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Steering mechanism of
Autonomus vehicles
Robots are fitted with variety of sensors (e.g.: vision, ranging, force
torque, touch etc.) sending the sensory information to the computer which
processes then subject to given objectives and constrains and develops
actions decisions for robot actuator.
3. Offers ability to work where human can’t reach.eg space, mars, moon etc.
a. Manipulator b. Controller
c. Effecter d. Sensors
e. Energy source
Manipulator: It is the
most obvious part of the
robot required to perform
physical actions. It comprises
of base, arm, wrist etc. the
robot move ment are executed
by the mechanical part like
link, power joints and
transmission system.
Effectors: The effectors are the tools, a sort of gripper, which directly
interacts with the job. These are design to handle a wide variety of job
effectively.
Arm geometries: The three general layouts for three dof are called
Cartesian, cylindrical, and polar. They are named for the shape of the
volume that the manipulator can reach and orient the gripper into any
position- the work envelope. Some of them x
use all sliding motion, some use only
pivoting joints some both.
Cylindrical arm: The body of this type is such that the robotic arm can
move up and down along a vertical member. The arm can rotate about that
vertical axis and the arm can also extend or contract. This construction
makes the manipulator able to work in a cylindrical space. The dimensions
of the cylindrical space are defined as, radius by the extent of the arm and
height by the movement along the vertical member.
The cylindrical manipulator base body has one
revolute joint at the fixed frame, one cylindrical joint
about the axis of rotation and one prismatic joint in the
arm of the manipulator.
Some modern factory robots are autonomous within the strict confines of
their direct environment. It may not be that every degree of freedom exists in
their surrounding environment but the factory robot's workplace is
challenging and can often contain chaotic, unpredicted variables. The exact
orientation and position of the next object of work and.
FEEDBACK
MEASURMENT
SENSOR
ALTERNATIVES
Ex:
FEED BACK
MEASURMENT MEARURMENT
SENSOR
(tachometer)
Open loop control system: In a typical open loop motion control
system it includes a stepper motor with a programmable indexer or pulse
generator and a motor driver, as shown in the figure the system does not
need any feedback sensor because load position and velocity are control by
the predetermined number and the direction of input of input digital pulse
sent to the motor driver from the controller.
MOTION Step
AMP LOAD
CONTROLER LIER motor
An open loop control system is that which have no feedback sensors and
hence load positioning is lower and position errors ( commonly called step
errors) accumulate over time. For these reasons the open loop systems are
most often specified in applications where the load remain constant and load
motion is simple and low position speed is acceptable.
Wheel size: In general larger the wheel, the larger the obstacle the
vehicle can get over. In most suspension and derivetrain system, a wheel
will be able to roll itself over an obstacle that is about one third the diameter
of the wheel. In a well designed four wheel vehicle it can be increased a
little, but the limit in the most suspension is something less than the half the
diameter of the wheel.
Three wheels are the minimum required for the static stability, the
three wheel robots are most common. Mobility and complexity is increased
by further adding of the more wheels. Let’s take a look on the wheel
vehicles in through order. The most basic vehicle will have minimum
number of the wheels. It also possible to make a one wheel vehicle but with
a limited mobility.
Steering with the front wheels on the reverse tricycle removes the
steering problem. But adds the complexity of steering and driving both
wheels. This layout allows the placing the more weight on the passive rear
wheel, significantly reducing the flipping over tendencies and mobility is
moderate. The layout is still dragging around the passive wheel , however,
and mobility is further enhanced if the wheel is powered.
The most complicated and the highest mobility three wheel layout is
one where the all three wheels are powered and steered as well. This layout
is extremely versatile, providing motion in any direction without need of
moving the vehicle, this is called holonomic motion and is very useful for
robotic motion.
Four wheeled vehicles: The most basic four wheel vehicle actually
doesn’t use a differential. It has two wheels on each side that are coupled
together and is steered just like a differential steered tricycle. Since the
wheels are inline on each side and do not turn when a corner is commanded,
they slide as the vehicle turns. The sliding action gives the steering method
its name skid steering.
The problem with skid steering non suspended drive is that as the
vehicle goes over bumps, one wheel necessarily come off ground, this
problem doesn’t exist in two or three wheeled vehicles, but is more major to
deal with on vehicle with more than three wheels.
Five wheel layout: This is basically the tricycle layout, but with an
extra pair of wheels in the back to increase traction and ground contact area.
The front wheel is not normally powered and is only for steering. This is a
fairly simple layout relative to its mobility, especially if the side wheel
pairs are driven together through a simple chain or belt drive. Although
the front wheels must be pushed over obstacles, there is ample traction
from all that rubber on the four rear wheels.
