (some Prepositions), Pronouns,
Auxiliaries, Complementizers (Conjunctions), certain Adverbial Particles, QuantifiersNumerals etc. Limited number of items (a closed list) for each category.

The existence of the major lexical categories seems to be quite universal, but the importance
and roles of their members may differ substantially. Also the number and character of minor
lexical or non-lexical categories may differ across languages. The awareness of some
universal and some language-specific categorial features is also highly relevant when
language acquisition is taken into account.
1.2
(2)

Semantic-Notional C r iter ia for establishing a C ategor y (often impr ecise)

Prototypical correlations of syntactic categories

(see Croft 1991, p.55, 65, 79)

Semantic class

Noun
object

Adjective
property

Verb
action

Stativity
Persistence
Valency
Gradability
Pragmatic function

state
persistent
0, sometimes 1
nongradable
reference

state
persistent
1, sometimes 2
gradable
modification

process, activity
transitory
1 to 4
nongradable
predication

1.3

M or phological C r iter ia for establishing an item's C ategor y (ver y r eliable)

(a)
(b)

derivational affixes...................create a new word usually with of a different category

inflectional endings.................create a new form within a paradigm of the same word

1.3.1 Derivational Morphology

Derivational morphemes derive a new word, often in a different part of speech (category),
e.g. the Verb write + derivational morpheme -er = action Noun writer; write +
derivational morpheme -able = passive Adjective writable
The presence of the derivational morpheme (in the relevant position) is almost always a clear
and sufficient argument in favor of some category. However, not all words have
derivational morphemes and in languages where conversion and morpheme homonymy is
frequent (e.g. English) a derivational morpheme can mislead. For example, British English
fiver, based on a numeral, is a five pound note, and drug slang includes e.g. a downer.
(3)

(4)

The Righ-hand Head Rule - the head of a (complex) word in English, the element that
provides the category for the whole word, is the rightmost element.
=A
(a) nation-al
(b) nation-al-ise
= *A / V
= *A / *V / N
(c) nation-al-is-ation
(a) government
The government funds are restricted.
Effective government of desert areas is difficult.
(b) reading
I need new reading glasses/ glasses for easy reading.
He was/ began/ kept reading a book of poetry.
The reading public is hard to deceive.

1.3.2 Inflectional Morphology

Inflectional morphemes change a word / part of speech (category) within its own paradigm:
e.g. the Noun mu has a Case/Number paradigm: mu, mue, mui, muem,
mui, much, mu, mum.
e.g. the Noun child has a Case/Number paradigm: child, child's, children, childrens.
Inflectional morphemes (e.g. plurals of Nouns) are specific/ typical for each part of speech:
e.g. Nominal paradigm = nominal declension: Number, Case, etc.
Verbal paradigm = verbal conjugation: Tense, Aspect, Mood, Person, etc.
Inflectional paradigms can differ a lot across languages. Japanese nouns have case and
politeness inflections, but none for number. Japanese verbs are inflected for tense, negative,
causative, passive, politeness and other notions, but not for person or number.
1.3.3 Grammaticalisation
Inflection encodes the meaning/ features which a language has grammaticalised.
Grammaticalization of a lexical semantic feature is a diachronic process.
A semantic feature which becomes (in a given language) grammaticalised is:
(i) simplified in meaning (appears only as a choice between a limited number of options)
(ii) regular (has a canonic representation with a limited number of exceptions),
(iii) often productive (frequent, can be used with new words)
(5)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

a tiny/ small/ little apple

(a') jabl-ko
female/ woman/ she doctor
(b') doktor-ka
lion-ess, actr-ess, host-ess, *doctor-ess, *author-ess, *bakr-ess
care-ful, sorrow-ful, dread-ful, health-ful, respect-ful, hope-ful, mourn-ful

The lexical morphemes (independent words) like tiny/ small/ little or female/ woman/ she can
diachronically lose the irsemantic (lexical) richness and become simplified into productive
grammatical formatives, in the extreme case becoming a regular/ predictable/ productive
bound morpheme.
Grammatical morphemes are nonetheless still semantic in that they are related to aspects
of reality which can also be expressed lexically. They represent some simplified version of it.
(6)

Real vs. grammaticalised notion e.g. number 6, number three hundred and seven

(a)
(b)

Rational Number (an infinite scale):

Grammaticalised Number:

(7)

Real vs. grammaticalised notion of Time = Tense

(a)

Time, an infinite line: E.g. Future time: tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, next year,
the next century, Dec.7, 2110...
Tense, Grammaticalised: established points (with respect to the speech act)
Past vs. Present vs. Future Tense (= what precedes/ occurs with/ follows a speech act)

(b)

He stopped.
He will come.

1/2/3/.../789/.../8723...
one vs. many, several, few
book vs. book-s (-s can mean any of these)

(-ed means preceding the speech act)

(will means following the speech act)

Languages can differ as to which categories use which grammaticalised features (i.e., have
specific kinds of inflectional morphology). Compare these English and Czech examples w.r.t.
(= with respect to) grammaticalisation of (a/b) Gender and (c/d) Countability:
(8)

(a)

The Great Emper-ess [Fem] was sitting on the throne.

The Great Emper-or [Masc] was sitting on the throne.

(b)

Velk- csa-ovna sedl-a na trn.

Velk- csa sedl na trn.

(c)

Mary bought many / few / *much /*little books.

Mary seems to have so much / little / *many / *few time(*s).

(d)

Marie koupila mnoho / mlo knih.

Marie m mnoho / mlo asu

Inflectional morphology on a lexical item reflects features of the following three types
1.3.4 Types of Features
1. PRIMARY
2. SECONDARY

(a) inherent (part of the lexical entry)

(b) optional (depend on the choice of the speaker)
(c) configurational (kongruenn, agreement, case)

The kinds of features are illustrated in the following (9)

(9)

(a)

Mary [Fem/*Masc] is an actress [Fem/*Masc]

- Mary/ actress are always/ inherently of [Fem] Gender.

(b)

Julie bought [Past]/ will buy [Fut] a book [Sing] / many books [Plur]

- the choice of Tense in bought /will buy depends on the speaker.

- the choice of Number in book/ books depends on the speaker.
(c)

Hilary introduces/*introduce her friends to Bill.

They introduce/*introduces their friends to Peter.

- the Agreement on the Predicate introduce(s) depends not on the Verb itself, but on
some other (related) element - on the characteristics of the Subject.
(Speakers cannot chose the form of the Verb, once they have chosen the Subject.)
(10)

Jiina poslal Petrovi velk-ou knih-u.

knih-u[Fem, Sg, Acc]

(a)
(b)
(c)

Gender [feminine]: an inherent feature (the lexical entry kniha is in Czech formally
feminine and cannot be otherwise).
Number [singular]: optional feature (the speaker was able to choose plural: knihy).
Case [accusative]: configurational (the Czech Verb poslat requires accusative Case
and no other for its direct Object).

velk-ou [Fem, Sg, Acc]

All features on the Adjective are secondary, i.e. configurational; they reflect the properties of
the superordinate element (knihu) to show that the Adj. is its (pre-) modifier.
Inflectional morphology is the strongest signal of categorial status.
In a language with rich inflectional morphology (e.g. Czech) each major class lexical item
can have some typical inflectional ending, which identifies the part of speech rather
unambiguously. However, in a language with poor inflectional morphology (e.g. English) the
morphological signal is frequently absent and co-occurring elements decide the category.
(11)

(a)
(b)
(c)

(12)

stop - stops
to stop, he stop-s
zastav-it, zastav-il

vs.
vs.

the stop, two stop-s

zastv-ka, zastv-ky

List of English bound inflectional morphemes

...

Category Morpheme Example

Meaning/Function

type

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

N
N
Pron
V
V
V
V
A
A
Num

Number [plural]
Case [Saxon genitive]
Case [Possessive]
Agreement [3sgPres]
Tense [Past]
Aspect [Perfect]
Aspect [Progressive]
Grading [Comparative]
Grading [Superlative]
Counting [Ordinal]

optional
configurational
configurational
configurational
optional
optional
optional
optional
optional
configurational

1.4

-s
's
-s/-r
-s
-ed
en/ ed
ing
-er
-est
-th

book-s
Mary's
hi-s/ou-r
(he) read-s
stopp-ed
writt-en
read-ing
small-er
small-est
four-th

E xer cises

(13) EXERCISE ===========================================

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Give the pronunciation of the morphemes s and ed. What are the options?
What is 'assimilation in voicing'? How does it work for English inflections?
Under which conditions does the pronunciation involve [--]?
Can you state this last rule in some general way?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

books
dogs
trees
masses
hedges

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

cat's
dog's
Mike's
James's
Butch's

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

he talks
he reads
he tries
he fusses
he amuses

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

he talked
he arrived
he tried
he trusted
he traded

(14) EXERCISE ===========================================

The morphemes en, er and -ing are not only inflectional but can be derivational.
What are the meanings/ functions of the latter 3 morphemes? Give3 examples of each.
Derivational -en ..........................................................................................................................
Derivational -er ...........................................................................................................................
Derivational -ing .........................................................................................................................

1.5

Syntactic C r iter ia for establishing a C ategor y (r eliable but not always easy)

Syntactic criteria for establishing the category of an item are based on its distribution in
sentences, i.e. co-occurrence restrictions with other categories around it. Each part of speech
appears in some typical environments. There are typical elements which are subordinate to
it (lower in a hierarchical arrangement) and typical elements which are superordinate to it
(higher in a hierarchical arrangement).
E.g. with Nouns: subordinate elements (which depend on N) are Adjectives, Articles, etc.
while superordinate elements (what the N(P) depends on) are Verbs, Prepositions, etc.
(15) (a)
(b)
(c)

1.6

N:
book, friend, road, oxygen, courage, flaw, explanation, etc.
NP:
[NP some new book], [NP a friend of mine], [NP the road to take home]
V, [ __ NP]:
to publish [NP some new book], to see [NP a friend of mine]
P, [ __ NP]:
about [NP the new book], about [NP the road to take home]
H eads and Phr ases

Every part of speech can become a head of a more complex structural unit = phrase.
(16) Phrases can have
pre-modifier(s)

HEAD

post-modifier(s)

brother
out
was

that big
right
usually

of mine
the door
a bother

The form of a pre-/post-modification is typical for a specific head/part of speech. Some, like
articles with nouns or nouns after prepositions. can be more or less obligatory.
(17) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

N:
A:
V:
P:

boy
small
read
toward

[NP the little boy of mine ]

[AP much smaller than Theo ]
[VP to never saw the article ]
[PP right toward a door ]

In a sentence, a constituent can appear as (i) simple/ bare, or (ii) complex. We call both
phrases and say that sentences consist of phrases, not of words. Sentence functions like
Subject, Object, Attribute and Predicate are phrases, although they can be bare
phrases (i.e. they can look like only one word) or clauses (sentences inside sentences)..
(18) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

We saw a boy
/ [NP the little boy of mine ]
This boy is small / [AP much smaller than Adam ]
I want to read it. / [VP to quickly read the article ]
He went up.
/ [PP right up the hill ]
This is a big step / [AP an extremely big] step

Object is NP
Predicate is AP
Object is VP
Adverbial is PP
Attribute is AP

The main or major parts of speech N, V, A, P (in fact their phrases are NP, VP, AP, PP)
typically have PROFORMS: grammatical words which can replace them. The kind of
proform used for such substitution itself signals the kind of phrase: Pronouns replace NPs,
Adverbials like there, then replace PPs, do so replaces VP, such and so replace AP.
(19) The little boy was already running in the city's only park at 8 oclock.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
1.7

NP
VP
PP
NP
PP
AP

[NP He ] was already running in the city's only park at 8 oclock.

She wonders if [the little boy ] [VP did so ].
The little boy was running [PP there ] at 8 oclock.
The little boy was running in [NP our ] only park at 8 oclock.
The little boy was running in the city's only park [PP then ].
[AP Such] a boy was running in the city's park at 8 oclock.
[NP He] is [VP dong so ] [PP there] [PP now].

C ategor ial Pr ototypicality

Ideally the words belonging to the same part of speech have the same (general) meaning, the
same (predictable) forms and the same syntactic distributions/ functions/ pragmatics.
Grammatical categories have best case members and members that systematically
depart from the best case. The optimal grammatical description of morphosyntactic
processes involves reference to the degree of categorial deviation from the best case.
To know' the characteristics of a specific part of speech means to know to which
extent the members of the category are the same (what they have in common), and to which
extent they can differ from the best case (what are the frequent deviations).
(20)

(a)
(b)

book/ books; flaw/ flaws

writing, arriving, doing

but
but

sheep/ *sheeps; courage/ *courages

*musting/ *shoulding/ *bewaring

FUZZY CATEGORIES: The boundaries between categories sometimes seem indistinct.

The reason for the fuzziness of categories lies in the multiple criteria for each category;
see (1) on page 3. Category is defined separately on each linguistic plane; so the results of
the multiple definitions can seem contradictory. If we still must choose only one category,
our choice depends on what we focus on (recall that categories are abstract collections of
features and properties). Consider the following examples.
(i)
(21)

(ii)
(22)

Meaning is adaptable and there is no morphology:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

...stop...
The nearest stop is...
The stop lights are broken.
He should stop soon.

- meaning??? V?, N?, A?

N, *V, *A
A, *N, *V
V, *N, *A

Meaning is adaptable and morphology is ambiguous

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

...reading...
Reading about that is easy.
This reading is easy.
He was reading a book.
Take the reading glasses.

- meaning of ing???, V?, N?, A?

?V, ?N
N, *V, *A
V, *N, *A
A, *N, *V

(iii) Meaning is adaptable, morphology signals X and distribution (syntax) signals Y

(23) Should we go there or nearer the boss? -er A; coordination with here and go P.
(24) Thats a must see movie. must see is a verb; the syntax suggests see is an A.
1.8

Some non-lexical categoir es or minor par ts of speech

Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 188-203; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004)
pp. 393-398; Dukov (1994) pp. 136-140, 273-306; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov
(1989) pp. 138-162; Crystal (1987) pp. 91-93
Minor parts of speech (closed categories) have a limited, basically fixed number of members.
They are lists of specific words. They can be (i) grouped together with some major category
that they share properties with, or (ii) kept separate because of some special property.
(25) (a)
(b)
(c)

Pronouns
Numerals
Conjunctions

=
=
=

Nouns, Adjectives ?
Nouns, Adjectives ?
Prepositions ?

In English and Czech, these categories influence morphology, but dont exhibit it themselves.
But these categories are central to grammatical systems, i.e. syntactic distribution.
(26) Numerals
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

I can see those three hundred (and) thirty-three silver fire-brigade vehicles.
The fifth one I see twice or three times a day.
The purpose of those plants is threefold. First, they take up space; second.
Many of them are ugly but a few are not so bad.
They drank barrels of beer. Mike drank a lot of wine, too.

(27) Prepositions, Conjunctions, Adverbs

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

I havent done anything since Sunday, after the party.

Samuel hasnt done anything since (he got up).
Peter arrived after she finished her work in the garden/ after(ward).
I arranged for a vcation and for her to get a free trip. For she really deserved it.
What are you looking at /for? What are you looking forward to?

Consider the notion transitivity w.r.t distinctions among: Preposition/ Conjunction/ Adverb
1.9

E xer cises

(28) EXERCISE ===========================================

Use the ambiguous? /fuzzy? expressions use, love, top, after, back, book, open in at
least two ways in contexts which clearly disambiguate their category as N, V, A or P. Think
of other English words which are 'fuzzy' in a similar way.
use .............................................................................................................................................
love ...........................................................................................................................................

10

top .............................................................................................................................................
after ..........................................................................................................................................
back ..........................................................................................................................................
book ..........................................................................................................................................
open............................................................................................................................................
(29) EXERCISE ===========================================
Recall the (semantic-notional) definitions you were using at primary school to
characterize the category (part of speech): For each one, why is it (in)adequate?
Nouns are names of persons, places and things. Verbs express ??... Pronouns ??....
(30) EXERCISE ===========================================
Give examples of 3 derivational morphemes that change each word category:
Nouns:

(i) govern+MENT, V + ment = N

(ii).............................................................
Verbs:

(iii).................................................................

(i) modern+ISE, A + ise = V

(ii).............................................................
Adjectives:

(iii).................................................................

(i) coffein+FREE, N + free = Adj

(ii).............................................................
Adverbs:

(iii).................................................................

(i) east + WARD, X + ward = Adv

(ii).............................................................

(iii).................................................................

(31) EXERCISE ===========================================

Discuss what the underlined morphology in the examples below signals.
(a)
(b)
(c)

Jan a Marie jd-ou do kina.

Zelen-ou si neber.
Petra js-em vidl-a j.

(d)
(e)
(f)

John i-s in the garden.

There were you-r two boys there.
The man who-m I gave it to.

(32) EXERCISE ===========================================

In the following examples circle all the morphemes which show the feature of Number.
Explain the distinctions between Czech and English.
(a)
(b)

The other young girls came back from Prague very tired.
Ty druh mlad dvky se vrtily z Prahy velmi unaven.

(33) EXERCISE ===========================================

Which kind of morpheme are the S/-ER/-ING/-ED morphemes in the following
examples? Consider which category the word in the following context is. Justify your choices
(a)

(i)
(ii)

Joan is a bit quick-er than Louise.

She is a quick read-er.

11

(b)

(i) I saw Adam'-s brother in front of the house.

(ii) These article-s were written by my father.
(iii) Josephine stop-s at every corner.

(c)

(i) Bill was shoot-ing the rabbits.

(ii) His shoot-ing (of the rabbits) went on and on.
(iii) Those shoot-ing sounds/ stars surprised me.

(d)

(i) The staff was soon retir-ed (by the management).

(ii) My father is happily retir-ed (*by the management).
(iii) A retir-ed (*by Harriet) person (*by the management).

(34) EXERCISE ===========================================

In the following complexes find the elements which are subordinate / superordinate to
the underlined head. Which categories are these elements?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Joe saw my younger brother.

She fell in love with that brother of mine last year.
Hillary always falls in love with quite young boys.
My brother is really much younger than her.
She is in very good terms with his mother.

(35) EXERCISE ===========================================

The underlined words are in fact bare phrases (i.e. phrases which contain only a head).
Replace them (in the text) by complex phrases which contain
(i) the head and some premodifier(s)
(ii) the head and some postmodifier(s)
(iii) the head and both pre-modifier(s) and post-modifier(s).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

[NP Mary ] went to [NP school].

[AP Little] Mary run to the [AP closest ] shop.
And Mary [VP did], too.
And [PP then] Mary went [PP there], too.

(36) EXERCISE ===========================================

(i)
(ii)

What types of phrases are the underlined parts of sentences? Which are their heads?
Replace the underlined parts of the sentence by one word (and/or its proform).

(a)
(b)
(c)

My older brother will help you.

In the afternoon Mike will make supper in the kitchen.
Not everybody can read a novel in one day.

(37) EXERCISE ===========================================

Say which part of speech the following proforms replace. Give examples in context.
E.g. 'she': She is at home. My sister is at home. She=NP
(a)
(b)

he, his, this

one

.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

12

(c)
(d)
(e)

here, now
do
so

.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................

(38) EXERCISE ===========================================

Consider the underlined words. Decide about their category and explain which criteria
from those given in (1) on page 3 were the most important for your decision.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)

= N: 2b (plural inflection); 3a (Article the shows N).

I wrote the long letters.
I saw three big whugs in my garden.
= .................................................
I want to plymise this book.
= ................................................
He is much hompler than George.
= ................................................
I was trumbling the whole afternoon yesterday.
= ................................................
Marcel is the most dimable guy Ive ever met.
= ................................................
The book is fin the table, not under the chair.
= ................................................
This beautiful trouch of flowers is yours.
= ................................................
The letter is down the stairs.
= .................................................
I hate bending down.
= .................................................
I prefer to talk in the shower.
= ................................................
I prefer talking here to talking in the shower
= ................................................
He reads a newspaper every day.
= ................................................
= ................................................
He cant read a newspaper every day.

(39) EXERCISE ===========================================

Read the following expressions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

3,876 + 12.75 = 3888.75. 6 x 7 = 42. 72 : 9 = 8.

32, 53,617, 9.
, , , 23/15.
Meow, cock-a-doodle-doo, woof-woof, shilly-shally, tick-tock, booky-wooky, oops...

(40) EXERCISE ===========================================

Read the following joke: Proof that Girls are Evil.
First state that girls require/equal time and money. (i)
And as we know Time is Money
(ii)
Therefore (a) can be restated as
(iii)
We also know that Money is the root of all Evil (iv)
Therefore (c) can be restated as
(v)
And we are forced to conclude that
(vi)

GIRLS = Time x Money

Time = Money
Girls =Money x Money= Money2
Money = Evil
Girls = Money2= ( Evil)2
Girls = Evil

(41) EXERCISE ===========================================

Translate and use in a sentence each of the following Prepositions/ Conjunctions:
for, since, out, after, alongside, towards, within, (un)till, owing to, in spite of, despite,
besides, beyond, by means of, according to, with respect/reference to, as opposed to,
(al)though, as if, provided that, supposing for the moment that, lest, unless, whereas.

13

SEMANTICS AND MORPHOLOGY OF NOUNS

Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 70-107; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp.
241-332; Dukov (1994) pp.35-100; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov (1989) pp. 50-83;
Leech & Svartvik (1975)
Revise Section 1.1 above, especially topics mentioned in (1) on page 3.
Semantic/ Notional definition of Nouns:
'Nouns denote persons, places, animals and objects/ things...'
See also (2)on page 4

Semantic class:
Pragmatic function:

(1)

Semantic Division:

I.

Common (a)
(b)

II.

Proper

Object (in the mind)

Reference

countable
concrete/abstract (book, song/ argument, concert)
non-countable concrete (water, bread, gas -these can have -s)
abstract
(time, evidence, research, courage)
(Henry, Egypt, Arabic)

The above division is based on semantic properties, but at the same time each group has some
formal characteristics (e.g. spelling conventions, lack of Article). Purely semantic divisions
can be found in e.g. synonym dictionaries or a thesaurus, but have no use in grammar.

(2)

Formal characteristics of Nouns

a)

Morphology

- Derivational morphology (nominal affixes)

- Inflectional morphology (Declension Paradigm: Case,
Countability/Number, Determination, Animacy/Gender...)

b)

Syntax

- the structure within the Noun Phrase

- the function/ distribution of Noun Phrases in the sentence

1.10

C ase

1.10.1

The Repertory and Realization of Morphological Case

7 Cases (=morphological forms of N) in Czech:

nominative, genitive / partitive, dative, accusative, vocative, local, instrumental
2/3 Cases in English:

(3)

(a)
(b)
(c)

(a)
(b)

3 with Pronouns:
2 with Nouns:

I - me - my/mine
John - John's

*Him saw Mary.

*Our bought a book.
*Adam saw she.
*John looked for my a long time.
*I house is near here. *Mary likes them son.

14

(4)

Classification of Cases in English

with Nouns
1. COMMON Case

with Pronouns
1. SUBJECT Case
2. OBJECT Case

(a) of a Verb
(b) of a Preposition
3. SAXON-GENITIVE Case

2. SAXON-GENITIVE Case
1.10.2

The Source and Function of Case

Morphological Case is a specific form of a Noun, i.e. usually some special ending added to
the word. In Czech there can be 7 forms; in English Pronouns can have 3 forms).
Abstract Case is an abstract relation in a sentences between a superordinate Case Assigner
and a Noun (NP). The relation can be morphologically realized (with an inflectional ending)
or it can be signaled in a more abstract way by means of e.g. word order.
= Morphological realization of the Case on a Noun is a configurational feature.
(5)

(a)
(b)

st [NP dlouhou knih-u] / *ist kniha / *st knihou

bez [NP naeho dom-u] / *bez dm / * bez domem

In (5) the Verb st and Preposition bez are Case assigners. They are superordinate (higher in
hierarchical structure) to the NPs velkou knihu / naeho domu, and they assign (give) them
Case. The Case shows that and how the two (Case assigner and Case-marked NP) are related.
The function of Case: : Licensing Semantic Roles (marking sentence members)
With Prepositions Case is marking a simple relation (esp. in English), while with Verbs,
especially in Czech, the Case can also signal a specific meaning (semantic role).
(6)

The Czech Preposition za can combine with the Nouns Petr/ hora in two ways:
(a)
(c)

(7)

Zaplatil za PetraACC.
Msc zapadl za horuACC.

(b)
(d)

Piel za PetremINSTR.
Msto le za horouINSTR.

The Verb watch can combine with David and Mary in two ways:
(a)
(c)

DavidNOM vidl MariiACC.

MarieNOM vidla DavidaACC.

(b)
(d)

MariiACC vidl DavidNOM.

DavidaACC vidla MarieNOM.

There are two main semantic roles (relations) with the Verb watch:
(a) Agent (the person performing the action) and
(b) Patient (the person who is affected by the action).
A language almost always makes clear which is which. Compare the Czech above with the
following English.
(8)

(a)
(c)
(f)
(h)

about/with/for us
David watched
He watched her.
Him she watched.

(b)
(d)
(g)
(i)

*about/with/for we/our
Mary watched David. (e)
*Him watched she.
*He her watched.

15

Mary David watched.

Canonical Formal Realization of the main Semantic Roles

To know a language means to know how the language expresses/ realises/ encodes distinct
relational meanings, e.g. the semantic roles. The semantic roles of a Verb are realized as
specific sentence members, and these sentence members are signaled by specific Cases
or by other means, e.g. word-order.
In Czech morphological Case prevails; in English word order is primary.
In the diagram below, the Verb send combines with several NPs (Peter, a parcel, John,
afternoon). Each of the NPs is related to the Verb (= interpreted) in a distinct way. Some
interpretation can be guessed from the meaning of the words (e.g. afternoon will probably be
the time) but some cannot (Peter or John could be the sender).
(9)
verbal event
action
1st participant
(Agent)
(a)
(b)

Peter/He
Petr/On

sent
poslal

complementary conditions
(manner/ place/ time)
2nd participant
3rd participant
(Patient)
(Recipient/Beneficiary/Goal)
a big parcel/ one
velk balk

to John/ to him
Janovi

in the afternoon
v poledne

Semantic Role Syntactic Function Case (Word Order)

The realization of semantic roles (subject or object) depends on the Verb and its form.
(10)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

SheSUBJ saw himV-OBJ.

HeSUBJ was seen by herP-OBJ.
TheySUBJ sent a bookV-OBJ to meP-OBJ.
TheySUBJ were sent to himP-OBJ.
HeSUBJ was sent the bookV-OBJ by herP-OBJ.
HimV-OBJ sheSUBJ saw, but not meV-OBJ.

CASE ASSIGNERS: Case is a relationship of a Noun to a Case assigner.

Case assigner assigns a (specific) Case to a Noun (Phrase); see above in (5).
Case assigner N CASE

bez Petr-aGEN

proti Petr-oviINSTR

napsal dopisACC

What (which part of speech) can be a Case assigner? Are they the same in all languages?
(11) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

Poslal knihu.
Pavel spal.
Bl se duch / jich.
el cestou pes les/ nho.
Vidm ptele sv sestry.
Vidm sestina/ jejho ptele.
Vidl osm obraz / jich.
Je vrn sv en.

Transitive Verb assigns ACC to its

(direct/ structural) Object
Finite Verb assigns NOM to its Subject
Verb assigns OBL to its indirect Object
Preposition assigns Case to its Object
Noun assigns GEN to its Object
Possessive Adj agrees with the Noun
Numeral assigns PART to its Object
Adjective assigns OBL to its Object

16

Case assigners in Czech: V, Vfin, P, N, Q, A (all major partsof speech).

Case assigners in English: V, Vfin, P, N
(12) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

to see him
about him
He sleeps
his book

Verb assigns OBJECT Case to its Object

Preposition assigns OBJECT Case to its Object
Finite Verb assigns SUBJECT Case to its Subject
Noun assigns POSSESSIVE/ GENITIVE Case

(13) Saxon Genitive

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

personal/ animal names/ Nouns

collective Nouns
geographical names
locative Nouns (esp. with superlatives)
temporal Nouns
human activity
idiosyncratic idioms

George Washington's statue / the horse's tail

the central government's decision
Modern China's development
the Czech Republic's best university
this year's sales
a great novel's structure
for heaven's sake, their money's worth

Local genitives: at Bill's, from my aunt's, in Tiffany's, near St. Paul's

The postnominal genitive: some friends of Adam's, several pupils of his/ of ours/ of mine
1.11
1.
2.

C ountability and Number : C ount vs. M ass

Quantity: semantic notion
Number: grammaticalized feature related to quantity (Articles, plural morphemes,
Numerals). See (6) on page 5.

1.11.1

Countability

Countability is an inherent feature of the noun category. (Countabilty is a property of a

given lexical item; the speaker cannot change it without changing the lexical entry.)
Prototypical people/ animals/ objects (=Ns) are countable (can appear in smaller or larger
Number). In reality apart from individual discrete/countable items we also distinguish
continuum phenomena (scalar, i.e. measurable but not countable) with mass nouns. Only
countable Nouns can be counted, i.e. have Number. Mass nouns can only be measured.
(14) (a) boy, tree, poem
(b) water, justice, music
(c) two boy-s, a million tree-s, five poem-s (d) a pint of water, much music, no justice

(15)

[COUNTABLE]

[+]
NUMBER

[-]

[+]

[-]

book-S
childr-EN

book
child

water/ justice/ oxygen/ courage/ music

(*-s)

17

In English Countability is a relevant formal feature because it affects the choice of articles
and (some) Quantifiers. Compare these characteristics with the formal realization (visibility)
of Countability in Czech.
(16) Modifying count nouns

Modifying mass nouns

MANY/ FEW/ SEVERAL

*MUCH/ *LITTLE
ALL/ EACH/ EVERY
THE / A(N)
A LARGE NUMBER OF
1.11.2

*MANY/ *FEW/ *SEVERAL

MUCH/ LITTLE
ALL/ *EACH/ *EVERY
THE/ *A(N)
A GREAT DEAL OF

Singular vs. Dual vs. Plural Number

(17) Dual: only a lexical property of some Determiners

(a)
(b)
(c)

both (vs. all), either (vs. any), neither (vs. none)... ?each other (vs. one another)
After my accident, each/ *every arm hurt. Both/ *all of them had many bruises.
a pair of scissors/ binoculars/ trousers IS here
vezmi si *dv / dvoje nky, koupil si ?pt kalhot / patery kalhoty

(18) Plural: -(e)s

For pronunciation, an important property is assimilation in Voicing:
The pronunciation of the plural /s/ depends on the Pronunciation (not the spelling) of the
final sound of the Noun. The relevant feature is [ Voice].
(a)
(b)
(c)

[-z] assimilation to [+ Voice] ...... all vowels and voiced consonants

[-s] assimilation to [- Voice].......... [p], [t], [k], [f], [th]
[-iz] insertion of a reduced vowel after fricatives/ affricates.

(19) Spelling only:

(a)
Irregular pronunciation:(b)

boys, families, volumes, radios, tomatoes

pence (pennies), dice.... houses, leaves, loaves,

(20) Blocking Effect: irregular inflections compete with or block the regular interpretations.
glass, cloth, iron
vs. glasses, clothes, irons
(21) Zero plural: (a) a few animals:
(b) affricate/fricative nations:

sheep, deer, moose, shrimp, fish

Chinese, Portuguese, Vennese,
French, Polish, Swiss, Dutch
(c) measure phrases: two dozen(*s) eggs a five-meter(*s)-(long) rope

(22) Collective Nouns. Grammatically singular, but semantically plural:

(a)
(b)
(c)

police, audience, senate, clergy, army (Can be grammatical plural in Brit. English)
china, linen, pottery, cutlery, jewelry, silverware, furniture, clothing
folk (vs. folks), people (vs. peoples). Unlike (a) and (b), these are inherently plural.

(23) Singularia Tantum

Concrete countable, abstract, proper names, geographic terms, converted Adjectives, games,
sciences, idiosyncratic items...

18

bread/ honesty/ Wales/ loud

(a game of) billiards/ darts
acoustics/ news

THIS / *THESE

IS/*ARE EXCELLENT

(24) Pluralia Tantum

Clothes, instruments, diseases, applied sciences, converted Adjectives, idiosyncratic items
pyjamas/ measles
acoustics/ homeless/ pins
annals/ surroundings

*THIS / THESE

1.12

*IS/ ARE AWFUL.

Deter mination

Determination is a grammaticalised nominal requirement of English Nouns: Common

Nouns (if regular) that are Countable must have a kind of Determiner. In Czech such
determination is only optional; it is not grammaticalised as in English.
I saw a/ the/ some boy/ concert/ big ship. (a') Vidl jsem njakho/ toho chlapce.
*I saw boy/ concert/ big ship.
(b') Vidla jsem chlapce.

(25) (a)
(b)
1.12.1

Classification of Determiners w.r.t. Distribution

Determiners occupy the left periphery (edge) of an NP, and they are followed by adjectival
modifiers. One NP can have up to three Determiners (one in each slot).
(26) (a)
(b)

all
both

the
those

many
two

handsome BOYS ...

beautiful GIRLS ...

pre-determiner / central determiner / post-determiner + Adj. modifiers + NOUN

determination field

modification field

(27) I.

Central Determiners:
obligatory, unique,
usually only one possible

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

articles (a (an)/ the/ )

demonstratives (this, these / that, those)
possessives including whose
what/ which
some/ any /no
every/ each/ either/ neither
is excluded with singular count nouns.

(28) II.

Pre-determiners:
general Quantifiers

(a)
(b)

all / both/ half (precede Ia-c or stand alone)

double/ twice/ three times/ one third

(29) III.

Post-determiners:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

cardinal Numerals (three, fifty...)

ordinal Numerals (third, seventeenth...)
closed class Quantifiers (few/ a lot/ little...)
such (can follow which and Ie-f)

19

1.12.2

Articles

ARTICLES (category) vs. DETERMINERS (function)

Recall the variation and rules of pronunciation.
(30)

(a)
(b)

a book
the book

vs.
vs.

an orange
the orange

This is an I think nice book.

This is I think the best solution.

Notice the similarity and distinction between Articles and Demonstratives.

(31) (a)
(b)

(all) the/ this book; (half) the/ these books

ta /tato kniha

Articles

(i) are obligatory (part of the 'Noun Phrase')

(ii) cannot (contrary to demonstrative Pronouns) replace the NP.

(32) (a)
(b)

We have the (small) book, a (small) book, *(small) book.

ta kniha, njak kniha, kniha

(33) (a)
(b)
(c)

Dej mi tamto/to.
Give me that.
*Give me the.

Articles are related to countability

(34) Articles: historically grammaticalised features of Number & Reference
(a)
(b)

one > a
that > the

1.12.3
(1)
(2)

> twice a week, one at a time, in a word

> for the moment, nothing of the sort

Types of Reference

Generic
Specific

(a)
(b)

indefinite
definite

1.12.3.1 Generic Reference: neutralization of Number

(35) Cats are better than dogs. = Cat is better than dog.
vs. A cat is better than a dog = The cat is better than the dog.
1.12.3.2 Specific Reference (Indefinite vs.Definite)
A. Indefinite Reference
(36) (a)
(b)
(b)
(c)

She carried a/ the small suitcase. She carried small suitcases.

??She carried a smallest suitcase.
There might be a (*the) space in the middle of the room.
My sister would like to meet a/ ??the Czech who speaks German.

20

B. Definite Reference

DEFINITE
ARTICLE

ZERO
ARTICLE
(37) (a)

(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)

shared understood reference (extralinguistic context)

anaphoric reference (linguistic antecedent)
modification
(i) postnominal of-phrase
(ii) restrictive relative clause
(iii) attributive content clause
(iv) unique pre-/post-modification
proper nouns
certain abstract nouns of time and place

Mind the step! Where are the scissors? The sun is too bright.
Do you know the assignment for Morphosyntax?Which way is the toilet?

(b)

I bought a book. She thought the/a book and a scarf would be a nice present.
He thought of a plan. But I thoughtt the/ *a plan should be changed.

(c)

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

(d)
(e)

1.13
1.13.1

the Head of the Department

the book that I bought yesterday
the fact that he didn't come
the right man, the only exception, the best Czech poet, all the windows here,
the number seven, the poet Robert Burns
President Sarkozy will arrive soon, I saw Chairman Novak.

Will winter be over soon? At plays I like intermission the best.

How long does school last this year? Class will be late today.
A nimacy and G ender
Animacy

The grammatical feature [animate] is related to the notion of living in reality.

Animacy is an inherent feature: lexical items are animate because of their meaning/ form.
The concept of Animacy/ Life is a scalar (biological, cultural) concept.
Grammatical features, however, are defined in a black-and-white manner: animate.
(38) Semantic scale of Animacy (Universal) . The break is English/ Czech specific option.
arbitrary (language specific) break

HUMAN - DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Animate Pronouns - Proper names

mammals-animals-plants inorganic things

High in Animacy

Low in Animacy

Czech and English treat as [+animate] only [+human/ domestic animals].

21

Animate are animals a human can relate to (can be loved, hated), who are equal to human.
Only [+ANIMATE] = [+HUMAN] in English reflects Gender....... HE vs. SHE
(39) Some lexical entries inherently contain or relate to the feature of Animacy:
= Polarity elements, relative and interrogative Pronouns, some body parts
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Evelyne, Samuel, he, she

some/ any/ no/ every + body/ one vs. some /any/ no/ every + thing
interrogative who vs. what
relative who vs. which
boy's leg, dogs leg, ?cow's leg, *rats leg, ??a table's leg, *a platforms leg

1.13.2

The Gender Category

The grammatical feature Gender is related to the semantic notion of sexual dichotomy with
many living creatures (above all humans).
Gender is an inherent feature; lexical items have it either because of their meaning (semantic
Gender) or because of their form (grammatical Gender).
(40) Levels of formal GRAMMATICALIZATION of Gender in English
(a)

Special lexical entry:

man

vs.

woman

(b)

Compounds:

boy student

vs.

girl student

(c)

Derivation:

steward
widow-er
wait-er

vs.
vs.
vs.

steward-ess
widow
wait-ress

vs.

child

English expresses Gender above all (a) lexically, (b) by compounds (two morphemes, one of
which is a simplified standard), or (c) with some non-productive morphology.
(41) Levels of Grammaticalization of Gender in Czech. Compare with (40).
(a)

Special lexical entry:

mu
stroj

vs.
vs.

ena
kvtina

vs.
vs.

dt(dcko)
msto

(b)

Compounds:

?? ena lka

(c)

Derivation:

sportovk-yn, doktor-ka,

(c)

Inflection (agreement):

T-a kniha leel-a na stole oteven- na str. 4.

While in English Gender remains mainly a semantic concept realized through lexical
means, Gender is highly grammaticalized in Czech.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iii)

[+human] Nouns have Gender assigned acording to the real sex,

[-human] inanimate nouns take Gender based on their morphology (ending),
There are productive [Fem] Gender suffixes ka, -yn, etc, and
Gender appears as a configurational (agreement) feature in pronominal, adjectival and
verbal paradigmas).

22

(42)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

pn, mu, // hrad, stroj, les ....

ena, re...
msto, moe
But: pedseda, soudce

consonantal
vocalic
vocalic

Formal neutralisation of semantic Gender (rather rare) can be lexical or morphological:

ta dvka vs. to dve; German diminuatives are neuter: das Mdchen the girl

(43)

1.13.2.1 Semantic/ Natural Gender vs. Formal Gender

Semantic Gender is based on real/ intrinsic/ natural Gender of Humans (animate).
Formal Gender is based on the similarity of the form (the ending) with the Animates.
English: semantic Gender with [+HUMANs], Neuter for [-HUMANs]
Czech: semantic Gender with [+HUMANs] and Formal Gender with [-HUMANs]
Both English and Czech have a two-level strucure for the featurs of Animacy/ Gender.
(44)

(a) English

(b) Czech

[HUMAN]

[HUMAN]

[+]
Semantic
GENDER

[-]
Adam
he

[+]
Emma
she

[-]

[+]
Semantic
GENDER

table
it

[-]
pn/mu
ten

[+]
en-a
ta

[-]
Formal
GENDER

[ ]
d-t
to

[-]
[+]
[ ]
hrad/stroj knih-a mo-e
ten
ta
to

Gender with inanimate nouns in English (more usual in poetic or figurative language)
(45) (a)
(b)

Sun, death ........ HE

Moon, Earth, justice, machines that are personal ......... SHE

Traditional Gender, transfer from Classical/ French languages, also from folk thinking,
applied to some mythology or human-like gods.
(46) (a)

(b)

Personification:

ANIMATE = HUMAN = subject to AFFECT

animals, boats, pipes, countries

Stylistics: +GENDER

= +FEMALE = small/ nice/ lovable/ positive

= +MASCULINE = big/ dangerous/ negative

(47) Why do hurricanes have girls' names, because actually they are bad things?

23

1.13.2.2 Inflectional Morphology of Nouns (Summary)

The following table shows possibly universal features which appear with the category of
Nouns. All of those features can be expressed in both English and Czech in some way (e.g.
using some Adjective), but not all are grammaticalised (= obligatory and regular). Some
are grammaticalised in both languages (e.g. Number), some are more grammaticalised in
English (e.g. Referrence), some more in Czech (i.g. Gender), some are grammaticalised in
neither English nor Czech (e.g. Shape).
category

bound/free
Grammatical inherent/optional
morpheme
YES/ NO
/configurational
Eng. book-s
bound suffix
YES
optional
Number
Cz. mu-i
bound fused suffix YES
optional
Eng. Mary's, him bound suffix
YES
configurational
Case
Cz. mu, dtte bound fused suffix YES
configurational
Eng. boy-student compounding
%
inherent
Gender
% suffix
tigr-ess
Cz. doktor-ka
suffix
YES
inherent
Eng. John-ie*
suffix
rare
optional
Size
Cz. Jen-ek
suffix
YES
optional
free morpheme
YES
optional
Definiteness Eng. the book
Cz. ta kniha
demonstrative
NO
lexical feature
possessive
NO
lexical feature
Alienability Eng. my hands
Cz. (moje) ruce zero morpheme
rare
lexical feature
Eng. round table lexical morpheme NO
lexical feature
Shape
Cz. kulat stl lexical morpheme NO
lexical feature
* doggie, veggie,and also ANSMALL ie/y: quickie, birdie, cookie etc.
1.14

example

E xer cises

(48) EXERCISE ===========================================

State which semantic roles the underlined NPs have w.r.t. the Predicate (Agent,
Patient, Recipient, Possessor, Modifier, etc).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Joseph reads many books.

They called his sister Barbara.
Our Mary was called first.
Peter donated the clothes to the charity.
Bill was sent two letters the day before.

(49) EXERCISE ===========================================

State what kind of Case (give Latin terminology) each of the Czech (pro) Nouns have.
For the English nouns and pronouns use Englich terminology from (4) on page 15.
(i) Nov kolo koupil tatnek bratrovi po Vnocch, ale mn u ho nekoupil nikdy.
(ii) He saw Emily's brother introducing Bill to them at our brothers.
(iii) His book was written by her and her sister.

24

(50) EXERCISE ===========================================

State which (i) semantic roles each underlined NP has w.r.t. its Predicate,
(ii) what their syntactic functions are (which sentence member they are),
(iii) which constituents they are (NP/ Pronoun, PP,VP, Clause).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

She loves him.

Phoebe was given many presents for her marriage.
Paul threw the rusty gun into the ditch.
To read that book would kill me.
That she came proves that she loves him.
Little Mary introduced Joe to Peter's sister Vilma.

(51) EXERCISE ===========================================

Consider how many N paradigms in Czech/English do have 7/3 distinct Case forms.
How many have a distinction between NOM-ACC? Which is the richest/ poorest paradigm?
(52) EXERCISE ===========================================
Translate the Czech examples in (11) on page 16 into English using Pronouns (to
observe the Case). Compare which elements (categories) assign a Case to a nominal phrase.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................

(53) EXERCISE ===========================================

Make short sentences using a Pronoun she/ona and a Noun Jane/Jana in the following
sentence functions.
(a) Subject
........................................................................................................................
(b) Predicate ........................................................................................................................
(c) Object
........................................................................................................................
(d) Attribute ........................................................................................................................
(e) Indirect Object ................................................................................................................
(54) EXERCISE ===========================================
Write down inside brackets [...] the pronunciation of the final sound of the Noun, then
make plurals and explain the pronunciation of the final s.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

dog
state
boy
juice

-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................

25

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

thigh
window
brigade
garage

-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
-[......]+S = ..................................................................................................
-[......]+S = ...................................................................................................
-[......]+S = ...................................................................................................

(55) EXERCISE ===========================================

Translate the following expressions:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

custom / customs
pain / pains
picture / pictures
spirit / spirits
spectacle / spectacles
hair / hairs

............................................... vs. ............................................

............................................... vs. ...........................................
............................................... vs. ...........................................
............................................... vs. ...........................................
............................................... vs. ...........................................
............................................... vs. ...........................................

(56) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in the demonstrative THIS/THESE and the form of the Verb BE
(a) ........ contents
(b) ......... violin
(c) ......... young folk
(d) ......... earnings

................
.................
.................
.................

not nice.
mine.
charming.
low.

(e) ......... watch ................ very old.

(f) .. mice. not so tasty.
(g) . rice. tasty.
(h) .. hose .. torn.

(57) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in the/ a correct form of MANY / MUCH or LITTLE / FEW:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

I have .......................... time but not ........................... money.

I don't have ..................................... information.
This matter is of ..................................... interest to ...................................... people.
We have ...................................... evidence for these .....................................facts.

(58) EXERCISE ===========================================

Give plurals of these Compounds (Underline any heads of the compounds).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

forget-me-not ................................ (e)

manservant..................................... (f)
son in law ..... ................................ (g)
grown up ...................................... (h)

take-off......................................................
coat-of-arms..............................................
hanger-on..................................................
lady-singer.................................................

(59) EXERCISE ===========================================

Give plural forms (and pronunciations) of the following expressions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

antenna.......................................
mouse............................................
one.................................................
tooth..........................................
focus............................................
faux pas........................................

(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)

spectrum ...................................................
brother .....................................................
half ............................................................
wife ............................................................
curriculum..................................................
roof ............................................................
26

(60) EXERCISE ===========================================

Explain the reasons for the ungrammaticality of
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

* I didnt buy a one book.

*We bought expensive book on art.
*This books were too expensive.
*We need a fresh air.

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

*I like that your brother.

*We went to Ukraine once long ago.
??There might be the book on the table.
?? I saw men you met yesterday.

(61) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in the Articles / a/ the in the following examples:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

Lincoln was ....... best president of ........ United States.

He lives in ......... city of New York.
...... most famous member of ..... Hague Court is John Smith.
....... Sahara Desert is ....... integral part of ......... Africa.
........ Canary Islands are as beautiful as ........ Crete.
I don't like ...... Hyde Park but I am fond of .......... Westminster Abbey.
I saw .......... last film about .......... Titanic in ......... July.

(62) EXERCISE ===========================================

State the distinction between Czech and English which follows from the examples:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

He received a book from my mother.

*He received book from my mother.
I gave the present to Adam.
*I gave present to Adam.

(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')

Dostal jakousi knihu od m maminky.

Dostal knihu od m maminky.
Dal jsem ten drek Adamovi.
Dal jsem drek Adamovi.

(63) EXERCISE ===========================================

Replace the word chlapec with the word stroj and discuss the distinction:
(i) Vichni ti velc chlapci, kte se objevili ped chvl, zmizeli za rohem. - Kdo to zmizel?
(ii)

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................

Do the same with the English translation of the above sentences and discuss the distinction.
What does it show about which nominal features are used English and Czech?
(i)

.........................................................................................................................................

(ii)

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................

(64) EXERCISE ===========================================

Explain the distinctions in acceptability. Compare with English.
(a)
(b)

Tatnkova / Petrova / ?koova / *stolova / Alkova noha.

Pod mostem leel(i) mu a ena / ?mu a koza / ?? mu a puka.

27

(65) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in the missing feminine (or neuter) forms.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

stallion
bull
rooster
father
host
master
sportsman
male readers
laundryman

vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.

.......................
.......................
.......................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................
.........................

vs.
vs.
vs.
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o)
(p)

.........................
.........................
.........................
brother
vs.
doctor
vs.
heir
vs.
man servant vs.
gentleman vs.
tom-cat
vs.

............................
............................
............................
............................
............................
............................

(66) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fil inl the following table for English as suggested in the first line.
category

variety

marked feature
morpheme(s)

examples

Number

singular, plural

plural, -s /-en/ book/books, ox/oxen, Chnese/Chinese

Case
Gender
Size
Referrence
(67) EXERCISE ===========================================
Discuss the distinction between lexical and grammatical features. Give English and
Czech examples of nominal (a) Number, (b) Gender, (c) Referrenc' expressed with
lexical morphemes and contrast themt with grammaticalised forms. Underline the relevant
morphemes.
(a)
(b)
(c)

lexical .............................................................................................................................
grammaticalised...............................................................................................................
lexical ..............................................................................................................................
grammaticalised................................................................................................................
lexical ..............................................................................................................................
grammaticalised.................................................................................................................

(68) EXERCISE ===========================================

(a)
(b)

Which nominal category does Czech grammaticalise more than English?

Which nominal category does English grammaticalise more than Czech?.

Consider the criteria for stating the level of grammaticalisation, and demonstrate relevant
examples to support your claims.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................
28

SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NOUN

Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 363-393; Svoboda (2004) pp. 18-23;
Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp. 1235-1352
Syntactic properties concern above all distribution, i.e. co-occurrence of a lexical item, that
is, its context, (i.e. what does it combine with, in which order, in which hierarchy).
I.

Elements subordinate to N (these modify N and combine with N in complex NP)

(1)

Noun Phrase (NP) =

II.

The function/ distribution of NP:

Elements superordinate to a (complex) NP
What does the NP depend on?

(2)

Peter saw

2.1
(3)

a nice BOOK

of stories

NP = a nice BOOK of stories already.

I nter nal Str uctur e of Noun Phr ases

Complex nominal phrase

all

the

three [very tall] white

(Q) - D/POSS - (Q) - A

city towers

- A - N/A -

Elements preceding / pre-modifying the Noun

of Mordor

[with black spires]

- [P - NP] - XP or Clause
Elements following /
post-modifying the Noun

2.1.1 N-premodifiers
(4)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Determiners including possessives

Both in D position and Q position
Adjectives and their modifiers
Secondary Adj (foremd from Ns)
Etc...

the/ this/my friend

all three friends
very interesting story
government funds
sideways motion, outer lmit, inside man

Discuss the following properties of elements preceding the Noun.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Determiners are obligatory and unique. See (26) on page 19!!

Possessives are not Adjectives, but NPs. See (13) on page 17.
Adjectives (and APs) are recursive i.e. they can follow each other.
Secondary Adjectives have the morphology of some other part of speech

(5)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

a/ the/ my/ which/ a friends book.

I bought expensive book.
*the my book/ *the Johns book
[NP my brother John]'s book
the big hairy stupid irritating dog
govern-ment funds/ iron bridge /(clean) ladies room/ busmans holiday

29

With the exception of recursive Adjectives (which follow a semantically determined order
according to their scope), there is a strictly fixed order among the pre-modifiers of N.
(6)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

the big green monster

*big the green monster
? the green big monster
some old French book
*some French old book

(a')
(b')
(c')
(d)

ta velk bl kniha
* velk bl ta kniha
? ta bl velk kniha
*njak francouzsk star kniha
njak star francouzsk kniha

2.1.2 N-postmodifiers
(7)

Postmodification

(a)
(b)
(c)

complex adjectival phrases

of-phrase (unique, adjacent)
other PPs (multiple)

(d)
(e)
(f)

V-ing, V-infinitive
clauses (e.g. relative clauses)
Etc.

(8)

The order of postmodifiers is correlated with their scopes (in the same way as the order
of A premodifiers) with the exception of the of-phrase, which must be adjacent.

(a)

a student of math with long hair

* a student with long hair of math

(a')

student chemie s aktovkou na zdech

*student s aktovkou na zdech chemie

(b)

the letter for John from Bill

the letter from Bill for John

(b')

dopis od Petra pro Janu

dopis pro Janu od Petra

(c)

a book of stories for Bill with a white cover

2.2

a student [AP more intelligent than Einstein]

that brother of mine from Brooklyn
the student of philosphy with long hair
the letter for John from Bill
the student reading philosophy, a man to watch
the book which you gave me, the place you live
some travels abroad, the way home

Distr ibution and F unctions of Noun Phr ases

The distribution of NPs (and their sentence functions) is very diverse. An NP of any
complexity can be any sentence member. Some positions are more typical than others.
(9)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Subject
V-Object
P-Object
PP Adverbial
Nominal Predicate
Possessive
Attribute/ Complement

[NPThose three students of yours] arrived soon.

I saw [NP those three students of yours] nearby.
I spoke about [NP those three students of yours].
I stayed with [NP those three students of yours].
John, Ann and Sue are [NP three students of mine].
[NP those three students]'s books
We appointed her [NP a chairwoman of a meeting].

The sentence functions illustrated above are syntagmatic relations, i.e. the sentence function
is a relation between two members of a syntactic couple. An exception is the
Complement, which is a ternary relation (there are three related constituents).
No constituent can be a sentence member by itself, i.e. without a syntactic context.
In the above, those three students can be any sentence member, depending on the relation.
30

2.3

E xer cises

(10) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in the slots for the most complex NPs you can construct. Include complex modifeirs
such as (a) a lot of, (b) very tall, (c) twenty-year old, (d) V infinitives, (e) relative clauses.
Q
D/Poss Q
each -----

A
tall

A
blond

N/A
play

N
BOY

P = of

NP

XP
in a Fiat

girl
love
Mary
story
air
Prague
reading

(11) EXERCISE ===========================================

Rewrite the sentences below using the Pronouns or Pro-forms indicated. Specify the
parts of each sentences which you have replaced by the pronouns/ pro-forms.
(i) The tall boy with long hair was irritated by the next question.
(ii) To read such a long book would not please my beloved little brother.
(iii) The fact troubled me last year me that my little brother did not seem very interested.
he

(i)

..............

(ii)

..............

(iii) ..............
one (i)

..............

(ii)

..............

(iii) ..............
it

so

(i)

..............

(ii)

..............

(iii) The fact..................

then (iii) The fact ..................

31

EXERCISE ===========================================
Discuss (i) the terminology, (ii) the obligatory or optional ordering and (iii) unique or
multiple occurrence of separate pre-/post-modifiers of the head nouns.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

all the boys

(a) *the all boys
a brother of mine
(b) *a my brother / *my a brother
that big boy
(c) *big that boy
the old big black dog
(d') ?the big black old dog
the two towers of the city made of steel (e) *the two towers made of steel of the city
the book of stories in a green cover for my sister Emily

(12) EXERCISE ===========================================

Compare the ordering/ uniqueness of elements of the complex NP in Czech with the
data from English in (5) on page 29. Fill in the inverted examples and add * (and supply your
own examples) whenever needed.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

vichni ti chlapci
(a') ti vichni chlapci
*ten bratr mne
(b') ten mj bratr / * mj ten bratr
ten velk chlapec
(c') ......................................
ten velk ern pes
(d') ......................................
kniha pohdek v zelenm obalu pro mou sestru
sestra moj kamardky v ervenm kabt s dlouhmi vlasy

SCOPE

(13) EXERCISE ===========================================

How can a NOUN / NOUN PHRASE (e.g. city / the large city and sister / my little
sister) modify another Noun (e.g. plan, room)? Compare English and Czech.
Evaluate the acceptability (assuming the proposed reading) of the following examples.
Then compare the category, complexity and position of the underlined modifiers. Give more
examples if necessary to make your points.
(a)
(b)
(c)

the two tall city towers

the two towers of city
chudk ensk

(a) the two the large city tall towers

(b) the two towers of the large city
(c) msto ve

(14) EXERCISE ===========================================

Commenting the following examples, compare POSSESSIVEs and their equivalents in
English and Czech w.r.t. their
(i) position (pre- or post-N),
(ii) complexity (N or NP or PP),
(iii) Number & Animacy,
(iv) category (A or N/NP).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

* the Jim's book

a book of (our) Jim
?? the table's leg / paint
pupil's / pupils' book
mother's / father's / child's room
your mother's book

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

ta Janova kniha
?? kniha Jana / kniha vaeho Jana
* stolova noha/barva
kova / * c? kniha
matin/ otcv/ dtt? pokoj
* tvoj? matina kniha

32

(15) EXERCISE ===========================================

Complex compounds containing chains of N/ A/ Adv: Discuss the interpretation of the
following Bracketing paradoxes. Translate the examples into Czech.
(a)
(b)
(c)

the Yorkshire wool industry wage dispute

a starving children relief fund
the ship-to-shore telephone experiment

(16) EXERCISE ===========================================

Mark sentence members in the following sentencs and give the names of the
syntagmatic relations which form them.
(i)
(ii)

Tvoje sestra pozorovala vera ptky na plot.

The other boy gave his book of stories to Adam.

(17) EXERCISE ===========================================

(i) What is the function (sentence member) of the underlined NP?
(ii) What does the NP depend on (what are the syntagmatic = syntactic/ binary relations)?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

I saw a man at noon.

Run over the hill now
Are new pupils' books here?
Is that boy big enough?
There is a boy over there.
He must be a teacher.
They elected him President.
He was elected President.

(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................
(i)........................................

(ii)......................................
(ii)......................................
(ii).......................................
(ii)......................................
(ii)......................................
(ii)......................................
(ii)......................................
(ii)......................................

(18) EXERCISE ===========================================

Which elements do you need to add to create the given syntagmatic relations? Give at
least two examples for each of (a)-(c). What are those elements?
(a)
(b)
(c)

Joe (=Subject)
Joe (=Object)
Joe (=Attribute)

....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................

(19) EXERCISE ===========================================

Relate the following words by means of the given syntagmatic relations. Make short
sentences using the words and underline the relevant couple.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(c)

Peter see (Subject - Predicate) .................................................................................

Peter see (Verb - Object)
.................................................................................
book old (Noun Attribute)
.................................................................................
book see Adam old (Attribute-noun / Subject-Predicate / Verb-Object)
.........................................................................................................................................

33

(20) EXERCISE ===========================================

In the following phrases: which elements are higher (superordinate) and which
elements are lower (subordinate)? How do we decide about this? Are the signals of hierarchy
the same in Czech and in English? Make your own examples to test your claim.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

to see Mary / *Mary to see

this book / *these book /*book this
about him / *about he / *him about
she arrives / *she arrive / *her arrives

vidt Marii / *vidt Mari / Marii vidt

tato kniha /*touto kniha / ? kniha tato
o nm / *o nm / *nm o
ona pijela /*n pijela / pijela ona

(21) EXERCISE ===========================================

Create the relevant syntagmatic relation (add the other member of the phrase). Discuss
the hierarchy and the way it is signaled.
(a)
(b)
(c)

he (=Subject)
he (=Object)
he (=Attribute)

....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................

(22) EXERCISE ===========================================

Can a Pronoun or Noun appear as Adverbial or Complement? Find some examples.
(a)

Adverbial

(b)

Complement

....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................

(23) EXERCISE ===========================================

Mark the relations in the following structure. Explain how morphology (if possible) is a
signal of hierarchy.
(a)
(c)

el do koly
dopis pro nho

(b)
(d)

(he) went to school

a letter for him

(24) EXERCISE ===========================================

What are the most typical sentence functions of Nouns? Which are more rare?Why?
(25) EXERCISE ===========================================
Are the underlined elements heads (N) or phrases (NP? Can you support your claim?
(Can you substitute pronouns for them? What does this imply?)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Your sister arrived later than Hillary.

I met Jim in front of the house.
William introduced his new girlfried to all the school-mates.
Those tall city towers had been rebuilt before the castle was finished.

34

(26) EXERCISE ===========================================

Are the sentence functions of Subject and Object defined with phrasal constituents
(NPs) or with heads (Ns)? Give examples and discuss their properties to prove your claim.
(27) EXERCISE ===========================================
What follows Prepositions in Czech and in English? NPs or Ns? Give examples and
show how they support your claim.
(28) EXERCISE ===========================================
First look at the arguments for the example below which show that the word
organization in a given sentence is a Noun. Then give similar arguments for the capitalised
words (assuming they are Nouns) in the following sentences. Try to cover all arguments
(semantic, morphological, and syntactic). Use substitution, if necessary.
Example: Several new ORGANIZATIONS of young people took part in the program.
1. semantics:
2. phonetics:

the word ORGANIZATION independently refers to some entity.

the word takes main (possibly multiple) stress = a major category.
(Grammatical elements have no secondary or non-initial stress.)
3. morphology (derivational and inflectional)
(a) derivational morphology:
(i) -tion is an English morpheme used for the derivation of Nouns:
e.g. organize organiza-tion (like nationalization)
(ii) It can be a derivational stem: N+alAdj, e.g. organization-al (like national).
(b) inflectional morphology: the word may take the nominal morphemes of
(i) plural -s, e.g. many organization-s (like many boys),
(ii) possessive 's, e.g. our organization-'s decision (like Mary's decision).
4. syntax (subordinate and superordinate elements)
(a)
(b)

the word projects according to (3) on page 29 to a typical Noun Phrase, i.e. it is
modified by a Determiner (several), Adjective (new) and of-P (of young people),
the complex headed by the word appears in a sentence in the function of Subject of the
finite Verb take part.

Now do the same for the capitalized nouns in the following sentences.
(a)

There are some heavy CLOUDS on the western HORIZON.

(b)

Every normal MOTHER feels a kind of LOVE to her CHILD.

(c)

Because of the crisis, the new GOVERNMENT funds were restricted.

(d)

The main CITY in Northern Moravia is Ostrava.

(e)

He was impressed by the CITY towers of Carcassone but I like more those of vila.

35

PRONOUNS

Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 108-128; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp.
333-398, 817-822; Dukov (1994) pp.101-135; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov (1989)
pp.84-112
(1)

Classification of English Pronouns, from Greenbaum & Quirk (1990)

1. CENTRAL

a) personal
b) reflexive
c) possessive

RECIPROCAL
RELATIVE
INTERROGATIVE
DEMONSTRATIVE
a) positive
6. INDEFINITE

i) determinative
ii) independent

2.
3.
4.
5.

i) universal
ii) assertive, or
existential
iii) non-assertive

b) negative
3.1

I/ me, we/ us...

myself, ourselves...
my, your, his, her, its, our...
mine, yours, his, hers, ?its, ours...
each other, one another
the wh-series, that,
the wh-series, how, why
this/ these, that/ those
all/ both, each/ every
some-, one, half, several, enough,
(an)other
any-, either
no-, neither

Per sonal Pr onouns

3.1.1 Interpretation of Personal Pronouns

(2)

(a)
(b)

In (3)
(3)

To call oneself "James Bond" is appropirate only if one is James Bond (and not
Ludmila Veselovsk.
To call oneself "I" is always correct, no matter whether one is James Bond or
Ludmila Veselovsk.
(a) is true no matter who says so only when James Bond actually did so.
(b) is true if the person, who pronounces it, did so.

(a)
(b)

James Bond was flying to Hawaii.

I was flying to Hawaii.

Contrary to referrential Nouns, Pronouns do not have independent referrence. Their semantic
interpretation can be defined only in the terms of discourse, i.e. according to the conditions
and circumstances of the specific speech act.
(4)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

this and that

[PROXIMATE]
here and there
now and then
Give me that.
This one here is better than that one there.
I am reading this book here and now, not that one.

36

Discourse bound interpretation of personal Pronouns:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

I
you
(s)he
it
we

(=1sg)
(=2sg)
(=3sg,m/f)
(=3sg)
(=1pl)

(f)
(g)

you
they

(=2pl)
(=3pl)

= the speaker (= the person who performs the speech act)

= the hearer (= the intended adresee of the speech act)
= the other (human non-participant of the discourse)
= non-human non-participant
= a set of people one of which is the speaker. The hearer can
be a member of the group (inclusive we) or not (exclusive we).
= a set of people including the hearer, not the speker
= the others (non-participants of the discourse)

Consider the characteristics of Number [plural] with personal Pronouns

(5)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

books / boys [plural] =

we [1 plural]

you [2 plural]
=/
they [plural]
=

book+book+book... / boy+boy+boy
speaker + speaker + speaker....
hearer + hearer + hearer...
the other + the other + the other

(6)

Stylistic / Pragmatic usage of we

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

As we can see in Chapter 3... , As we just showed... (Inclusive/authorial/ editorial WE)

Today we are much more concerned ...
(Rhetorical WE)
How are we feeling today?
(= you)
We are really in a bad mood today...
(= he)

(7)

it and there: referential and expletive Pronouns

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

I want this book. She wants it, too.

It is raining.
It is not true that he did it.
There is a man in the middle of the room.

(Referring it)
(Weather it)
(Propositional it and Linking it)
(Expletive there)

3.1.2 Pronoun Function and Form

Case : English pronouns have three/ four morphologically distinct Case forms. See 1.10.
(8)

Case:

(a)
(b)
(c)

SUBJECT
SAXON-GENITIVE
OBJECT

(I, you, he, she, it, we, they)

(my/mine. your/yours, her/hers, their/theirs...)
(me, you, him, her, it, us, them)

(9)

(a)
(b)

Possessives
Pndependent /predicative

This is my book.
The book is mine. That brother of mine is here.

(10) (a)
(b)

Object of a Verb
Object of a Preposition

I saw him /*he frequently.

I went there with him/*he last week.

Subject Case in English is more marked (less used) than the nominative is in Czech.
Consider the Case on the English Pronouns below. Compare with the Czech translations.
(11) (a)
(b)
(e)

Who did it? - Me. It was me.

It was she/ her that Adam criticised.
We/ us students have many expenses.

37

(c)
(d)
(f)

Mary and him often go abroad.

Nobody but her/ ?she/ does it well.
We got home before them/ ?they.

In current English, subject pronouns are preferred and obligatory only as uncoordianated
subjects of overt predicates that immediately follow them. Otherwise spoke Enlgish
prefers object pronouns.
Recall which part of a structure is replaced by (which) Pronouns.
(12)

[The smart girl] with [the two foreign friends] was awarded [the first prize]
SHE
THEM
IT

(13) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

My younger brother
*My younger he
He
My younger one

bought
a new car.
bought * a new it.
bought
it.
bought
a new one.

Personal Pronouns replace Noun Phrases (not Nouns). See also exercise (11) on page 31.
Pronouns therefore can express nominal functions. See section 2.2.
There are some distinction between Ns/NPs/and pronominals.
Restricted (Post) Modification of Pronominals
Unlike Nouns, Pronouns cannot be freely modified, they cannot be the head of a phrase like
Nouns in (3) on page 29. There are some idiosyncratic exceptions, e.g. relative clauses:
(14) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

hardly any, nothing at all, almost anybody

We all......, They each....., You both....
(vs. floating Qs)
emphasis: you yourself
Silly me! we doctors, us visitors
you there, you in the raincoat
we of the modern age
He/ she who hesitates is lost.
Those/ we/ you/ *they who work hard deserve some reward.
cf. *It that/ What stands over there is a church.

3.1.3 The Pro-N One

(15)

Numeric one (pro-Q)

(a)
(b)

I met one young boy / two other boys.

One / many of the boys arrived at five.

(16)

Substitute one (pro-N)

(a)
(b)

I'd like another steak /one other big one.

Those red cars / red ones I like most.

(17)

Generic one (pro-NP)

(a)
(b)

One / they would assume that...

She makes one / my brother Adam feel well.

3.2

R elative Pr onouns

These Pronouns introduce a relative clause.

(18) (a)
(b)

kdo, co, jak, kter, , jen.

wh-Pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, and also: that,

38

3.2.1 The form of the relative Pronouns

The wh-Pronouns show (agree with) the morphological features of Nouns and Adjectives.
The agreement is built with two elements:
(a) Gender (Animacy)/ Number features depend on the head Noun (in the main clause).
(b) Case depends on the function of the Pronoun in the relative clause.
(19) (a)

(b)

Znm enu [Fem, Sg, ACC], kter (= ta ena NOM) nos na hlav tek.
(a) singular
(b) feminine
(c) NOM

I know a woman [Human, ACC], whoNOM /*whomACC (=the woman NOM) wears scarves.
(a) animate/human
(b) NOM

The WH relative Pronouns (only) can be preceded by Prepositions or other material:

(20) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The boys with who(m)/ which/ *that I go out

I can see the book, the name of which I have forgotten
Here is the answer, the importance of which you did not realize in time.
I can see the guy whose name I have forgotten.

Case with relative Pronouns

Relative Pronouns show pronominal Case morphology, i.e. Subject/ Possessive/ Object:
(21) (a)

he

- his

- him

(b)

who - whose - whom

The Object Case of the relative Pronoun is more likely to appear overtly in English if the
Pronoun is close/ adjacent to its Case assigner (Verb/ Preposition), and much less likely if the
Case assigner is dissociated/ stranded from the Pronoun.
(22) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

I know the man who/ %whom you met yesterday.

I know the man who/ %whom everyone says they like.
Lets not rely on your cousein, to find whom/ *who might be difficult.
I know the man with whom/ %who you were talking.
I know the man who/ *whom you were talking with.
Preposition stranding

3.2.2 Omitting the relative Pronoun

Only those relative Pronouns can be deleted in English which neither have the function of a
Subject nor follow a Preposition or other fronted material.
(23) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

I know the man whom you invited for dinner.

I know the man --- you invited for dinner.
Can you give me the book which is laying on the table?
*Can you give me the book --- is laying on the table?
Show me the man at whom you are looking.
*Show me the man at --- you are looking.
Show me the man -- you are looking at.

39

3.3

I nter r ogative Pr onouns

3.3.1 The form of the interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative Pronouns are elements used in WH-questions, i.e. questions which ask to
identify some sentence constituent. The form of the Pronoun depends on the constituent it
replaces. The repertory and forms are like relative Pronouns plus how (many/ Adjective) and
why but not including that or .
Consider which constituents (parts of speech, phrases, sentence members?) can be
questioned and what is the right morphological form of the WH Pronoun.
(24)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

Her younger brother/ He met her/ my sister very briefly

yesterday in front of their new school twice.
Who met her yesterday in front of their new school twice?
Whom/ Who did he meet yesterday in front of their new school?
When did he meet her in front of their new school?
Where did he meet her yesterday twice?
In front of which school did he meet her yesterday? - In front of their new school.
In front of whose new school did he meet her yesterday? -In front of their new school.
How many times/ How often did he meet her yesterday in front of their new school?
How did he meet her yesterday in front of their new school?
Why did he meet her yesterday in front of their new school?

As with relatives, the Case marking of the interrogative WH Pronouns depends on their
sentence function, i.e.on the function of the sentence member they are asking about. In
Modern English overt Case marking is most likely if the Pronoun is adjacent to the Case
assigner. (The same phenomenon as in (22) above.)
(25) I am waiting for hi-m.

The P for is a Case assigner

(a)
(b)

Who are you waiting for?

% Who-m are you I waiting for?

Pronoun is stranded from the Case assigner (for)

(c)
(d)

For who-m are you waiting?

% For who are you waiting?

Pronoun is adjacent to the Case assigner (for)

(26) I saw hi-m.

(a)
(b)
(c)

The V saw is a Case assigner

Who did she meet?

Prounoun is not adjacent to the Case assigner (meet)
% Whom did she meet?
In order to meet whom did she go to the square?
Pronoun is adjacent to meet.

3.3.2 The position of the WH-Pronouns

The interrogative Pronoun in the WH-question is moved from its position, it is fronted in the
clause. Notice that the size of the fronted interrogative element (the material preceding the
inverted Auxiliary and containing some interrogative WH element) can be far bigger that one
word. It is a phrase (it replaces the whole sentence member we are asking about).

40

(27) He bought [OBJECT NP the three books] [ADVERBIAL PP in the new shop on the square].
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

did he buy in the new shop?

[OBJECT NP What ]
[OBJECT NP How many books ]
did he buy in the new shop?
[ADVERBIAL PP Where ]
did he buy the three books?
[ADVERBIAL PP In which shop on the square]
did he buy the three books?

If there is more than one WH Pronoun (in so called Multiple Wh-questions), only the
hierarchically highest is fronted in Standard English. The other(s) remain in the position of
the sentence member they represent, i.e. they remain in situ.
(28) [SUBJECT NP Emily] bought [OBJECT NP several books] [ADVERBIAL PP in the new shop].
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Who bought what where?

What did Emily buy where?
*Where did Emily buy what?
What did Mary buy why?

*What did who buy where?

*What did who buy on the square?
*Why did Mary buy what?

Notice that in English the interrogative element can appear in a clause which it does not
belong to (often in an initial main clause). Consider the sentence functions of the WH
Pronouns in such Long-distance WH-Movement:
(29) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

When do you think that Emily arrived?

Who(m) did Emily tell you (that) Bill met at the raiway station?
Which jacket did John persuade Emily (that) she should take on the trip?
Who did Emily say (that) Bill thought (*that) would arrive late?
How/ Why should Mary make public (that) she plans to divorce?

While the long distance WH-questions appear often in English, in Czech this kind of WH
question is 'substandard', and their frequency is highest with Adverbials.
(30) (a)
(b)
(c)

Kdo si mysl, e Maruce pomohl?

(O kom so mysl, e Maruce pomohl)
Kam si mysl, e Petr ekl, e to Jana dala.
??Kter kabt se Petr ptal Marie e si Jan vzal na vlet?

Interpretation of interrogative Pronouns

Indefinite (who, what) vs. definite (which)
Independent
vs. determinative function
(31) (a)
(b)

Who is your favourite conductor? What is your favourite type of music?

Which is your favourite conductor/ type of music??

(32) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

What's the name of this tune?

What / Which conductor do you like best?
What / Which newspaper do you read?
Which (of these) do you prefer?

(33) (a)
(b)

Whose jacket is this?

Whose is this jacket?

41

*Which is the nature of music?

*What of these do you prefer?

This is Peter's jacket.

This jacket is Peter's.

3.4

E xer cises

(34) EXERCISE ===========================================

Explain the (discourse related) interpretation of the underlined words.
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)

Do you think that they saw us?

He praised a man. Can he be praising himself?
He thinks that this book is more interetsting than those old ones.
?! I am there just now.

(35) EXERCISE ===========================================

Which category (part of speech) is one in the following sentence? Replace it with
another member of the same category.
(a)
(b)

I do not want this one, but you can buy me one from that counter.
I do not want this , but you can buy me from that counter.

(36) EXERCISE ===========================================

Translate the following sentences (find Czech equivalents of one). How do we call these
kinds of one?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

One boy arrived at five.

.................................................................................
I'd like another one.
.................................................................................
Those blue ones I like most.
.................................................................................
One would think that impossible. .................................................................................
Public speaking gives one confidence. ..................................................................

(37) EXERCISE ===========================================

Give examples of English Pronouns which reflect Animacy/ Gender
ANIMATE
Gender marked

INANIMATE
no Gender

personal
possessive
reflexives
emphatic
relative
interrogative
(38) EXERCISE ===========================================
Make WH questions related to the following sentence with the proposed answers.
Underline the WH Pronouns and discuss their form/ size.
Yesterday our little Emily passed well both the difficult tests at school.
(a)
(b)

.................................................................................................?
.................................................................................................?

42

- Our little Emily.

- Both the tests.

(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

.................................................................................................?
.................................................................................................?
.................................................................................................?
.................................................................................................?
..................................................................................................?
..................................................................................................?

- Yesterday.
Our (little) one.
- Two.
- The two tests.
- Well.
- Passed well both.

(39) EXERCISE ===========================================

Match the questions and the answers:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

What is her husband?

Which is her husband?
Who is her husband?
How is her husband?

(a')
(b')
(c')
(d)

He is Paul Jones.
He is a tall handsome guy.
He is the man on the right.
He is a film director.

(40) EXERCISE ===========================================

(i)
(ii)

Explain the agreement morphology on the relative Pronoun in the (a) example below.
How are the same features expressed in the examples (b) and (c)?

(a)
(b)
(c)

To je ten kluk, ktermu Maruka pedevrem nesla kytici r.

To je ten kluk, co mu Maruka pedevrem nesla kytici r.
To je ten chlapec, jemu Maruka pedevrem nesla kytici r.

(41) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in all the correct forms (including ) and explain the morphology:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)

Benjamin saw the book ...................................... you ordered last month.

Benjamin saw the book .................................... was lying on the window sill.
Benjamin saw the book ...................................... title I have forgotten.
Benjamin saw the book, the title of ............................ I have forgotten.
Benjamin saw the book about .................................... you were writing your essay.
Benjamin met the man ..................................... you invited for dinner.
Benjamin met the man .................................... was looking out of the window.
Benjamin met the man .................................... name I have forgotten.
Benjamin met the man the name of ........................... I have forgotten.
Benjamin met the man about ............................ you were writing your essay.
Benjamin met the man ................................... Hillary asked me to introduce to her.

(42) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in all the correct form(s) and explain which is the standard/ marked morphology
of the interrogative Pronoun for each of the sentences.
(a) .......................... do you imagine likes her the most?
(b) For ........................ are you working?
(c) ......................... is she working for?
(d) Do you know anyone ......................... she could work for?

43

- Hugo.
- For Hugo.
- For Hugo.
- Hugo.

EXERCISE ===========================================
Consider the forms of the WH-questions asking for a Subject. Give examples of (a)
a direct WH-question, (b) an indirect WH-question, (c) an echo WH-question.
"Hillary will read her paper tomorrow."
(a)
(b)
(c)

.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................................

(43) EXERCISE ===========================================

Find nominal phrases headed by an underlined head N/Q. How many parts do they
consist of? Do all their parts appear in one place or is the NP split (divided)?
(a)
(b)
(c)

Jak si Anna nakonec koupila auto?

Kolik zn dobrch knih od Updika?
Takovch jsem jich vidl vera na ulici opilch nejm osm.

Translate the examples to English and explain the distinction, referring to the structure of the
Nominal Phrase (see (3) on page 29), namely to its potential to be split when questioned or
topicalised.
(44) EXERCISE ===========================================
Translate the following examples to English and explain the distinction between the
languages w.r.t. multiple WH-questions.
(i) How many WH elements can be fronted in a Czech clause and how many in English?
(ii) What is the order of constituents in English/ Czech?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Kdo komu pomhal s lohou?

.............................................................
Co kdo vidl?
.............................................................
Komu kdo co u vs daroval pod stromeek?.............................................................
Kdy komu co dala?
.............................................................
Kdo kdy co komu dal zadarmo?
.............................................................

(45) EXERCISE ===========================================

Discuss the following examples of Long-distance Wh-Movement.
(i) Which sentence memeber is the fronted WH-member? What is its phrasal type?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

When do you think Monica arrived?

Who do you think did it?
Who did Julien say that Monica saw?
How many books did Julien say that Monica claimed she had read?
Who did Julien say that Monica wrote that Joseph spoke with?
(ii)

Translate the above sentences to Czech and discuss the distinction(s).

44

ANAPHORS (REFLEXIVES AND RECIPROCALS)

Huddleston and Pullum (2002) pp. 425-428; Huddleston and Pullum (2005) pp. 100-110;
Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik, (2004) pp. 335-392; Dukov (1994) pp.101-135
4.1

Reference

Nominal expressions (Noun Phrases, NPs) refer to something/ somebody.

Some of them have independent referrence (= Referrential Expressions);
others require co-referrential antecedents (= anaphors) in the linguistic discourse.
REFERENCE

[A] to non-linguisitc context to reality; independent reference

[B] to a large linguistic context or a context of pointing (ostension)
[C] to some syntactically definable, local linguistic context

(1)

"James Bond"
[A] R-expression
[B] pronominal
[C] anaphor

Everybody hates JAMES BOND , and, and HE even hates HIMSELF .

Nominal elements can be divided according to their reference into three groups.
(2)

R-expressions

(a)
(b)
(c)

(3)

Pronominals The story had three characters including Poirot and Miss Marple.
wider linguistic context and (a) First, he invited her for dinner.
pragmatic anaphors
(b) Then, she invited him for tea.
(c) #?And he invited him to the club soon after.

(4)

Syntactic Anaphors

(a)
(b)
(c)

Hercule Poirot invited Miss Marple.

Miss Marple met a handsome detective.
One boy invited another boy.

Hercule Poirot invited himself.

*Himself invited Hercule Poirot.
They invited each other/ *himself.

4.1.1 Co-reference (Antecedents and Indices)

Formal marking of co-reference: indices: subscripts (variables) are used to show the coreferrential expressions (these are marked with the same index).
(5)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

? Everybody hates [Beckett], even [Beckett] hated [Beckett].

Everybody hates Becketti, hei even hated himselfi.
Hei saw him*i/ j at the last second.
Hei was looking at himselfi/*j in the mirror.
45

(e)
(f)

Patrickj described Patriciam to himselfj / herselfm.

[Pat and Patty]j,m were looking at each otherj,m/ themselvesj,m/ *herselfm.

4.1.2 The linear position of an antecedent (above all with pragmatic anaphors)
(6)

(a) anaphor
(b) cataphor

Johni came late, because hei had missed the train.

Before hei joined the Navy, Geraldi made peace with his family.

Both anaphors and cataphors are, however, hieararchically similar; an antecedent cannot be
subordinate to either anaphors and cataphors (it cannot be 'lower,' i.e. less prominent).
4.2

T he F or m and I nter pr etation of E nglish B ound A naphor s

English Reflexive Pronouns: complex (Personal Pronoun in OBJECT Case + SELF/

SELVES). Czech Reflexive Pronouns: contain simple SE/ SI, but not the personal Pronouns.
(7)

(a)
(b)

He/ she/ they saw himself/ herself /themselves.

On/ Ona/ oni vidli sebe.

Reflexive Pronouns are syntactic anaphors, i.e. type C in (1). They need antecedents.
(8)

(a)
(b)

Hei introduced him*i.

Oni pedstavil ho*i.
///////
not co-referrential

vs.
vs.

Hei introduced himselfi.

Oni pedstavil se(be) i.
co-referrential

In the example above,

He is the antecedent of himself, but it cannot be the antecedent of him.
In (a), himself is bound to He, but in (b) him is not bound to he, i.e. him is free.
4.2.1 Antecedents of anaphors
Distinguish

(9)

(a)
(b)
(c)

(a)
(b)

unmarked reading vs. contrastive reading (= it can be so and so)

obligatory reading vs. impossible reading (= it must be so and so)

John arrived. Do you like him?

John saw him.
John saw himself.

him can be John. (Construct 2 contexts for this.)

him must NOT be John.
himself must be John.

(10) Bill passed John. He didn't see him. He was looking at himself (in the window glass).
Bohu potkal Jendu. Nevidl ho. Dval se na sebe (do vlohy).
(a)

Billi met Johnj. /

Bohui potkal Jenduj.

Bill and John are referrential expressions. They refer to two distinct people (outside of some
schizophrenic context). Bill and John are not bound to each other.
(b)

But hei/ j/ x didn't see himi/ j/ x.

(i) Nevidl ho
(=Bohu Jenka)
(ii) On ho nevidl (=Jenk Bohue)

46

If (b) follows (a), the most salient (pragmatically probable) reading is that he in (b) is
co-referrential with Bill in (a). With marked stress it can, however, also be John and if more
sentences preceded and the discourse suggests it, Hecan be anybody else as well. (type B).
In any case, whoever is he in (b), it is not the same person as him in (b) = he and him in
(b) can not be co-referrential. This is called disjoint reference.
(c)

Hek was looking at himselfk/*x ...

Onk se dval na sebek

The reference of He is vague as in (c). As for himself, however, there is no vagueness, it must
be the same person as the preceding Subject/Agent He.He and himself in (c) above are coreferrential = himself (reflexive) is a linguistic bound anaphor (type C in section 4.1).
4.2.2 Binding of Anaphors
Look at scheme (1) on page 45, and consider where in a structure we find the antecedent of
an anaphor. (In which domain does the antecedent appears? How far away is the antecedent?)
The Clause-Bound Nature of Syntactic Anaphors
(11)

(a)
(b)
(c)

Miss Marple believes that Poirot invited himself.

* Poirot believes that Miss Marple invited himself.
* Poirot believes that himself is the best detective.

(12) Binding Theory (BT), from Chomsky (1981, chapter 3):

(a)

R-expressions have no formal/ structural antecedent, they are always free.

(b)

Pronominals (pragmatic anaphors) have an antecedent in the context (linguisitc or

extralinguistic) but NOT in the same clause. In their clausal domain they are free.

(c)

Syntactic anaphors (reflexives/ reciprocals) must be bound (have an hierarchically

higher antecedent) in the same clause, often in the position of Subject/ Agent.

In many languages including Czech, syntactic anaphors must be bound by the subject
noun phrase, but in others including English direct object noun phrases can bind anaphors as
well. Thus, translate into Czech: Poirot described Miss Marple to herself (good in English).
4.2.3 Reciprocals
(13)

(a)

They saw each other.

(b)

We saw one another.

Reciprocals are also syntactic bound anaphors, ie. Subject to BT (part c) as in (12) above.
Unlike reflexives, they moreover require that an antecedent is plural (the action is reciprocal).
(14)

(b)
(c)
(15)

(a)
(b)
(c)

John and Mary introduced them.

John and Mary introduced themselves.
John and Mary introduced each other.

......... John, Mary

themselves = [JohnJohn + MaryMary] or [John+MaryJohn+Mary]

each other = [John Mary + Mary John]
(a)
(b)

Pedstavili se (= pedstavili kad sm sebe).

Pedstavili se (= pedstavili se(be) navzjem).
47

4.3

T he Distr ibution/ Use of R eflexive/ R ecipr ocal Pr onouns

(16) as an argument of a transitive Verb/ Preposition (replacing an NP)

(a)
(b)

* John blamed.
John blamed the girl / her / himself.

...requires an Object

(c)
(d)

* He thinks too much about.

He thinks too much about the girl / her / himself.

...requires an Object

(17) as part of a complex Verb

(a)
(b)
(c)

reflexive Verb
(obligatory)

semireflexive Verb
(optional)

* She always prides on X.

She always prides herself on X.
* She always prides him on X.

(a)
(b)
(c)

Behave now!
Behave yourself now!
* Behave him now!

(18) emphatic Pronouns (doubling another NP)

(a)
(b)

The President himself arrived.

Myself, I wouldn't take any notice.

(19) Jan to dlal sm.

4.4

(a)
(b)

(a')
(b')

Pijel sm president.
(J) sm bych si ani neviml...

John did it himself.

John did it alone.

(= personally)
(= without another person)

E xer cises

(20) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in the correct reflexive Pronoun. Underline its co-referential antecedent.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

The coroner concluded that he killed .......................

The police did not have to move a finger, the kidnappers shot .............................
It became clear that not even James can do it ............................
I guess that Bonnie gave that small picture of ............................ to her boyfriend.
To wash ................................ is a must for most civilised people.
G7 or 8, it makes no difference, African people must help.......................................

(21) EXERCISE ===========================================

Mark the co-referrence. Fill in the missing indexes for the Pronoun and its antecedent.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(c)

Tobiask saw him .

Next to Billj, Timi and Monicak saw themselves .
Martink saw her at the last second.
Monica was speaking to Mary , while looking at herselfi in the mirror.
Johni promised Peterk to shave himself .
Johni made Peterk shave himself .
God will help you if you help yourselfk.

48

(22) EXERCISE ===========================================

Translate into English. Discuss the meanings/ the distinctions.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Vidli se v zrcadle.
Polbili se.
Pinesli si drky.
Psal jsem tu lohu sm.
Byl jsem na to sm.

(f)

Sm Superman by se bl zstat v tom pokoji sm.

...................................................................................................................................

(a') ..................................................................
(b') ..................................................................
(c') ..................................................................
(d') ..................................................................
(e') ..................................................................

(23) EXERCISE ===========================================

Translate into Czech. Fill in indices. Discuss the meanings/ the distinctions.
(a)
(b)
(c)

They killed them .

They killed themselves .
They killed each other .

(a') ...............................................................
(b') ................................................................
(c') ................................................................

(24) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in correct /possible forms of a bound anaphoric Pronoun. Fill in correct indices.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

He was looking in the mirror at .......................

She saw Emma looking at ............................. in the mirror.
After their argument, the kidnappers shot .............................
Freeing ......................................with a sharp knife, Vincent lurched towards the door.
They asked Julie to invite ....................................
Even a King ............................ must help ..................................
They promised Martha to wash......................................
They ordered Martha to wash.......................................

(25) EXERCISE ===========================================

Long distance anaphors: Fill in the indices, notice the distinctions.
(a)
(b)

The professori made the studentk read his article.

Profesori nutil ka st svj lnek.

(c)
(d)

Johni saw Peterk beating his wife.

Jani vidl Petrak bt svou enu.

(26) EXERCISE ===========================================

Define the semantic frame = thematic roles = valency of the Verb help, and explain
which element expresses which role. Fill in the indices.
(a)
(b)
(c)

They themselves helped them

They helped themselves
The Presidents helped the committee themselves

49

MODIFIERS IN GENERAL

Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 129-157; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp.
399-474; Dukov (1994) pp. 141-164; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov (1989) pp.113134; Leech & Svartvik (1975) pp.189-203
5.1

Semantic char acter istics of A djectives/ A dver bs

(1) Semantic types of Adjectives (static or stative property).

An adjective is a word which enlarges the meaning and narrows the application of a
Noun. There are many possible groups, e.g.:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

value (good, bad, important)

similarity (different, similar, other)
age (old, new, young, ancient)
quantification (whole, numerous, third)
physical property (hard, wet, open)
speed (fast, slow, rapid)

(2)

Semantic types of Adverbs.

(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)

dimension (big, long, huge)

position (high, outer, near)
color (red, dark, black)
qualification (true, possible, plausible)
human quality (happy, clever, dead)
nationality, etc. (English, Slavic, Asian)

An adverb is a word which enlarges the meaning and narrows the application of a Verb
or other part of speech. As we proceed, we will see that Adverb is actually a cover term
for what is really more than one part of speech. Again, there are many possible groups, e.g.:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

focusing (also, even, too, just, only)

degree (very, well, how, as, really)
aspectual (still, yet, already)
connective (however, thus, indeed)

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

frequency (never, always, often)

modal (perhaps, actually, obviously)
temporal (soon, late, long, sudden)
manner (quickly, easily, well)

General characteristics: As MODIFIERS, Adj/Adv modify some other word/ constituent.

(3)

(a)

his quick run

jeho rychl bh

(b)

certain doubts
urit obavy

(4)

(a)

he runs quickly
bh rychle

(b)

he certainly doubts it
urit o tom pochybuje

5.2

A djectival / A dver bial M or phology

5.2.1 Derivational Morphology

(5)

(a)
(b)

Lexical stems: new, clever, big

VAdj: agreee-able, amus-ing

(c) NAdj: friend-ly, grass-y, styl-ish

(d) AdjAdj: green-ish, lat-ish

(6)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

bad-ly, clever-ly, legal-ly

.... synthetic adverbs: bound suffixes
up-wards, back-wards, home-wards
clock-wise, time-wise, weather-wise
in an interesting / fast way
.... analytic/ periphrastic adverbs

50

5.2.2 Inflectional Morphology

Features:

(i) INTRINSIC ...

(ii) OPTIONAL ...Grading features (comparative, superlative)
(iii) DERIVED ...N features (secondary agreement) in Czech, not English

Grading: Standard Adjectives /Adverbs are gradable.

(7)

(8)

5.3
(9)

(a)

synthetic (bound morphemes): -er, (the) A est: nice, nicer, the nicest

(b)

analytic (periphrastic): more, (the) most

(i) important, more important, (the) most important
(ii) ... in a more interesting way, in the most interesting way

(c)

irregular

(i)
(ii)

Non-gradable As (a)
(b)

good/ well, better, the best

bad/ badly, worse, the worst
finite/ dead, *more finite/ *more dead, *the most finite/ dead
last, *laster, *the lastest; open, *opener (physical sense), etc.

E xer cises
EXERCISE ===========================================

Give 5-8 derivational morphemes which create Adjectives, and give examples with
them. Find some which have some additional meaning apart from deriving a category.
...................................................................................................................................................
(10) EXERCISE ===========================================
Give the category of the underlined elements. Discuss the distinction between a/b/c and
d/e/f. Find more Adjective/ Adverb couples with similar properties. Make a generalisation.
Try to explain the phenomena, referring to the blocking effect (this part isnt easy!)
(a)
(b)
(c)

The child has a high temperature.

Airplanes can fly really high/ *highly.
Marcel is highly experienced.

(d)
(e)
(f)

Elisabeth likes hard work.

He likes to work hard/ *hardly.
Mary hardly ever works hard.

(11) EXERCISE ===========================================

State accurate rules for using synthetic vs. analytic forms of English Grading Adjectives.
(12) EXERCISE ===========================================
Is semantics important for the order of pronominal modifiers/ adjectives? Consider the
examples below, change the order and discuss acceptability. Compare with Czech.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

a handsome three-year old boy

a huge Italian pizza
Shakespeare's new sonnet
a new Shakespearian sonnet

.................................................................................
.................................................................................
................................................................................
.................................................................................

51

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES

Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 129-157; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp.
399-474; Dukov (1994) pp. 141-164; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov (1989) pp.113134; Leech & Svartvik (1975) pp.189-203
6.1

A djective Phr ase inter nal str uctur e

(very/ as/ 3 times more)

(1)

interesting (to us) (/ as/ than the others were)

Grading ADV/ Measure Phrase -

elements premodifying A

PP

Clasue / Vinf

elements postmodifying A

(A) PREMODIFICATION (pre-A elements)--comparatives & level of quality

(2)

Grading Adverbs: intensifiers or adverb + A (A = Adjective or Adverb)

(a)
(b)
(c)

more/ less/ the most/ the least important

very/ rather/ too/ so/ as nice/ important
fairly/ surprisingly nice/ important

(3)

Measure Phrases

(a)
(b)
(c)

a [AP ten-meter long] bridge

(a') to look ten meter-s long
a [AP five-year old] boy
(b') to be five year-s old
a [AP five-meter-seventy-centimeter high] wall (c) to be five feet three inches tall

(B)

POSTMODIFICATION (post-A elements)--complements of A or of Grading Adverb

(i)

A + Prepositional Phrase:

(4)

(a)
(b)
(c)

(5)

good at, afraid of, ready for, keen on, worried about/over, bad at, annoyed at/with,
successful in, interested in, interesting to, conscious of, convinced of, based on,
dependent on, important to, subject to, compatible with, disappointed with, etc.

(ii)

A + that-clause:

(6)

(a) I'm sure (that) you can come.

Men proud that they were born rich are rare.
(b) He seems glad / surprised / amazed / certain / confident / proud/ sad/ alarmed/
annoyed / astonished / disappointed / pleased / shocked (that) you can
come.

(7)

(a)
(b)

(a')
(b')
(c')

more/ less/ the most easily

ver /rather/ too/ so/ as easily
fairly/ surprisingly easily

a man [AP (very) proud of his son ]; some books [AP (very) interesting to us ]
a women [AP (extremely) faithful/ loyal to her husband ]
some heroes [AP (certainly) ready for a fight with aliens ]

With some As, the that-clauses are subjects: It is odd that he should be late.
It is appropriate / extraordinary / fortunate / important / odd / alarming
/ embarrassing / fitting / frightening / irritating that he should be late.

52

(iii) A + to-infinitive:
(8)

(a)
(b)
(c)

(9)

Some complex structures related to modifiers (both pre- and post-modifying):

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

He was ready / splendid / proud to help his neighbors.

He was furious / slow / eager to react.
They were careful / wrong / clever / cruel / kind / rude / silly not to follow us.

Adjectives

Adverbs

He is as big as/ *than he does.

He is bigg-er than/ *as than his father.
he is not as/ so dangerous as ...
He is far from dangerous .
the bigg-er they are, the more stupid...
It is too heavy to fly far

(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
(e')
(f')

she runs as quickly as/ *than he does.

he runs quick-er than/ *as his brother
she runs not as/ so quickly as ...
She runs far from well.
the high-er it flies, the les fuel
She runs too well to be defeated.

(a)
(b)

He is a much bigger idiot than me.

John is not as easy a target as Jim.

(10) Discontinuous structures:

6.2

Distr ibution/ F unctions of A djective Phr ases

There are 3 main functions of Adjective Phrases, all related to a nominal category.
(i) ADJECTIVAL PREDICATE (copula-AP)
... Predicate Nominal
(ii) ADJECTIVAL PRE-/POST-MODIFIERS (N-AP) ...Attribute
(iii) ADJECTIVAL COMPLEMENTS
...Subject/ Object Complements
6.3
(11)

Pr edicate F unction of A djectives (i)

His brother John
SUBJECT -

IS/ SEEMS/ BECAME [AP very handsome ]

copula/ linking verbs

AP

The status of a constituent as Predicate Adjective or Predicate Nominal is bound up with

theoretical frameworks: How do we define Copula? What is a Complement? What is the
difference between Complement and Object? etc... These questions are far from trivial.
Consider (a) Case on the verbal complement, (b) selection of Adj or Adv, (c) the meaning.
(12) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The boy is a student.

Chlapec je student(em)NOM-INSTR.
John is quick.
Jenda je rychlADJ.NOM

A copula: (a)
(b)
(c)

(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')

The boy saw a student.

Chlapec vidl studentaACC.
John runs quickly.
Jenda bh rychleADV.

has two arguments referring to the same entity (it expresses identity),
does not assign Object Case (to Nouns),
can be followed by an Adjective or Noun (agreeing with the Subject).

How many Verbs have these properties of a copula? (One in Czech, several in English.)

53

How complex can a Predicate Adjective be? Discuss the complexity of the Predicate
Adjectival Phrases in English in (13) in terms of (1) on page 52.
(13)

6.4

(a)
(b)
(c)

Emma is/ sounds silly / very silly / unbelievably silly.

Samuel is/ seems to be foolishly proud of his few achievements.
Helen got/ grew/ became about twice as mad at her mother as Piers did .

A djective Pr e-/Post-modifier s of a Noun: F unction (ii)

The most standard function of Adjectives is to modify the meaning of some Noun they are
Noun modifiers. They can appear both in front of and after the head N.
The position of the AdjP with respect to the head Noun depends on
(a) the characteristics of the Adj,
(b) the complexity of the AdjP.

NP =

(Q) - DET/POSS - (Q) -

AP

- AP

N/A -

AP

6.4.1 Pre-modifying Adjectives

In the following examples notice that Adjective modifiers are phrases (APs), because they
can be enlarged. See adjectival phrase in terms of the scheme (1) on page 52.
(14) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Mary is a very SCARED child

How FAITHFUL a woman did she turn out to be?
I have some extremely EAGER co-workers.
Elisabeth jumped over a two-meter WIDE ditch.
Elisabeth jumped over the DEEP AND DANGEROUS ditch.

Premodifying APs are syntactically "simpler"; they can be either bare (most often) or
premodified themselves (e.g. by very/ extremely/ how/ two-meter etc. (i.e. they are phrases).
However, they canNOT have their own postmodifying PPs or clauses (e.g. __ of monsters,
__to her husband, __of his achievements, ___glad we arrived, __eager to please the boss.
(15) (a)
(b)
(c)

* Mary is a SCARED of monsters child.

* Did she turn out to be a FAITHFUL to her husband woman?
* I have some EAGER to please the boss co-workers .

6.4.2 Post-modifying Adjectives

These result from:

(a) lexical or idiosyncratic properties of some A,

(b) phrases with French origins,
(c) complex APs (=with their own postmodification).

(16) Idiosyncratic As (i) syntax proper, president elect ,wine glasses galore
(ii) the students (who were) present/ absent/ available
(iii) passengers aboard, some wood afloat, a child asleep

54

(17) Romance loans (French)

(i) court martial, notary public, fee simple

(ii) Princess Royal, battle royal, Estates general
(iii) attorney general, postmaster general

(18) French:

(i) une princesse royale (ii) ce devoir simple (iii) des pierres lourdes
Det Noun Adj
Det Noun Adj
Det Noun Adj
'a royal princesse'
'that simple duty'
'some heavy rocks

(19) Spanish:

(i) la nia bonita

the girl nice

(ii) el libro grande

the book big

(iii) piedras grandes

rocks big

All English Adjectives must appear in postnominal position if they are complex. Compare
(14)/(15) with (20)/(21) and discuss the complexity of the post-modifying adjectival phrase
in terms of (1) on page 52.
(20) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

*Mary is a child SCARED.

*She turned out to be a woman very FAITHFUL.
*I know a man extremely EAGER.
*Elisabeth jumped over a ditch two-meter WIDE.
?Elisabeth jumped over the ditch DEEP AND DANGEROUS. (ok in narratives)

With English Adjective Phrases, postmodifed APs MUST themselves be postmodifiers:

(21) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
6.5

Mary is a child (very) SCARED of monsters.

She turned out to be a woman (extremely) FAITHFUL to her husband.
David met a man very FOND of English literature.
I know somemen extremely eager to please the boos.
I saw a girl as BEAUTIFUL as Mary / more BEAUTIFUL than Mary.
Subject/Object A djective C omplements (Secondar y Pr edicates): F unction (iii)

Syntactic relations (involving phrases) are typically binary (e.g. V +Object, N + attribute).
Complements (doplnk), however, enter into a ternary relation.
Compare the scheme (11) on page 53 with (a/c) below.
(22) (a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)

The girl is as happy as before.

The girl smiles as happily as before.
The girl remained as happy as before.

= Adjectival Predicate
= Adverbial (of Manner)
= Subject Complement

Adj is related through a "copula" to a Nominal Predicate (binary relation).

Adv is a modifier of a "lexical Verb" as an Adverbial (binary relation).
Adj is related to a "lexical Verb" and at the same time to sone NP (Subject or Object).
These latter are Subject/ Object Complements (ternary relations).

(23)

Some examples: David likes girls not so thin. Ann remained as happy as before.

(a)

John painted the door

V + Obj (painted the door)

V +Obj +AP: an Object Complement
(paintedgreen, the door green)

green.

55

(b)

Mary returned

Subj + V + AP: a Subject Complement

(Mary returned, Mary tired)

very tired.

Mary
is tired.
subject + predicate
(predicate =copula+nominal part)

Mary returned
subject + predicate

tired.
Complement

If is is a Copula tired is a part of a Predicate

If return is a Lexical Verb tired is a (Subject) Complement
BUT: The distinction between 'copula' and 'lexical Verb' varies across languages, so many
Czech Adverbials are analysed as Adjective Complements in English. Alternatively several
English Verbs are called linking verbs" if they are followed by a correferrential Adjective.
(24) (a)
(b)
(c)

Peter is/ seems old.

copulas (Is seem a copula?)
Peter became /grew/ turned old. change of state Verbs (Subject complement)
The food tastess/ looks good/ *well.
Verbs of sense perception (Subj. comp.)

(25) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

To je tk-/dobr-.
Pracuje tc-e/dob-e/piln-.
He works hard/ well/ diligent-ly.
Jdlo chutn/ von *dobr / dobe.

6.6

copula + Predicate Nominal

V + Adverbial
V + Adverbial
= (b/c) = V + Adverbial

C entr al vs. Per ipher al A djectives

(26) Typical Adjectives:

(27)

(a)
(b)

(a)
(b)
(c)

- are attributive: can (pre-)modify Nouns,

- can follow "linking verbs" such as seem/ remain/ look,
- are gradable (combine with very and more...than).

A (very) big boy...

He seems/ looks/ remains very big / bigger than me.

Not all Adjectives are prototypical. There is a gradient between CORE vs. PERIPHERAL
members of the ADJ class. (See categorial prototypicality in section 1.7.)
6.6.1 Secondary Adjectives
(28) (a)
(c)
(e)

those tall city towers

another top model
the [stick-in-the-mud] attitude

(b)
(d)
(f)

the new government project

an inside story
the stay-at-home American

Secondary Adjectives: have forms of Nouns/Adverbs/etc. (derivational morphemes) but

function as Attributes. They often have frozen inflectional morphology and no modification.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

* those tall cities towers ........................................ cannot take plural (N morphology)

* citi-er towers, *more government project .......... cannot take Adj morphology
* some expensive [our new government] project ....cannot form a full NP
* some expensive [very government] project ...........cannot form a full AP
56

(29) Secondary Adjectives/Adverbs (conversion) (V. Mathesius, O. Jespersen)

Arguments for their partly adjectival nature
(i)

coordination

(a)
(b)

She is quite vulgar and commonplace.

Private and government funds will be invested..

Assuming that only the same categories can be coordinated, vulgar and commonplace are to
be the same category, this suggsts that perhaps government here is some kind of adjective.
(ii)

A - N/ A - A

(c)

He is reading the new evening radical paper.

Assuming (?) a fixed position (or field) for Adjectives in front of a Noun, the position of
evening seems to suggest adjectival characteristics.
(iii) A - one

(d)

Electric engines are cheaper than steam ones.

Assuming 'one' combines with Adjectives, (d) suggests that steam is an Adjective.
(iv) too - A
A - most
A - est

(e)
(f)
(g)

That' a too London point of view

the topmost picture, the uppermost/ bottommost line
the choicest fruits

Assuming 'too/ -most/ -est' are Grading elements and that only Adj/Adv category can be
graded, then expressions like London/ top/ bottom/ etc. must be some sort of perhipheral A.
However, these tests dont, give clear results: *This evening sarcastic newspaper bothers me.
*Electirc costs are often more than steam ones. *Thats the Londonese expression I know.
6.7

E xer cises

(30) EXERCISE ===========================================

The morpheme ly can be used to derive Adverbs from Adjectives (AdjAdv), e.g.
nicenicely. Is this always the case? Analyze the morphological structure of the words
below concentrating on the character of the morpheme -ly. (To distinguish between Adj and
Adv you can use the word in prenominal and postverbal positions.) E.g.
(i) daily
a daily/ day newspaper
-ly: NAdj,
(ii) really
a real(*ly) thing, really interesting
-ly: AdjAdv
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)

friendly
hardly
early
nearly
worldly
lovely
madly
ugly
manly
nearly
clearly

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
57

(31) EXERCISE ===========================================

Given your analyses in (30) above, can you predict which forms ending in -ly can be graded
by the bound morpheme -er?
(a)
(c)
(e)
(g)

friendly - friendlier
early - earlier
lovely - lovelier
ugly - uglier

(b)
(d)
(f)
(h)

hardly - *hardlier
nearly - *nearlier
madly - *madlier
nearly - *nearlier

(32) EXERCISE ===========================================

Can you give a rule to relate the data in (31) above to the following examples?
(a)
(b)
(c)

ugly uglish / ugliness

friendly friendliness
early earliness

(a') quickly *quicklish / *quickliness

(b) hardly*hardliness
(c') nearly*nearliness / *nearlihood

(33) EXERCISE ==========================================

The following A-E are properties typical of Adjectives. Considering the data in (i-vi),
fill in the table below with +/- and discuss the level of prototypicality of these Adjectives.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

ADJECTIVE occurs after the linking Verbs /copulas seem, appear, feel, remain,
ADJECTIVE occurs between an Article and the Noun (Attribute),
ADJECTIVE can be (pre)modified by very / so / too / rather / somewhat,
ADJECTIVE can be graded by er/ -est or more/ most, less/ least,
ADJECTIVE can form Adverbs by use of ly.

(i)

(a) A (very) hungry child...

(ii)
(b) Children hungry deserve help.
(c) Adam seems (so) hungry.
(d) He is less hungry than me.

(a) Such (*very) infinite mercy

(b)* We cant expect mercy infinite.
(c) God's mercy seems (*very) infinite.
(d) *God's mercy is more infinite than mine.

(iii) (a) ? (Rather) afraid people...

(iv)
(b) People so afraid should stay home.
(b) People seem (rather) afraid.
(c) He is more afraid than me.

(a) a (*rather) utter fool

(b) *Foots so utter are hard to tolerate.
(b) * Bobs foolishness seems (rather) utter.
(c) * Bobs rashness is more utter than hers.

(v)

(a) * The (very) abroad life style.

(b) * This life style seems (very) abroad.
(c) Life abroad suited me fine.
(d) * Korea is more abroad than Slovakia.

(a) * that (so) asleep baby

(vi)
(b) The patient seems (*so) asleep.
(c) Dont disturb pateints asleep.
(d) * He was more asleep than me.
A

hungry
infinite
afraid
utter
asleep
abroad

58

category?

(34) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in the blaks for complex APs (inside the complex NP):
D/Poss
a

AP
tall

AP
Adv
A
extremely nice

N
MAN
BOOK

AP
Adv
more

A
thoughtful

PP
than X...

LOVE

(35) EXERCISE ===========================================

Make an AP headed by A = clever according to the description. See (1) on page 52.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

bare AP [AP A]
AP with premodified A, [AP --- A]
AP with postmodified A [AP A --- ]
AP with both pre- and post-modified A

.....[AP clever]......
..............................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................

(36) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill the forms of APs from (35) into the proposed contexts. Mark the acceptability of the
resulting structures and then repeat the generalisation about English pre-/post-nominal
distribution of Adj-Attributes.
(i)
(a)
(b)

AP Predicate
Josephine is clever.
.........................................................

(c)
(d)

...........................................................
...........................................................

(ii)
(a)
(b)

Premodifying AP
It was a clever proposal.
.........................................................

(c)
(d)

...........................................................
...........................................................

(iii) Postmodifying AP
(a) * She is a girl clever.
(b) .........................................................

(c)
(d)

...........................................................
...........................................................

(iv) Complement AP
(a) Josephine appeared clever.
(b) .........................................................

(c)
(d)

...........................................................
...........................................................

(37) EXERCISE ===========================================

How can you explain the order of elements in the following Czech examples?
(a)
(b)

tlust kniha / ?? kniha tlust

skokan zelen, kyslink uhliit

(38) EXERCISE ===========================================

Is the distribution of nominal modifiers in Czech the same as in English? Give relevant,
and possibly contrasting examples for pre- and post-modyfying APs in both systems.

59

(39) EXERCISE ===========================================

Discuss the syntactic relations of the underlined elements in the structures below.
Which sentence members are they? (What are they related to?)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

Marion sees only girls.

He knows many blond girls.
He likes his girlfriends blond
Ann put on her coat.

Samuel painted the floor.

He likes dark floors.
He painted the floor dark.
Ann sat on her coat.

(40) EXERCISE ===========================================

Discuss distinctions between (a) and (c), between (a)-(c) vs.(b)-(d), and between (b) and (d).
(a) Petr je chytr.
(c) Petr vypad chyte.

(b)
(d)

Peter is clever/ dead.

Peter looks more clever/ *dead.

ADVERBS

Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 158-187

Semantic specification: modifiers. See section 5.1 on page 50.
Adverbs are modifiers which do not combine with nominal categories.
Typically the modification concerns Manner, Place, Time, Frequency, etc., i.e. adverbs
modify a verbal action (i.e. Adverbs are typically related to the Verbs).
(1)

(a)
(b)
(c)

He runs (rqces) quickly.

He run away/ there.
He runs (races) daily/ now.

But consider also other parts of speech modified by Adverbs (notice their positions).
(2)

Adj.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

We are very/ so/ too/ rather/ somewhat late.

He is more/ less clever than her.
I saw the three most/ least beautiful girls in London.
a tall very/ more/ strikingly handsome guy

(3)

Adv.

(a)
(b)
(c)

He runs very quickly.

She will do it probably slowly but certainly well.
The airplane flew very/ more/ extremely far.

(4)

Prep.

(a)
(b)
(c)

He ran right up/ down the hill.

He put them directly into the boxes.
They were sitting just outside the hut.

(5)

Nouns

(a)
(b)
(c)

The road upwards is to the left soon.

His travel abroad lasted more than a year.
The sideways movements were most unpleasant.

(6)

Pronouns hardly anybody , precisely that , almost nothing

(7)

Clause

Well, I will do it. Of course, he did arrive. Perhaps I can help you.

60

7.1

V er bal, tempor al, sentential, and gr ading adver bs

Adverbs can actually modify any part of speech.

Some Adverbs share properties with Prepositions (particles) and/or Prepositional Phrases.
The distribution of these Adverbs is similar to the distribution of PP. These adverbs/
adverbials can even be coordinated with PPs.
(8)

(a)
(b)

Jessica went up.

Jessica ran away.

John went up the hill.

John ran up the hill and away.

(c)
(d)

Jessica read the book carefully / in a carefull way.

Jessica performed the job work well and with creativity.

(e)
(f)

Jessica arrived there / home / in a village / at the cinema.

They will be arriving tomorrow or on Friday.

The positions in the sentence of verb-modifying adverbials are:

(i) Initial, (ii) Middle, (iii) at the End/ Final. But they dont separate a V and its object NP.
Their distribution depends on the interpretation and complexity.
(9)

(a)
(b)
(c)

He often/ never runs (often, *never) (to the post office) ( often, *never).
He (*very quickly) runs (*very quickly) races very quickly.
(Certainly) Mary can (certainly) do (*certainly) the job (*certainly).
"I" (Initial)

"M" (Middle)

"E/F" (End/Final) position

ADV - ... - ADV - V - (NP) ... - ADV

sentential
"temporal"
verbal (Manner, Place, Time)
(10)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Naturally

he

often

runs races very

quickly

Sentential Adv: usually precede the Verb, or if longer are at the very end.
Temporal Adv: rather free, espeicially Adverbs of frequency.
Verbal/ Manner Adv: must be inside the Verb Phrase (M or E/F position).
Grading Adverbs: are Adverbial/ Adjectival pre-modifiers; see (1) and (2) on p. 52.

7.2

Negative, par tial negative, and positive adver bs

Compare the adverbs often, never and hardly w.r.t. their positive/ negative meanings and
formal scope properties. Notice that positive/ negative polarity of the sentence is signaled
with
(i) the presence of not,
(ii) pronouns (some is postive, while any is negative),
(iii) positive vs. negative question tag and
(iv) negative inversin after ADV fronting.
(11) (a)
(b)

He often says something stupid, doesn't he? / *does he?

*He often says anything stupid.
*Often does he say something stupid.
Often John helped Mary with homework.
*Often did John help Mary with homework. Conclusion: often is a positive ADV.

61

(12) (a)
(b)
(13) (a)
(b)

He never says anything stupid, does he? / *doesn't he?

??He never says something stupid.
*Never John helped Mary with homework.
Never did John help Mary with homework. Conclusion: never is a negative ADV.
He hardly says anything stupid, does he? / *doesn't he?
*He hardly says something stupid.
*Hardly John helped Mary with homework.
Hardly (ever) did John help Mary with homework.

Conclusion: hardly is a partially negative ADV: its meaning is positive but formally it is
negative. (It negates the clause in the same way as never does.)
7.3
a)
b)
c)

A dver bials as C omplements, A djuncts, and Disjuncts

Complements 1 are obligatory constituents (categories) selected by a Verb.
Adjuncts enlarge the VP (V+Complement), they are less closely related to the Verb
and are always optional. One can WH- question them: when?/ where?/ how?
Disjuncts are external to the action or relation in a Verb Phrase: because, if, so as to,...

(14) (a)
(b)
(c)

He dashes quickly to school every day.

She never runs (there) (on Sundays).
Probably he runs to school quickly.

*He dashes quickly every day.

She runs (barefoot) (without socks).
*He runs probably to school quickly.

The SCOPE of the Adverb can be: (a) the verbal action (inside or at left/ right edge of VP),
(b) the polarity/ tense of the V (positive/ negative/ tense),
(c) the whole sentence (proposition or clause).
Consider some positions of adverbs:
(15) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
7.4

Mathew speaks English frequently / fluently/ * certainly/ *frankly.

Mathew will speak frequently / fluently/ * certainly/ frankly in English.
Mathew will frequently/ fluently/ certainly/ *frankly speak English.
Frequently / *Fluently/ Certainly /Frankly, Mathew cam speak English.
E xer cises

(16) EXERCISE ===========================================

Discuss the kind and function of the underlined modifiers. Describe the scope (and
type) of the Adverbs. These many variations are difficult, so think them through!
(a)
(c)
(e)
(g)
(i)

Jitka urit odpovdla.

Jude will always help Mary.
Emily grew nicer with age.
I do not like the green door.
Emily painted the door green

(b)
(d)
(f)
(h)
(j)

Jan odpovdl urit.

Sure he will do the job well.
Well, Emily is simply too nice.
This door seems really green.
Emily can run most quickly.

Notice that Complement here does not mean 'doplnk' but is closer to the notion of Object because it is an
obligatory (subcategorised) element required by the lexical Verb.

62

(k) Emily can certainly answer.

(m) Emily is so extremely beautiful.

(l)
(n)

Emily can confidently answer rather well.

Of course I arrived soon enough.

(17) EXERCISE ===========================================

Which part of speech do the underline elements modify?
(a)
(c)

Emma speks well/quickly.

George ran right up the hill.

(b)
(d)

Marion sounds very lazy.

Vilma will work unbelievebly patiently.

(18) EXERCISE ===========================================

Make an Adverbial Phrase according to the description.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

.....briefly.......................................................
bare AP [AP Adv]
AP with premodified A, [AP ___Adv] .......................................................................
AP with postmodified A [AP Adv __ ] .......................................................................
AP with both pre- and post-modified Adv.....................................................................

(19) EXERCISE ===========================================

In which position of those in (10) on page 61 is the'size of the Adverbial Phrase
important? Give relevant examples that illustrate contrasts.
(20) EXERCISE ===========================================
Replace each of the Adverbs by more complex constituents. Which kinds of phrases
should they be? Which concepts in in (10) on page 61 does each one express?
(a)
(c)

He runs quickly.
He runs daily/ now.

(b)
(d)

He runs away/ there on Sundays.

He runs very/ most often.

(21) EXERCISE ===========================================

State and justify the categories of the underlined elements. For a similar example for
the Noun category see (28) on page 35. Try to give all possible
(i) semantic/ notional criteria,
(ii) morphological criteria (derivational, inflectional morphemes present or possible),
(iii) syntactic criteria (for a potential AP discuss its function).
(a)
(c)

I have a very big dog.

She made his daughter prettier.

(b)
(d)

She is the least pretty child I know.

He looks pretty silly.

(22) EXERCISE ===========================================

Look to the dictionary and find derivational morphemes which create ADJ or ADV. Give
several examples for each and indicate which category allows that morpheme.
ADJECTIVE
ADVERB
e.g. able, VAdj : read-able, (un-)think-able, advis-able
.....................................................................
..
....................................................................
.........
.................................................................
.....................................................................

63

SEMANTICS AND MORPHOLOGY OF VERBS

Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 24-69; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp.93240; Dukov (1994) pp. 165-272; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov (1989) pp. 7-50; Leech
(1971), Leech & Svartvik (1975); Svoboda (2004) pp. 24-36
8.1
(1)

Semantic Specification and C lassifications

VALENCY: a Verb and its arguments, verbal action and its participants
verbal event/
action/ relation

1st participant/ role

adverbial phrases
(Manner/ Place/ Time)
2nd participant/ role 3rd participant/role

(Agent)
(2)

(a)
(b)

Peter/He
Petr/ On

(Patient)
sent
poslal

(Recipient/ Beneficiary/ Goal)

a parcel/ it
balk

to John/ to him
Janovi

in the afternoon.
v poledne.

Transitivity, Thematic roles, Valency: a Verb is a relation with participants/ arguments.

Classifications are based on semantic distinctions (which have formal consequencies).
(3)

Number of arguments: Many partly semantic divisions have been studied:

(a)
(b)

Transitive Verbs: Agent VERB Patient

Intransitive Verbs: Agent/ Theme VERB

(4)

(a)
(b)
(c)

(5)

Intransitive copulas or linking verbs, see (11) and (12) on page 53:

(a)
(b)
(c)

Zach is a lawyer / Zach is silly.

Zach seems/ appears silly.
Zach became/ grew/ got older.

(6)

Intransitive Ergative/ Unaccusative Verbs: Agent/ Theme VERB

The farmers built a new house.

A new house was built (by the farmers).
Marilyn often laughs/ The rocks rolled away.

(i) Ergative causative Vs (sink, break, close) (a)

Verbs expressing a subjects energy (b)
(c)
Related transitive usages of these verbs: (d)
(e)

The boat sank. (atelic, intransitive)

Some windows broke.
Ann ran back. / Someone coughed.
The enemy sank the boat.
The boat was sunk by the eenemy.

(ii) Unaccusative (come, go, return, fall, die) (a)

Vs of movement and change of state
(b)
(c)

Many people came/ died in the winter.

More trees fell yesterday.
The road turned southward.

64

(iii) Telic vs. atelic

Vs reaching completion or not

(a)
(b)

There arrived three men.

There remained several students at the party.

(7)

Inchoative/ temporal aspect Vs

- start (to read), go on/ keep/ finish (reading)

(8)

Transitive Vs of sense perception

Verbs dicendi (indirect speech)

- see (him run), hear (us coming), feel (it rain)

- say, tell, cry, think, whisper

(9)

Trnasitive Causative Vs
(can be performatives)

(10) Transitive Reflexive Vs

- make (John leave), force (them to work)

- order (Mary to leave), tell (him to leave)
I hereby order you all to leave. Im telling you to go.
- perjure oneself, absent oneself

(11) Verbal complexes

(a)
(b)

Phrasal Verbs (V + particle)

Verb-nominal complexes

- take off, look up, put away, think through, buy off
- have fun/ a shower/ time, make money/ love/ fun
- take the trouble, take time, take a pee, take a

look
8.2

V er bal Par adigm (I nflectional M or phology on V er bs)

English VERBAL
FORMS
(Note that this is
not complex!)

bare form
-s form
-ing Participle
Past Tense
Past Participle

kiss, keep, drive

kiss-es, keep-s, drive-s

-S
kiss-ing, keep-ing, driv-ing
-ING
-ED, -T or vowel change
kiss-ed, kep-t, drove
-ED, -T, -EN/ vowel change kiss-ed, kep-t, driv-en

(12) Simple vs. Periphrastic Forms

(a)
(b)

He kisses... / He kissed... / She drives / She drove/ It keeps on/ It kept on

He could have been being kissed/ kept/ driven near his work.

(13) Finite--see (12)--vs. Non-finite Forms. Finite means: agrees with a subject NP.
(a)
(b)
(c)

(to) drive / (to) have driven

kissing / having kissed
kept / driven/ kissed

present/ past (bare or to) infinitive

present/ past participles (or gerund)
passive and past particples are always the same

(14) To make any non-finite form past, use have with the past participle.
(a) He must/ should go home. He must/should have gone home.
(b) Kissing good bye, John left. . Having kissed good bye, John left.
(15) Verbal Features (II through IV are expressed in Finitness)
(I) Aspect (see discussion below)................................
(II) Tense (Past)..........................................................
(III) Mood / Voice (Modals, Passive)...........................

65

optional (Eng) /intrinsic (Cz)

optional
optional

(IV) Nominal features (Person, Gender, Number) ...

8.3

secondary, i.e. agreement

T ense

Time and Tense: Tense refers to the main pragmatic/ semantic notions of Time. Real Time
is an open and infinite phenomenon. Language works uses a simplified (=grammaticalised)
version of Time = Tense which is related to the moment of the speech act.
(a)
(b)
(c)

Past = before the speech act

Present = includes "now" (i.e. the moment of the speech act)
Future = after the speech act (as yet unrealised)

Tense is an optional verbal feature, i.e. a standard Verb can take any of the Tenses depending
on the intended meaning. Sometimes we say, +PRES = -PAST, -FUT e.g. Men often lie.
(16)

Morphology of Tense

[+PAST]
Hugo help-ed

[+PRES]
Hugo help-s

>>>

>>>

[+FUT]
Hugo will help.

Recall the rules for pronunciation (assimilation in voicing).

(17) Absolute Tense (with finite verbs)
(a)
(b)
(c)

past
present
future

Hugo complain-ed
Hugo complain-s
Hugo will complain

>>>
>>>
>>>

Did Hugo complain?

Does Hugo complain?
Will Hugo complain?

(18) Relative Tense (with infinitives)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Waving good bye, Hugo drove/is driving off in his car.

Having waved good bye, Hugo drove/ is driving off in his car.
Hugo should have waved good bye yesterday, before he drove off in his car.
Hugo should wave good bye as he drives off in his car.

(a)
(b)

the same (as the related finite form)

preceding (the related finite form)

8.4

to wave
to have wav-ed

wave-ing
having wav-ed

A spect

Aspect is added to the main Tense system, providing additional conditions for the action.
(a) Progressive Aspect: continuation/ repetition, etc.,
(b) Perfective Aspect: reference to another Tense/ completion, telicity, etc.

(19) ASPECT

(a)

PROGRESSIVE

BE

V-ing

(b)

PERFECTIVE

HAVE

V-en

66

(a)
(b)

+PROG circumfix:
+PERF circumfix:

Hugo is explain-ing/ choos-ing the right answer.

Hugo has explain-ed/ chos-en the right answer.

In English, Aspect is an optional verbal feature. The Verb can occur with no Aspect (simple
Tenses), or it can have one Aspect or two Aspects. Example:
(20) TENSE = [PRES]

8.5

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

[-PROG/ -PERF]
[+PROG] (bold underline)
[+PERF] (bold only)
[+PROG] [+PERF]

Hugo helps
Hugo is help-ing
Hugo has help-ed
Hugo has been help-ing

C ombinations of A spect & T ense

In English, 12 grammatical temporal concepts are expressed by a combination of the 3

Tenses and the 2 Aspects.
1 of 3 Tenses + 0-2 Aspects (4 choices) = 12 verbal forms
Using 12 forms, English can express a wide variety of meanings. For a proper analysis it is
necessary to distinguish between the form (presence of the Tense+Aspect morphemes) and
the interpretation. Interpretation of specific forms is influenced by which morphemes are
used but also by other factors, e.g. marked and unmarked usages in a given language. Each
form must be considered as part of the system, i.e. as contrasive with the other existing forms.
(21) Temporal framing related to specific discourse (communication model)
PAST

PRESENT

FUTURE

(22)

(a)
(b)

I am leaving (now / tomorrow / every day / *yesterday).

I believed that she would do it as soon as I (*have) asked her.

(23)

English 12 verbal forms (Tense + Aspect Combinations)

(1)

He

[-ed]

finish-ed

(7)

He

was

finish-ing

(2)

He

[-s]

finish-es

(8)

He

is

finish-ing

(3)

He

will

finish

(9)

He

will be

finish-ing

(4)

He

had

finish-ed

(10) He

had be-en

finish-ing

(5)

He

has

finish-ed

(11) He

has be-en

finish-ing

(6)

He

will have

finish-ed

(12) He

will have be-en finish-ing

67

8.6

M ood, Sentence M odality

The category of Mood refers to the framing of the speech act (sentence) w.r.t. its intended
communicative function.
(A) communicative function

(B)

standard formal realization

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

indicative Mood (declarative sentence)

interrogative Mood
imperative Mood
optative Mood

statement (informs about facts) :

question (asking about information):
order (influencing the hearer):
wish (expressing a wish):

In English the main sentence modality is not a part of verbal morphology. There are no
special verbal inflections signalling sentence modality that is encoded syntactically (either
by bound morphemes or in periphrastic way).
Compare the following English and Czech examples.
(24) (a)
(b)
(c)

Indicative
Interrogative
2nd sg/pl Imperative

He can read.
Can he read?
Read!

no morphology but distribution

no morphology but distribution

(25) (a)
(b)
(c)

Indicative
Interrogative
2nd sg/pl Imperative

te knihu.
te knuhu?
t-i! t-te

no morphology but intonation

imperative morphemes

(26) Periphrastic imperative

(a)
(b)
(c)
(c)

Let's go.
Let me help you.
Let him do it.
Let it be.

(a')
(b')
(c')
(c')

Jdme.
??
A to udl on.
?? Nech to bt. A to je jak chce...

The category of Mood refers also to the concept of probability of the action. This feature
is optional and it does have a morphological representation in English.
(a)
(b)

simple conditional (past, present)

perfect conditional (past, present)

(27) CONDITIONAL MOOD:

(a)
(b)

Hugo

WOULD

bare V-infinitive

would
would

write
have written

(= present infinitive)
(= past infinitive)

(28) Conditional clauses. A realis main clause indicative mood; an irrealis main clause uses
the conditional mood.
(a)
(b)
(c)

Bernard will come tomorro,

if you ask him within the next hour.
Bernard would come tomorrow, if you asked him within the next hour.
Bernard would have stayed here, if you had asked him politely.

68

8.7

V oice (A ctive or Passive)

The category of Voice is related to the distribution of the semantic roles among verbal
arguments (sentence members). See (9) and (10) on page 16 ando (3) and (4) on page 64.
English Voice is an optional feature of the V. Verbs can take active or passive morphology.
(29) (a)
(b)

Active
Passive

She saw/ introduced Milan.

Milan was seen/ introduced by her.

(30) ACTIVE vs. PASSIVE

(a)
(b)
(c)
8.8

The book
The letter
The message

BE

V - EN

was (being)
is being
will have been

writt-en
writt-en
writt-en

(by a friend)
(by a friend)
(by a friend)

Subject-V er b A gr eement

Verbal morphology related to the characteristics of the Subject NP in English is not very rich.
In Czech the complex verbal morphology allows dropping the Subject (pro-drop language).
(31) (a)
(b)

Nae mal Jana/ Ona l-a dom.

l-a dom kazdy den.

(a')
(b')

Our little Jane/ She goe-s home.

*Goe-s home every day.

Alternative realization: use of free vs. bound grammatical (inflectional) morphemes

Also clausal subjects can be expressed in the form of free or bound morphemes (or both).
(32) (a)
(b)

more beautiful
to read, you read

(a')
(b')

nic-er
s-t, (ty) te-

(more = -er)
(to = -t, you/ ty = -)

Still, a language is pro-drop because of the whole complex system of characteristics; not only
by its morphology.Not every type of overt morphology allows dropping the Subject. German
has four present tense inflections, yet one cannot drop the subject; see (33). Nor can French
drop pronoun subjects, but its close grammatical neighbor Spanish is pro-drop like Czech.
(33) (a)
(b)

I am talking now.
vs. *Am talking now.
Du gehst oft nach Paris! vs. *Gehst oft nach Paris! You go often to Paris!

The English verbal agreement morpheme is therefore a purely formal configurational feature.
Find out in the Table in (23) on page 67 the precise position of the morpheme of
English Subject-Verb agreement -s . (Which part of the complex verbal form carries it?)

(34) (a)
(b)
(c)

(= secondary inflectional Nominal features reflect the Subject)

He /she/ it call-s rather often.
He/ she/ it do-es call (*s) rather often.
Do-es he/ she/ it call(*s) very often?

(a)
(35) What is -s? It is 3rd singular present.
It is a fused morpheme of two features. (b)
(c)
69

3rd Person, BUT - they call(*s)

Sg. Number, BUT - I read(*s)
and
- book vs. book-s
Tense, BUT - he wa-s vs. he kept(*s)

Think about the following examples of (dis)agreement:

(36) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
8.9

semantic
vs. formal agreement

His only success was his short stories.

His short stories were his only success.
What we need most is/ are sufficient funds.
Two years is a long time to wait.
Bread and butter is a nice breakfast.
A large number of students are granted scholarships.
Every year, a group of excellent students is/ are granted scholarships.
Either he or you are/ *is mistaken.
Either you or he is/ *are mistaken.
For a birthday, flowers or a book is/ *are a good present.
For a birthday, a book or flowers is/ are a good present.
The police is/ are looking for the criminal.
E xer cises

(37) EXERCISE ===========================================

Is a semantically based division of lexical (content) Verbs (Movement, Perception,
Causative, etc.) relevant for their form (morphology and/or syntax)?
(a)
(b)
(c)

Verbs of movement (e.g. move, go) .........

Verbs of perception (e.g. see, feel) .........
Causal Verbs (e.g. make, force) .........

(38) EXERCISE ===========================================

(a)

Say briefly what is the most common/ general interpretation of the feature [+PERF]
in English. (What do all perfect Tenses have in common?)

(b)

Say briefly what is the the most common/ general interpretation of the feature
[+PROG] in English. (What do all progressive Tenses have in common?)

(39) EXERCISE ===========================================

In the following table fill in the Czech 1st person sg of stavt (stavt dm) / zastavit
(zastavit auto). Recalling that linguistic signs are symbols, i.e. arbitrary, pay attention to
morphological form and interpretation - are they the same?
PAST Tense
1.

PRESENT Tense
2.

FUTURE Tense
3.

4.

5.

6.

no ASPECT
(nedokonav)
+ PERF Aspect
(dokonav)
Time in Czech is expressed by a combination of 3 Tenses and 1 Aspect (one form is missing).

70

(40) EXERCISE ===========================================

Fill in all finite verbal forms of the English Verb arrive. Mark with distinct colours:
(a) Tense morphemes,
(b) the Progressive Aspect circumfix,
(c) the Perfect Aspect circumfix.
PAST Tense
1.

PRESENT Tense
2.

FUTURE Tense
3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

simple
= no ASPECT
+ PROG
Aspect
+ PERF
Aspect
+ PROG Aspect
+ PERF Aspect
(41) EXERCISE ===========================================
How is the morphological feature combination [+PERF][+PRES] interpreted in
English and how in Czech? Find appropriate examples in both languages.
..................................................................................................................................................
(42) EXERCISE ===========================================
Give the feature range and existing inflectional morphemes of English.
a) Tense ................................................................................................................................
b) Aspect ................................................................................................................................
c) Voice ................................................................................................................................
(43) EXERCISE ===========================================
Give the feature characteristics w.r.t. [Tense, Aspect etc] of the underlined verbal forms.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)

Emanuel looks at Jane.

.................................................................................
Emanuel is looking at Jane.
.................................................................................
Emanuel was being looked for by Jane. .................................................................
Emanuel will look at Jane.
.................................................................................
Emanuel has got a book.
.................................................................................
Emanuel has been reading a book. .................................................................................
Emanuel was introduced first.
.................................................................................
Emanuel had had a shower.
.................................................................................
Emanuel had been stopped.
.................................................................................
Emanuel will have finished it.
.................................................................................

71

(44) EXERCISE ===========================================

Write these forms of the English Verb help (underline the inflectional morphemes).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)

[+PAST] [+PERF] [-PROG]

[+PRES] [+PERF] [-PROG]
[+PAST] [-PERF] [-PROG]
[+PAST] [+PERF] [+PROG]
[+FUT] [+PERF] [-PROG]
[+FUT] [+PERF] [+PROG]
[+PAST] [-PERF] [+PROG]
[+PRES] [-PERF] [+PROG]
[+FUT] [-PERF] [+PROG]
[+PRES] [+PERF] [+PROG]

.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................

(45) EXERCISE ===========================================

Write the forms of the English Verb INTRODUCE as in the list above, with the
additional feature [+/--PASSIVE]. Underline the inflectional morphemes.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................
...............................................................

(f) ................................................................
(g) ................................................................
(h) ................................................................
(i) .................................................................
(j) ................................................................

(46) EXERCISE ===========================================

Compare and explain the Tenses in the examples below. List the elements (connectors
of some elements in the main clause) which influence the Tense in the subordinate clause.
Define exactly the conditions under which Tense shift applies in English. Give examples
(mention exceptions).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Marie bude pracovat, hned jak bude pracovat ty.

Hillary will start work as soon as you start work.
Jana myslela, e tam nejsi.
Jane thought that you were not there.
Jan ekl,
e to udl,
kdy mu bude pomhat.
George said that he would do it if you helped him.

(47) EXERCISE ===========================================

Give simple/ practical/ precise/ working rules for the usage of simple past vs. present
perfect in English (mention Adverbials of time).
(a)
(c)
(e)
(g)
(h)

*Caroline wrote a letter by now.

(b) Caroline has written a letter by now.
Peter was born in 1985.
(d) *Peter has been born in 1985.
Mary never saw such a book.
(f) Mary has never seen such a book.
Audrey read the book yesterday and she loved it a lot and remembers it all.
*Audrey has read the book and she loved it a lot and remembers it all.

72

SYNTAX OF VERBS

Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 335-362

(1)

(a)
(b)

9.1

(2)

the form of a VP (Verb Phrase)

the distribution (function) of a VP
V er b Phr ase

VP:

ADV -

- NP / PP / COMPLEMENT / Vinf / Clause

To form a VP (Verb Phrase), a Verb (head) combines with a range of constituents: NPs, PPs,
VPs, APs and clauses. When the combination is obligatory or idiomatic or assigns a semantic
role, we say that the Verbs lexically select (subcategorize for) the NPs, PPs, VPs, APs.
The number of obligatory selected complements ranges from 0 to 2 but a given clause can
have more if optional phrases are also taken into account.
(3)

VP = [VP V + OBJECT(S) ]
[VP V + ADVERBIALS or PPs ]
[VP V + OBJ + COMPLEMENT ]
[VP V + OBJ + CLAUSE or Vinf ]

(4)

Some obligatory verbal complementation. See verbal valency in (3) etc. on page 64.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The neighbor can find the girl

I gave the book to Benjamin.
Lets now dash to the cinema.
Who would call him a hero?

(5)

Some optional modification of the Verb. See also (1) etc. on page 60.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

He often reads books silently, in the kitchen.

Last year Henry visited his grandparents twice in Prague and once in Berlin.
To invite Mary to the cinema was not a good idea.
For Peter to introduce his sister to Bill was painful.

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

to hand a book to Peter / Peter a book

to dash home/ back/ into the office
to call Mary a beauty
to warn Peter to leave/ that we will come late

The neighbor can swim.

I gave Benjamin the book.
They got/ seemed tired.
Bush Jr. was elected President.

The main formal clasification of Verbs is based on the specification of the obligatory
complementation of the Verb (i.e. the number and characteristics of its complements).
(a)
(b)

transitive Verbs
intransitive Verbs

(6)

(a)
(b)
(c)

..... require complementation of NP

..... do not require complementation

*to find
to find a book
*to find into the hall

..... this Verb is transitive

..... this Verb selects NP
. this Verb does not select PP

73

V, [ __ NP]

The complementation of the Verb is best stated in terms of the function and the category (part
of speech) of the following selected phrasal constituent(s): Object/NP, Adverbial/PP, etc.
(7)

Kinds of lexical Verbs w.r.t. their obligatory complementation (their selection):

Examples
a. The tramp laughed.
b. Mary found a diary.
c. The tramp leaned
toward the girl.
d. Bill started to read/
reading/ a new life.
e. He is/ seemed tired.
f. He told a girl an
interesting story.
g. He bought two
drinks for her.
h. John put a book on
the shelf / outside.
i. I called him a fool.
j. He saw Bill run off.
k. The music makes
me angry/ dirve funny.
*
**
***

sentence function
Subj - V
Subj V Odirect
S ubj V Adverb of
Place
Sub V Comp.
(=Complement)
S V Pred./ Comp.
Sub V Oindirect
Odirect
Sub V Odir. Oind.

phrase category
V, [__]
V, [__NP]
V, [__PP]

label/ roles
intransitive verbs
monotransitive verbs
verbs of movement**

V, [__VP/ NP]*

temporal aspect verbs

V, [__AP]
V, [__(NP) NP]

copula/ linking verbs

ditransitive verbs

S V Odir. Comp.

V, [__NP PP]

<Patent, Location>

S V Odir. Comp.
S V Odir. Comp.
S V Odir. Comp.

V, [__NP NP]
V, [__NP VP]
V, [__NP AP/ VP]

secondary predicate
perception verbs
causative verbs

<Patient, Beneficiary>

V, [__NP (PP)]

Many non-VP complements can be replaced by a (finite or non-finite) clause.

Patient is sometimes called Theme when change of Location is involved.
Complement means 'doplnk' here.

Many Verbs can select (are followed by) other Verbs (VPs). This is typical for Auxiliaries
and Modals but also for many other Verbs. The selected VP has the form of an infinitive
(bare or with to) or an ing form. These non-finite structures are often called semi-clauses.
(8)

(a)

(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(i)
(j)

I am reading the book.

We must read that book.
I have read the book.
I have/ am to read that huge book.
She makes/ has/ lets us read that huge book.
I reluctantly started/ finished/ kept/ resumed reading that huge book.
I wanted/ expected to read a different book.
She wanted/ expected us to read a different book.
I love/ hate/ prefer/ hesitate/ try to read those best-selling books.
My mother loved/ hated us to read them.
I love/ hate/ prefer/ avoid reading those books.
My mother loved/ hated us reading them.
I saw/ heard the students exchange insults/ exchanging insults.
I decided/ arranged/ hoped to read a different book.
I promised Anne to read it soon.
I convinced/ persuaded/ ordered Anne to read it instread of me.
I arranged/ preferred/ waited for Anne to read it.

74

9.2

Distr ibution and F unctions of V P

Typical function: (A)Finite Verb = Predicate; see above in (23) on page 67.
(B)Non-finite Verb = Replace NPs (-ing form or infinitive, bare or with to)
Both infinitives (ing and to-infinitives) can appear in any sentence function.
(9)

9.3

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

To read so many books to Adam every day must be maddening.

To read (such books) is to learn (facts about life before others).
I like to read/ reading books at night.
This is not a letter to read (quickly/ to a child/ *a paragraph).
Reading (books every day ) is easier than writing (poems every day).
Saying good bye to Bill, she left.
Hillary went to the pub, having finished her work.
We asked (her) when to read to Adam.
We talked to Adam about studying hard.
E xer cises

(10) EXERCISE ===========================================

Write down examples of complex VPs containing both premodification and
postmodification. Make the verbal heads both (i) finite and (ii) infinitival with to.
(a)
(b)
(c)

VP = Adv+V+ OBJECT(S) (i) ....................................................................................

(ii) ...................................................................................
= Adv+V+ADVERBIAL
(i) .......................................................................
(ii) ......................................................................
= V+N+COMPLEMENT (i) ..................................................................................
(ii) ......................................................................

(11) EXERCISE ===========================================

Divide the sentences in (9) above int to sentence members (constituents) and label the
sentence functions of the phrases containing the bold verbs.
(12) EXERCISE ===========================================
Write down example sentences with complex VPs, e.g. transitive Vs in the form of
gerunds (-ing forms) or bare infinitives, in the functions of:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Subject
.............................................................................................................
Predicate
.............................................................................................................
Object (Patient) .............................................................................................................
Object (Beneficiary) ........................................................................................................
Complement
.............................................................................................................

(13) EXERCISE ===========================================

In which contexts does English use the bare infinitive (without to)? Write down all of
them. If necessary, mention the distinctions in active/ passive Voice.
..................................................................................................................................................
75

10

AUXILIARIES AND MODALS: CLASSIFICATION

Dukov (1994) pp. 165-272; Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 4-46; Quirk, Greenbaum,
Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp. 93-172; Leech (1971)
10.1

Semantic Specification

Full lexical meaning vs. simplified meaning? (How do we measure meaning?)

>> MODALS/ AUX always require a V complement--no choice.
>> MODALS/ AUX has no thematic frame. Cf. (3) on page 64.
(1)

(a)
(b)
(c)

Emma needed us to help./ Emma needed a job./ Emma need not work anymore. .
Emma is (not) findiing work. / Emma has (not) found a job.
Emma has to / ought to / must find a job.

A second property of Modals and Auxiliries is lack of lexical meaning. Auxiliaries are part of
grammaticalised verbal paradigms and Modals express modality of non-real propositions.
Both have rather idiosyncratic behavior. There are several distinguishable groups of these
Verbs in (2) below. Each group has special formal characteristics which can be contrasted.
(2)

English Auxiliaries and Modals (Quirk, 1985)

(a)
(b)

Auxiliaries
Central Modals

(c)
(d)
(e)

Partial Modals
Modal Idioms
Semi-Auxiliaries

be, have, do
(By certain criteria, get can be added.)
can, will, may, shall, must
could, would, might, should
dare and need (negative polarity), ought to, used to
had better, would rather, have got to
be about to, be going to, be to

Some of the non-lexical Verbs have their lexical counterparts. Compare the paradigm of the
Modals need/ dare in (a/b/c/d) below with the lexcial Verbs need/ dare illustrated in (e/f/g/h).
(3)

Partial Modals

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

She need /dare not (*to) see a doctor.

Neednt she (*to) see a doctor?
Dare she (not) see a doctor?
*She now needs/ dares see a doctor.

10.2

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

She does not need /dare to see one.

Doesnt she need/ dare to see one?
Does she (not) dare (*not) to see one?
She now needs/ dares to see one.

T wo K inds of Semantic M odality among the M odals

Modals often express (i) obligation (duty) or (ii) level of certainty (epistemic sense).
(4)

(a)

I must/ should go to school

Deontic modality (a Verbal sense)

= I have a duty/ am obliged to go to school.

(b)

It must/ should be 5 o'clock

Epistemic modality (a kind of Adverbial)

= It is certainly 5 o'clock.

76

There is not much formal distinction between deontic and epistemic Modals in Present Tense
(but compare the effect of Negation with may). But the distinction is clearer in Past Tense.
The Past Tense of the more verbal or deontic type uses some paraphrase. The epistemic
type is marked for Past Tense with the past infinitive using have V - en..
(5)

He must be at home.

With past deontic meaning (obligation),

i.e. if must is verbal, the past
must be expressed in Past Tense,
and so had to replaces must.

If must is epistemic (certainty), i.e. if must has

adverbial characteristics, the infinitive
of the Main Verb expresses past by means
of the perfect infinitive, in this case have been.

(a)
(b)

He had to be at home yesterday.

= deontic modality (his duty)
He must have been at home yesterday. = epistemic modality (event was certain)

(c)
(d)

Supper had to be 5 o'clock.

Supper must have been 5 o'clock.

10.3

= Soneones duty was to eat at 5 o'clock.

= Supper certainly was at 5 o'clock.

Phonetic r eductions of A uxiliar ies, M odals and L exical V er bs

(6)

Auxiliary

(a)
(b)

he is
I have/ had

>
>

he's
I've/ I'd

>
>

he isn't
I haven't/ I hadn't

(7)

Modal

(a)
(b)

I can/ will
he must

>
>

*I'n/ Ill
*he'st

>
>

I can't/ I wont
he mustn't

(8)

Lexical Verb

(a)
(b)

I read/ I kill
he goes

>
>

*I'd/ *Ill >

*he's
>

*I readnt/ *I killnt
*he goesnt

The above examples show standard phonetic reductions which appear:

2nd column: in declarative sentences between the Subject and some first verbal elements,
3rd column: in negative contexts between first verbal elements and the particle not = -n't.
The Auxiliaries have and present tense forms of be have reduction in both cases, Only the
Modal will has reductions in both cases. Lexical Verbs do not reduce (in standard speech).
10.4

M or phological Pr oper ties

(9)

Auxiliaries

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

He is / was / will be reading...

He has / had / will have written...
I want to be reading.../ I want to have written...
(While) Being examined, Elisabeth broke into tears.
He seems to have examined her carelessly.
Having been examined, Elisabeth left.

77

SUBSTITUTION: be
is suppletive but has a
full paradigm as in 8.2.

(10) Modals

(a)
(b)
(c)

*William is can-ing/ must-ing/ will-ing .... (visit his parents).

*William has can-ed/ must-ed / will-ed ... (visit his parents).
I want * to can/ * to must/ * to shall... (visit my parents).

(11) Past Tense Could and would have past meanings, but not *might or *should.
(a)
(b)

Constantine stopped.
But Constantine could/ *might march to new conquests. (Past; Conditional semse?)

(c)
(d)

Did Constantine stop?

No, Constantine would/ *should march to new conquests. (Past; Conditional sense?)

(12) Aspect
(a)
(c)

Constantine is marching again.

Constantine has marched again.

(13) Voice
Mood

(a)
(b)

(b)
(d)

*Constantine is canning march again.

*Constantine has canned march again.

Better novels were written/ *canned/ *musted by new authors.

New authors (would) write/*can/ *must better novels.

(14) Subject-Verb Agreement (secondary/ derived Nominal features)

(a)
(c)

Constantine reads a lot.

Constantine hopes to read a lot.

(b)
(d)

*He cans/ wills a lot.

*He hopes to can/ to will read a lot.

With respect to morphology, the Auxiliaries and semi-Auxiliaries group together with the
lexical Verbs, because both have full verbal pardigms including infinitival forms.
\Modals (and Modal Idioms) are uniquely different, because they lack verbal morphology.
10.5

E xer cises

(15) EXERCISE ===========================================

Underline the words (the part of the Predicate) which express the main meaning of the
verbal complex.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Mathew is looking at Jane.

Mathew has got a book.
Mathew has had to stay home.
Mathew will make trouble, I am sure.

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

Mathew used to use alcohol.

Mathew has been having a rest.
Mathew kept the weekend for planning.
Mathew kept planning for the weekend.

(16) EXERCISE ===========================================

Consider the thematic/ semantic roles of the Predicates. Does the number and
charactersitics of the participants related to the Verb change with the presence of an
Auxiliary or Modal? How?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Hillary sang a song for Steve.

Hillary is singing a song for Steve.
Hillary will be singing a song for Steve.
Finally Hillary's mother said yes and Hillary was allowed to go to the cinema.

78

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

Hillary may go to the cinema.

Hillary was able to climb the mountain.
Hillary must sing a song.
Hillary has to sing a song.
Hillary must have sung a song.

(17) EXERCISE ===========================================

Translate the sentence 'Mus bt doma' with (a) deontic and (b) epistemic meanings.
Explain the distinction in interpretation. Then put both Czech sentences into the past.
.
(a) ............................................................. .....................................................................
(b) ............................................................. .....................................................................
(18) EXERCISE ===========================================
Paraphrase to express the meaning of the modal element. Translate into Czech.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

We were able to finish before noon.

We could have finished before noon.
He had to help her with her work.
He must have helped her her work.
You should have told me yesterday, I then need not have worried.
For all we ought to have thought but have not thought, for all we ought to have said but
have not said, for all we ought to have done but have not done I pray thy God for
forgiveness.

(19) EXERCISE ===========================================

Find out from Table (23) on page 67 in which part of the complex verbal form the
Subject-Verb agreement -s is realized. Compare Auxiliary, Modal and Lexical Verbs.
(20) EXERCISE ===========================================
Check which kinds of Modals in Table (2) on page 76 have morphology typical for
Modals, i.e. which of them lack -s, -ed, -ing, to-infinitives etc.
(21) EXERCISE ===========================================
Discuss what the element to is in the following sentences.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

I gave the book to Peter

Who else did you give the book to?
I want to introduce you to visiting art museums.
I want to go home now, but when does Peter want to?
I have to and am able to go home.
I look forward to going home.
He dared to visit the princess, but he ought not to have.

(22) EXERCISE ===========================================

Which Modals in Table (2) on page 76 are followed by bare infinitives and which are
followed by a to-infinitive?If an item allows both, what else correlates with the choice?

79

11

SYNTAX OF AUXILIARIES, MODALS AND VERBS

Consider the word orders in the following. (V = Lexical Verb, S = Subject, O = Object.)
(1)

(a)
(b)
(c)

Marcel reads American novels.

Does Marcel read American novels?
Marcel does not read American novels.

= S -V-O
= S -V-O
= S -V-O

Simply referring only to the Verb is not enough to describe (the word order of) main clause
structures in English. The Predicate is analytic. We must divide the Predicate (Verb) into
several elements making up complex verbal forms/ complex Predicates.
How many and which elements are involved?
11.1

Question for mation: M odal/*V er b - Subject - ...

(2)

INVERSION: WHAT inverts?

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Marcel can read.

Marcel is reading.
Marcel reads a lot.
Marcel (does) really read.

Can Marcel read?

Is Marcel reading?
*Reads Marcel a lot?
Does Marcel really read?

Assuming the (d) example is showing the hidden structure of an English clause with no
Aux/Mod, we can propose the following scheme.
Notice the importance of the first phonetically present Mod/Aux, and that is is distinct from
the lexical verb VLEX. The Subject inversts with this first element, not with the Verb.
(3)

Question Inversion: the first Aux/Mod moves in front of the SUBJECT.

Marcel
Inverted
Position

SUBJECT

can
will
might
is (-ing)
have (-en)
do
Mod/Aux

read
The semantically empty
nonemphatic do
provides DO-support.
VERB

In English the V position is to be divided into a Mod/Aux + VLEX complex. We

provisionally call this the position.
Auxiliary do: In declarative positive nonemphatic structures the initial Aux do remains
phonetically empty. It is, however, visible in interrogative, negative or emphatic structures,
where it provides DO-support.

80

Sentence Negation (position of not/ -n't)

11.2

Clausal Negation: inserting the particle not. What is the position of not?
(4)

(a)
(c)
(e)

Marcel canNOT be reading.

*Marcel can be reading NOT.
*Marcel reads NOT.

(b)
(d)
(f)

?Marcel can be NOT reading.

*Marcel NOT reads.
Marcel does NOT read.

The negative particle not appears in front of most Verbs but after others. Assuming the
structure proposed in (3) on page 80, we can propose the following uniform scheme. Notice
the importance of the first phonetically present Mod/Aux, distinct from VLEX. This element
precedes the particle not (as well as its bound form -n't ).
(5)

Negative particle (+negative/ short Adverbs) follows the first Aux/Mod :

Marcel

SUBJECT

11.3

can

NOT

will
might
is (-ing)
have (-en)
do

never
just
even

NEG

- - - read
Semantically empty
nonemphatic do becomes lexicalised
to provide DO-support
for the particle not/ nt.
- - - VERB

Question T ags, Shor t A nswer s, Questions of Sur pr ise

The role of the operator (the first Mod/Aux) is again crucial. DO-support reappears.
(6)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

John can see us, can't he/ can he not?

John has been reading, hasn't he/ has he not?
*John likes them, sees he not?
John likes them, doesn't he/ does he not?

- Yes, he can.
- Yes, he has.
- *Yes, he likes.
- Yes, he does.

- Can he?
- Has he?
- *Likes he?
- Does he?

Conclusion: The operator is an obligatory part of every English finite clause.

With respect to their distribution/ syntax, MOD/AUXs form a special group within the
category of VERBS, and their characteristics can be stated as in (9) on page 82.
Morphological vs. syntactic criteria
The morphological template of an English Predicate consists of up to 5 elements in the 5slot Predicate model (Quirk, 1985):

(7)

Modals
The letter will/ might

Perfect
have

Progressive
be-en

81

Passive

Lexical Vs

be-ing

writt-en/ copi-ed

For syntactic analysis, however, i.e. when discussing the word order of English clauses, a 2slot Predicate is sufficient as well as more elegant. The first slot is the operator (= the
first Modal MOD/AUX , preceding NEGATION); the others are all the followingAux/Vs.

(8)

V(s) = one or more AUXs / Vs

The letter will / might have been being written/ copied.

John
wont/cant have been being introduced/ forsaken.
(9)

Classification of the verbal elements

a)
b)
c)

Modals :
central Modals appear always in the position
Auxiliaries:
appear either in or in some following (V) position
Lexical Verbs: never appear in the position

The above allows us to define Central Modals in English in a precise way.

(10) Central Modals in English:
a)
b)

lack verbal morphology

always appear in i.e.

at most one is chosen in each clasue, and

they always precede Aux.

(11) The specific properties of 'the first modal/auxiliary' position (here as ):

Huddleston & Pullum (2002): N.I.C.E. properties (actually, NICCEE)
a)
b)
c)

is followed by not/ nt, lexical V is not.

inverts in questions, lexical V does not.
is used in short reactive structures (question tags, questions
of surprise), lexical V is not.
We must speak English, mustn't we?
- Must we?
You dust your books,*dustnt you?
- *Dust you?

Negation
Interrogation
Coda
(i)
(ii)

d)
e)

Contraction
can sometimes fully contract, lexical V never does.
Emphasis
is used to emphasize the polarity, lexical V is not.
(i) A: John cannot speak English.
- B: (No!) John can so speak English.
A: John can speak English.
- B: (No!) John can't either speak English.
(ii) A: John speaks no English.
- B: *(No!) John speaks so English.

f)

Ellipsis
can stand alone in ellipsis, lexical V can not.
(i) John can speak English - and so can/ should/ do I. - but/ so Mary wont/ needn't.
John would speak English -before Mary could / did. - if Mary would/ did.
(ii) John knew English
-*and so knew I.
-*before Mary knew.
John will need English -*but/ so I wont need.
-*before Mary will need.

11.4

Negative Questions; T esting the pr oposed ver bal str uctur e

Notice the patterns of Question, referring to (3) on page 80 and Negation, (5) on page 81.
Negative questions should (i) have inversion, and (ii) contain the particle not (or -n't ).

82

Discuss in more detail which element (how many of them) inverts with a Subject in a
Question. Where then should be the position of not (or -n't ) in (a)-(b)?
(12) (a)
(c)
(e)

Marcel will often be reading.

*Will be Marcel often reading?
*Will be reading often Marcel?

(b)
(d)

Will Marcel often be reading?

*Will often Marcel be reading?

(13) The above issues are clarified by the possible morpho-phonetic contraction of not:
(a)
(b)

David won't be reading.

Won't David be reading?

(c)
(d)

David doesn't read.

Doesn't David read?

11.5

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)

David will not be reading.

*Will not David be reading?
Will David not be reading?
David does not read.
??Does not David read?
Does David not read?

E xer cises

(14) EXERCISE ===========================================

Assume the syntactic distinction(s) between Aux /Mod and Verbs, i.e. with respect to (i)
the need for DO-support, (ii) the ability to invert, and (iii) possible infinitive or agreement
morphology, discuss the underlined Verbs and state their category (V or Aux or Mod).
(A)

(a)
(b)
(c)

Do you go swim often? - No, I don't go swim.

* Go you swim? - * No, I go not swim.
Examples show a typical
pattern of .........................
I want to go swim.

(B)

(a)
(b)
(c)

* Do you can go? - * No, I don't can go.

Can you go? - No, I cannot go.
* I want to can go.

(a)
(b)
(c)

* Do you be going now? - * No, I don't be going now.

Are you going now? - No, I am not going now. Examples show a typical
I want to be going now.
pattern of .........................

(C)

Examples show a typical

pattern of .........................

(15) EXERCISE ===========================================

Explain the ungrammaticality of the following sentences, referring to the rule for
Subject-Verb agreement in English. (Giving a possible correct form is NOT an explanation!
Use the reasoning in terms of the model (8) on page 82.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

*A lot of guests arrives today.

*Their type arrive pretty often.
*Mary or John are reading the book.
*Bill will reads a journal soon.

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

*Bill wills read a journal soon.

*Knows John about the situation?
*Do John knows about the situation?
*Do John know about the situation?

(16) EXERCISE ===========================================

Referring to the rules for question formation and for making clause negation in
English, explain the ungrammaticality of each of the following examples.

83

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

*Can be John running?

*John not reads much.
Does he understand? - *Not (so).
*Can Mary havent read that book?
*Dare John to notify the police?

(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)

*Will not John come soon?

*John reads never novels.
*John don't reads good books.
*Needs Bill do anything about this?
*Does John will know about it soon?

(17) EXERCISE ===========================================

Construct relevant examples which show whether the following underlined Verbs are
Aux/Mod Verbs or not. For the criteria see (8) on page 82 and (10) on page 82.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Julien might be leaving London just now.

Mary has been writting her essay for two weeks already.
Livia I think was already introduced to Martin.
Claire has had to read this paper tonight.
Hugo is about to help his mother with shopping.

(18) EXERCISE ===========================================

Assuming the properties of the best case Modals as discussed in (8) on page 82 and
(10) on page 82, and considering above all:
(i) no do-support,
(ii) no inflectional morphology,
(iii) being followed by bare infinitive,
state in complete sentences what makes central Modals distinct from the marginal Modals,
the modal idioms and semi-Auxiliaries. (See (2) on page 76.)
(19) EXERCISE ===========================================
Write the correct forms and explain the ungrammaticality of the examples, referring to
the model (8) on page 82.
(a) *William need to go to school.
.......................................................................
(b) *Harry dares now go to the cinema.
.......................................................................
(c) *Neednt they to go to school?
.......................................................................
(d) *Dont they dare going to the cinema? .......................................................................
(e) *Needs he not to go to school?
.......................................................................
(f) *Does not he dare see his friend?
.......................................................................
(20) EXERCISE ===========================================
Compare the particle not with the negative Adverb(ial) never. Discuss clearly their
properties suggested by the questions below. Use the examples below (and create more of
your own) to demonstrate the phenomena.
(i) Are their positions the same?
(ii) Do they both require DO-support ?
(iii) Where do they appear in (negative) questions?
(iv) Can both of them contract?
(v) Under what condition can they appear in front of the Subject?
(vi) Can they be used alone in isolated answers?
(vii) Which kind of verbal inflections can(not) appear after them?
(a)

Livia will not be (*not) reading.

(a') Livia will never be (not/ *never) reading.

84

(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

*Livia not reads.

Livia does not read.
Will Livia not read?
Won't Livia read?
*Not will he help her.
Will you help? - *Not.
*Livia not does read.

(b')
(c')
(d')
(e')
(f')
(g')
(h')

Livia never reads.

??Livia does never read.
Will Livia never read?
*Will never Livia read?
Never will he help her.
Will you help? - Never.
Livia never does read.

(21) EXERCISE ===========================================

To describe English vord order, the simple model S V O is often used, which employs a
single (synthetic) symbol V for the whole Predicate. In this section we have been using a 2slot model for the analytic English Predicates of model (8) on page 82. We also mentioned
the 5-slot Predicate (see (7) on page 81) for the complex verbal morphology of English.
A. What is the distinction? Make a schematic picture of both by labelling the components
and giving examples.
5-slot-model

2-slot-model

B.

How would you define (= describe) the element labeled here ?

C.

In the following examples underline the full Predicates and describe their structure.
Which model seems descriptively more adequeate? Give reasons for your choices.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

This house must have been being built for years already.
The picture could not be seen because of the shadow.
Your money is being spent just now.
*Will not you help your brother?
- Will you not help your brother?

D.

Using the two models, try to answer tha following questions.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

How many elements can appear in each slot?

Is the order of the units obligatory? Try to give relevant data (give examples)!
Are all/ some of the members of the form(s) in a given slot obligatory?
What is the position of negation (NOT) in each scheme?
Which element (slot?) inverts in questions?
In which element (slot?) does the 3sg morpheme s appear in the Present Tense?

(22) EXERCISE ===========================================

Discuss (explain, comment on) the properties of the 'first modal/auxiliary' , providing
examples of all the NICE diagnostics (Negation, Inversion, Coda, Emphasis).

85

12

THE ENGLISH VERBS DO, BE AND HAVE

Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) pp. 24-69; Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech & Svartvik (2004) pp.93240; Dukov (1994) pp. 174-180; Svoboda and Oplov-Krolyov (1989) pp. 7-50;
Leech (1971)
Every English Auxiliary and Modal is idiosyncratic (= specific, sui generis, with some
unpredictable property or properties). This is called unique syntactic behavior. Recall:
(1)
a)

Classification of the verbal elements

Modals:
central Modals always appear in the position

b)

Auxiliaries:

appear either in or in some following (V) position

c)

Lexical Verbs:

never appear in the position

The following examples illustrate that apart from the Auxiliary do, there also exists in
English a lexical Verb do. Considering all the distinction(s) among Aux/Mod/Lexical
Verbs discussed in the above sections, the two kinds of do are distinct lexical items, each
of which behaves as expected with respect to the characteristics of its type.
(2)

12.1

Lexical do (a transitive verb)

Auxiliary do (followed by VP)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
(e')
(f)
(g)

Emma did her homework.

Did he do his homework?
*Did he his homework?
He wants to do his homework.
Dont do your homework again.
*She didnt her homework yet.
*Do not your homework here!

Emma did read the novel.

*Did he do read the novel?
Did he read the novel?
*He wants to do read the novel.
*Dont do read the novel again.
She didnt read the novel yet.
Do not read the novel here!

Specificity of be

The English Verb be can be analyzed as several different elements, depending on its
complementation.
(3)

Kinds and contexts of be

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

He is reading some novel, isn't he?

It is written in English, isn't it?
Peter is a teacher/ silly, isn't he?
Mary is at home, isn't she?
There is a man in the garden, isn't there?
I am to read this article by next week.
We are going to write in Czech, arent we?

be (+ing)
= progressive Aux
be (+en)
= passive Aux
be (+NP/AdjP)
= Copula
be (+PP/AdvP)
= location
there construction = existential be
be (+ to-infinitive) = semi-auxiliary
be (+going to)
= semi-auxiliary

The position of be in the English analytic Predicate

In terms of the 2-slot Predicate model (8) on page 82, notice the special properties of the
English Verb be as illustrated below. Consider them in the light of all the formal
distinction(s) among Aux/Mod/Lexical Verbs discussed in earlier sections.

86

(4)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

Is he at home?
*Does he be at home?
be inverts like an Aux/Mod.
He is not/ isnt reading any books.
*He does not be reading any books.
be precedes NEG like an Aux/Mod.
We will arrange for it being/ to be translated.
I prefer being/ to be a teacher.
be can be non-finite like Lexical Vs.
There are men here. There is a man here. be has inflection like an Aux.
He can/ will (not) be (*not) at home.
be can appear after Mod/Aux.
Don't be silly! Please do be on time.
be co-occurrs with Aux do.

As schematically illustrated in (3) on page 80 and (5) on page 81, a standard Predicate in an
English sentence has (at least) two syntactic positions: (an operator, the first Mod/Aux)
and a second V position for (Aux and Lexical) Verbs.
The Verb be is special, because under the right conditions it can occupy both positions.
(5)

Schematic structure for all uses of the Verb be (within the analytic Predicate)
(a)
(b)

Emma IS not at home.

Emma might not BE at home.

Emma

SUBJECT

IS Emma at home?
Can Emma BE at home?

IS

not / nt

can

not/ nt

BE

=Mod/Aux

Neg

at home.

VERB

Analytic Predicate
Note: It seems that only one typw of be, semi-auxiliary be, occurs only in the position:
*We may be to read that article next week. *I wouldnt want to be to report to the office.
*To be going to be late bothers me.
*She worried about going to be infected.
The Verb be occupies (in some abstract sense) the position of the lexical Verb, i.e. is NOT
followed by another (bare) V. In a sentence, however, unlike any other V, any be can also
appear in the position of the whenever this position would otherwise be empty.
Another way to say this: In finite ( non-imperative) clauses with be, there is no do-support.
Specificity of have

12.2

Using the 2-slot Predicate model (8) on page 82, compare the examples of the Verb have
below with the structure of be in (5) above.
(6)

Archaic stative have (including possession) .... a pattern identical with be.
(a)
(b)
(c)

I (can) have a book here.

Have you a book here?
I haven't any book here.

I want to have more books.

She has some books here, hasnt she?
They would prefer having more books.

87

The Predicate in Old English (500-1100 a.d.) was not as analytic as in Modern English. The
examples above suggest that the archaic usage of the stative (possessive) Verb have is
structurally similar to the syntehtic Verb be. Thus, have in archaic usage:
(a)
(b)

is NOT followed by another V

can move to the position of AUX/MOD (in front of negation) if that position (the
operator ) contains no Modal or semi-auxiliary.

Languages, however, have a tendency to get rid of irregularity and Modern English does not
freely use the archaic form of have as illustrated above. Look below at the strategies applied
in Modern British and American English.
The following examples (7) show that British English has made stative (possessive) have into
a non-lexical element, Auxiliary. The position of the lexical Verb is replaced by got.
(7)

Stative/ possessive have in Modern British English, in column 1.

(Consider its similarities with the standard perfective Aux have in column 2.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

We (*will) have got new books.

(a')
Have you got a new book?
(b')
* Do you have got a good book? (c')
I haven't got any books.
(d)
* I don't have got any books.
(e')
Youve got new ones, havent you? (f)

We (will) have received new books.

Have you received a new book?
* Do you have received a good book?
I haven't received any books.
* I don't have received any books.
Youve received new ones, havent you?

The following example (8) shows that in contrast to the British usage, American English
treats stative (possessive) have as a lexical Verb.
(Consider its similarities with standard lexical Verb receive.)
(8)

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Do you have new books?

Yes, I (do) have new books.
No, I don't have any books.
You (do) have some, dont you?

(9)

Schematic picture of the stative/ possessive Verb have

Compare the structure below with structure of be in (5) on page 87.

Archaic:
British:

Emma

American:

SUBJECT

(a')
(b')
(c')
(d)

Do you receive new books?

Yes, I (do) receive new books.
No, I don't receive any books.
You (do) receive some, dont you?

HAS

not/ nt

HAS

not/ nt

got

(does)

not/ nt

HAVE

Neg

VERB

=Mod/Aux

any toys

OBJECT, etc.

Apart from stative/ possessive have, English uses other kinds of have, too. In these usages,
British and American are the same. The following examples show that have can be a pure
Aux and a Lexical Verb as well.

88

(10)

Perfective have (AUX):

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(11)

Have you written a letter?

(a') * Do you have written a letter?
I haven't written a letter.
(b') * I don't have written a letter.
You have written one, havent you?(c) * You have written one, didnt you?
For Jane to have written a letter would surprise me.
Obligation have: (V):

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(12)

You (may/ will) have written a letter.

I (may/ will) have to go there immediately.

*Have you to go there?

(a') Do you have to go there?
*I haven't to go there now.
(b') I don't have to go there now.
*You have to go now, havent you? (c) You have to go now, dont you?
For Jane to have to go now would surprise me.
Dynamic V have : (i) You (should) have/ be having a look around.
(ii) They have/ are hving a good time later/ in the pub.
(iii) I (could) have/ be having lunch with Joe.

(a)
(b)

*Had you a look around?

* I haven't a look around here often.

(a')
(b')

Did you have a look around?

I don't have a look around here often.

(c)
(d)

* Had they a good time later?

* I haven't a good time in the pub.

(c')
(d')

Did they have a good time later?

I don't have a good time in the pub.

(e)
(f)
(g)

* Have you lunch with Joe today?

* I hadn't lunch with Joe.
* She often has lunch, hasnt she?

(e) Do you have lunch with Joe today?

(f') I didn't have lunch with Joe.
(g) She often has lunch, doesnt she?

(13) (a)
(b)
(b)
12.3

John has a shower every day.

Agentive/ Experiencer have
John has Mary carry his suitcase. Causative have
John has his car repaired.
Passive have
E xer cises

(14) EXERCISE ===========================================

Assuming the 2-slot predicate model (8) on page 82 and considering the position of
negation (and the ability to invert in questions), does the Verb be occupy the position of
Aux/Mod or the position of a Verb?
(a)
(c)
(e)

Julie is not at home.

Be ready to go at five!
Arent they ready yet?

(b)
(d)
(f)

Emma cannot be at home.

Don't be late again!
To be or not to be, that is the question.

(15) EXERCISE ===========================================

Considering the distinctions between the following examples.
i)
ii)
iii)

w.r.t. the meaning (epistemic vs. deontic interpretations)

w.r.t. characteristics of finite verbs (see criteria (8) on page 82 and (10) on page 82).
Explain the distinction in making the past tense of the two forms (with examples).

89

(a)
(b)

He must be at home.
He has to be at home.

(...every day / - mustn't he? / -Isn't he?)

(16) EXERCISE ===========================================

Assuming the 5-slot predicate model (see (7)on page 81), make English sentences putting the
correct form of be into the bold framed slot (try to fill the other positions with some element
too, if possible). Are all positions available for be?
Which of the verbs be illustrated in (3) on page 86 is in which position?
How would the same exercise look assuming the 2-slot predicate model?
Mod
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Perf

Prog

Pass

Verb

Adam
Adam
Adam
Adam
Adam

(17) EXERCISE ===========================================

Indicate which examples of Modal be below which test
(i) the form of negation and question formation,
(ii) the ability to appear in every Tense/ Aspect,
(iii) the ability to appear as infinitive.
Try to test the same properties with the other kinds of be given in (3) on page 86.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

I am (not) to leave at six o'clock.

I was (n't/ not) to leave before six.
Am I (not) to leave at six o'clock?
*He will be to leave at six o'clock.
* To be to leave at six a.m. is irritating.

(a') He is (not) to leave at six o'clock.

(b') They were (n't/ not) to leave before six.
(c') Were they (not) to leave at six o'clock?
(d') *They had been to leave at six o'clock.
(e) *Being to work hard Sundays is irritating.

(18) EXERCISE ===========================================

Consider the same questions as in excercise (14) above for the V expressing Obligation
have (to) and also some example of dynamic have.
(19) EXERCISE ===========================================
Explain the ungrammaticality of the following sentences in terms of the syntactic
distinctions among the LEX-AUX-MOD Verbs.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

*Had you a quick look at this book?

*Have you to write a letter to Julie already?
*Do you have written a letter to Wilma?
*Im surprised that John had not a good time in London.
*For him to havent written yet worries me.

90

(20) EXERCISE ===========================================

Which form of a Verb follows the Modal? A bare infinitive or to-infinitive?
Consider the following sentences and find similar examples to demonstrate your claim. Can
you then say what is special about ough, the be of obligation, and the future be going?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

I must go now.
*I must to go now.
I must have gone too early.
*I must to have gone too early.
*I dont want to must live forever.

(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
(e')

*I have go now.
I have to go now.
*I had go too early.
I had to go too early.
I dont want to have to live for ever.

(21) EXERCISE ===========================================

In the following sentences classify all the verbal elements among Lex-Aux-Mod.
Give relevant arguments for your decisions.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Theo is looking at Jane.

Theo has got a book now.
Theo has had to go.
Theo will make trouble, I am sure.
Theo may have read that book.

(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)

Theo is to look for Jane.

Theo has gotten a book this morning.
Theo is having a shower.
Theo started to read a book.
Theo has been reading that book.

(22) EXERCISE ===========================================

Discuss the properties of the following dynamic usages of have. Give more examples of
the kind to illustrate whether this have is a V or an AUX.
I.

Agentive: Tourists (can) have a look around the museum before they leave.

(a)
(b)

*Have you often a look around it?

*I haven't always a look around it.

(c)

.........................................................................................................................................

(d)

.........................................................................................................................................

II.

Causative: You (can) have somebody help you with the homework.

(a)
(b)

*Had you somebody help you?

*They haven't anybody help them.

(c)

.........................................................................................................................................

(d)

.........................................................................................................................................

III.

Passive:

(a)
(b)
(c)

* , havent they?
(a') , wont they?/ , dont they?
*Have they really?
Will they really?/ Do they really?
*I haven't ever mine repainted.
(b'). I didn't/ wont ever have mine repainted.
.........................................................................................................................................

(d)

.........................................................................................................................................

(a') Do you often have a look around it?

(b') I don't always have a look around it.

(a') Did you have anybody help you?

(b') They don't have anybody help them.

They (will) have their house repainted every year.

91

(23) EXERCISE ===========================================

In (substandard) spoken American English the possessive Verb have (see (8) on page
88 above) is often replaced by 'got', especially in a positive declarative context. Consider the
examples below. Notice that this paradigm of got looks like a lexical Verb paradigm, but
given all the examples, why can it not be taken for a regular type?
(a)
(b)
(c)

I/ You/ We/ They got a new car.

I/ You/ We/ They don't got a new car.
Do I/ you/ we/ they got that car?

= I/ You/ We/ They have a new car.

= I/ You/ We/ They don't have a new car.
= Do I/ you/ we/ they have that car?

(d)

*He gots a new car.

(d') He's got a new car.

(e) He hasn't got a new car.
(f) Has he got a new car?

Notice the form is "got" not "get". Can you guess at how to express the past of this got?
Incidentally, Standard English: to get to V = to have the advantage of V-ing. Example:
(g)

We get to (can, manage to) visit the museum free every Wednesday.

(24) EXERCISE ===========================================

Consider also the following examples in which gott is replacing have to = must.
(The written form is unlikely to appear since these forms are felt to be colloquial only.) Is
gott in the V position or the operator position? Why?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

You [gott] go, don't you?

They [gott] go, don't they?
You don't [gott] go, do you?
He's [gott] go.
Has he [gott] go?
You [gott] get that book soon, don't you?
*You [gott] not come back soon.
*To [gott] go now is a pain.

(25) EXERCISE ===========================================

i)
ii)

iv)

Find all the sentence members in the following examples.

Which constituents (phrases) represent the sentence members? Make the phrases more
complex, and also replace them by shoreert versions using the same categories.
Find the VPs and discuss the valency of the Verbs. How are the Arguments
realised?Which kind of Verb are they, using the Table (7) on p. 74
Look in more detail at each word, giving its category and explaining its form.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

His younger brother saw your friend sleep deeply in front of the main building.
I introduced Mary's boyfriend to my grandfather.
They were determined to put all the exercise books on the bottom shelves.
The free people of Uganda will be electing their President soon.
To read halfl those long books of short stries every week is worse than pretty boring.
While at school, all the students must respect the official rules.

iii)

92

13

APPENDIX TO SECTION 1 ON GRAMMATICALISTION

13.1.1

Grammaticalisation (repeats some material from section 1.3.3.)

Inflection encodes the meaning/ features which a language has grammaticalised.

Grammaticalization of a lexical semantic feature is a diachronic process.
A semantic feature which becomes (in a given language) grammaticalised is:
(i) simplified in meaning (appears only as a choice between a limited number of options)
(ii) regular (has a canonic representation with a limited number of exceptions),
(iii) often productive (frequent, can be used with new words)
(26)

(a)
(c)
(c)
(d)

a tiny/ small/ little apple

(a') jabl-ko
female/ woman/ she doctor
(b') doktor-ka
lion-ess, actr-ess, host-ess, *doctor-ess, ?author-ess, *bakr-ess
care-ful, sorrow-ful, dread-ful, health-ful, respect-ful, hope-ful, mourn-ful

The lexical morphemes (independent words) like tiny/ small/ little or female/ woman/ she can
diachronically lose semantic (lexical) richness and be simplified into productive grammatical
formatives, in the extreme case becoming a regular/ productive bound morpheme.
Grammatical morphemes are nonetheless still semantic in that they are related to aspects
of reality which can also be expressed lexically. They represent some simplified version of it.
(27) Real vs. grammaticalised notion e.g. number 6, number three hundred and seven
(a)
(b)

Rational Number (an infinite scale):

Grammaticalised Number:

13.1.2

1/2/3/.../789/.../8723...
one vs. many, several, few, twice, thrice, half
book vs. book-s (-s can mean any of these)

A detailed examople of grammaticalisation in English

In section 1.13, grammaticalisation is described as progression from being a free morpheme

(= word) in a lexical category, such as N) to forming compounds (still as a lexical category),
and then crucially, to becoming a pure grammatical derivational or even an inflectional affix.
Consider the morpheme spelled man. Besides being lexical noun in a class with boy, guy,
fellow, gentleman, dude, it can also be the (right hand) head of compounds, still as an N. In
this use, it is idiomatic, but not yet grammaticalised. Here are examples:
(28) barman, Batman, boss man, businessman, careeer man, con man (illegal schemes),
doorman (expensive hotels), garbage man, head man, hit man (paid killer), inside man,
ladies man, madman, meter man, milk man (delivers milk), laundry man, point man
(military term), sandman (childrens stories), sound man, stuntman, Superman.
a. Man in compounds retains the syntax of Ns (properties, distribution, being head of NPs).
b. Man in compounds retains the semantics of the word man; it refers in the most general way
to adult male humans. (Boy, gentleman, fellow, guy, dude, etc. are more specific.)
c. Man in compounds retains the morphology of the word man: the irregular plural is men.
d. Man in compounds retains the phonology of the word man: the vowel is phonetically .

93

Where it makes cultural sense, female counterparts use woman for man: barwoman, boss
woman, businesswoman, career woman, con woman, hit woman, madwoman, stuntwoman,
Wonderwoman (comic book character). But: meter maid (parking tickets), milk maid.
Current English has another morpheme spelled man which is a grammaticalised derivational
suffix that forms HUMAN nouns.
As a right hand head in compouds, it also shares the syntax of Ns. But in contrast to mn:
a. This grammaticalised suffix -man has a simplified meaning: it only means HUMAN. It can
easily refer to females and children, whenever these extensions make cultural sense.
b. The different morphology of singular and plural can be lost in spoken English.
c. The suffix -man loses the phonology of the word man. Like all English grammaticalised
suffixes, its unstressed vowel is a reduced schwa written phonetically as . Examples:
(29) cattleman (cattle farmer), chairman, churchman, clergyman, Congressman, dairy man
(dairy farmer), draftsman, fireman, fisherman, foreman, freeman (under US slavery, a
non-slave black person), gunman, helmsman (steers a ship), horseman, longshoreman
(dock worker), lumberman, oarsman (in boats), postman, watchman, workman.
These nouns are usually written as one word, suggesting the status of -man as a suffix. This
suffix is not fully productive in current English. Specifically female reference uses female or
lady in front of these nouns: female clergymen/ postmen, lady fisherman/ foreman.
Except for cultural expectations, gang of gunmen,, the postman, two fishermen, department
chairmens meeting, car of policemen, etc. can refer to some or even all women. Moreover,
male policemen, male draftsmen, male Congressmen, etc. are not redundant.
Practice pronouncing the two groups differently. Note that conscious intervention of
persumably feminist inspiration has invented a few terms like chairwoman, Congresswoman,
policewoman, but *firewoman, *forewoman, *oarswoman, *watchwoman, *postwoman, etc.

14

RELATED LITERATURE

(A) The list A below gives practical manuals of English grammar which can help students
not fully familiar with the pratical usage of the structures discussed. A working knowledge of
some of these manuals is assumed for the course.
(B) The list B provides bibliography for the more theoretical manuals covering the topics in
more detail. They provide some discussion of the phenomena, provide much more data and
demonstrate alternative terminologies and analyses.
(C) The list C provides bibliography for the cited works and some additional literature
related to the topics discussed in the course.
A.

PRACTICAL MANUALS

Alexander, L.G. (1993): Longman Advanced Grammar. Reference and Practice. Longman,
London.
Hewings, Martin (2005): Advanced Grammar in Use (2nd edition) with answers and CD
ROM. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
94

Jones, Leo (1991): Cambridge Advanced English. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Leech, Geoffrey & Svartvik, Jan (1975) A Communicative Grammar of English. Longman,
London.
Murphy, Raymond (2004): English Grammar in Use With Answers and CD ROM : A SelfStudy Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Students of English. 3rd edition.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Svoboda, Ale & Oplov-Krolyov, Mria (1998) A Brief Survey of the English
Morphology. Filozofick fakulta Ostravsk univerzity, Ostrava.
B.

THEORETICAL MANUALS

Dukov, Libue (1994) Mluvnice souasn anglitiny na pozad etiny. Academia Praha,
Prague.
Huddleston, Rodney and Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the
English Language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Huddleston, Rodney and Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005) A Students Introduction to English
Grammar. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Leech, Geoffrey (1971) Meaning and the English Verb. 3rd edition. Longman, London 2004.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (2004) A Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language. Longman, London
Quirk, R., and Greenbaum, S. (1991) A Students Grammar of the English language.
Longman, London.
C.

FURTHER RELATED / CITED LITERATURE

Akmajian, A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K. & Harnish, R.M. (1990) Linguistics: An
Introduction to Language and Communication. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Chomsky, Noam (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding. Foris, Dordrecht.
Comrie, Bernard (1989) Language Universals and Linguistic Typology. Blackwell, Oxford
& Cambridge, Mass.
Croft, William (1991) Syntactic Categories and Grammatical Relations. University of
Chicago Press, Chicago.
Crystal, David (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge.
Demers, Richard A. & Farmer, Ann K. (1991) A Linguistics Workbook. The MIT Press,
Cambridge, Mass.
Finegan, Edward & Besnier, Niko (1990) 'Structured Meaning in Words.' In: Language: Its
Structure and Use. HBJ.
Fromkin, Victoria & Rodman, Robert (1990) 'Morphology : The Words of Language.' In:
An Introduction to Language. HBJ.
Katamba, Francis (1993) Morphology. The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Matthews, P.H. (1974) Morphology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Spenser, Andrew (1991) Morphological Theory. Blackwell, Oxford & Cambridge, Mass.
95