• Very soft terrain: loose sand, deep mud, and soft powder snow
• Obstacles of a size that can get jammed between wheels
• Crevasses
Tracked get this higher mobility at a cost of greater complexity and lower
drive efficiency, so tracks are better for these situations, but not inherently
better overall.
The above equation indicates that speed and acceleration depends upon the
tractive effort, resistance and the vehicle’s mass.
Vehicle resistance: As shown in figure given below vehicle resistance
opposite it’s movement includes rolling resistance of tires, appearing in
figure a as rolling resistance torque Trf and Trr aerodynamics drag F , and
grading resistance( the term M vg 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 in figure ).
FIGURE 2: Tire deflection and rolling resistance on a. hard b. soft road surface
The moment produced by the forward shift of the resultant ground reaction
force is called the rolling resistant moment, as shown in figure 2.a and can
be expressed as
Tr = Pa .
To keep the wheel rolling, a force F acting on the centre of the wheels, is
require to balance this rolling resistance moment. This force is expressed by
𝐓𝐫 𝐏𝐚
F= = = Pfr’
𝐫𝐝 𝐫𝐝
Where rd is the effective radius of the tire and fr = a/rd is called the rolling
resistance coefficient. In this way the rolling resistance can be replaced
equivalently by a horizontal force acting on wheel centre in the opposite
direction of the moment of wheel. This equivalent force is called rolling
resistance with a magnitude of
Fr = P frr
Where P is the normal load acting on the centre of the rolling wheel.
The rolling resistance coefficient is the function of the tire material, tire
structure, tire temperature, tire inflation pressure, tread geometry, road
roughness, road material and presence and absence of liquid on the road.
The typical values of rolling resistance on various roads are given in table
below
Conditions Rolling
resistance
Shape drag: the forward motion of vehicle pushes the air in front of it
however the air can’t instantaneously move out of the way and its pressure is
thus increased, resulting in high air pressure. In addition the air behind the
vehicle can’t instantaneously fill the space left by the forward motion of the
vehicle. This creates a zone of low air pressure. The motion has therefore
created two zones of pressure that oppose the motion of the vehicle by
pushing it forward ( high pressure in front) and pulling it backward( low
pressure in back) as shown in figure. The resultant force on the vehicle is the
shape drag.
Skin friction: air close to the vehicle moves almost at the speed of the
vehicle while air far from the vehicle remains still. In between the air
molecules move at a wide range of speed. The difference in the speed of the
two air molecules produces a friction that results in second component of the
aerodynamic drag.
Aerodynamic drag is a function of the vehicle speed V, vehicle front
area Af shape of the vehicle and air density ρ. Aerodynamic drag is
expressed as
1
Fw = 𝜌 A𝑓 Cd (V + Vw)2
2
Where cD = aerodynamics drag coefficient that characterizes the shape
of the vehicle and Vw is the component of the wind speed on the vehicle’s
moving direction which has a positive sign when air component is opposite
to the vehicle speed and negative when in the direction of the vehicle speed.
Grading resistance: when a vehicle goes up or down a slope, its weight
produces a component, which is always directed toward the downward
direction. This component either opposes the forward motion (grade
climbing) or helps the forward motion (grade descending). In vehicle
performance analysis only uphills operation is considered. This grading
force is usually called the grading resistance.
Fg = Mg sin∝
To simplify the equation the angle ∝ is replaced by the grade value. When
the road angle is small as shown in figure the grade is defined as
𝐻
i = = tan ∝ ≈ sin ∝
𝐿
the tire rolling resistance and grade resistance together are called road
resistance
Frd = Ff + Fg
= Mg (Fr cos∝ + sin ∝)
When ∝ is small
Frd = Ff + Fg
= Mg (Fr + i)
Methods of steering: When a vehicle is going straight the wheels or
tracks all point in the same direction and rotate at the same speed, but only if
they are all the same diameter. Turning requires some change in this system.
This can be obtain by many methods some popular methods are as follows
l = wheel base
Then,
𝑃𝑇 𝑄𝑇
cotφ = and cot θ=
𝑇𝑙 𝑇𝑙
𝑃𝑇−𝑄𝑇 𝑃𝑄 𝑤
cotφ – cotθ = = =
𝑇𝑙 𝑇𝑙 𝑙
This is known as fundamental equation of correct gearing.
Ackermann steering gear: Ackerman steering mechanism,
RSAB is a four bar chain as shown in fig.1.50. Links RA and SB which are
equal in length are integral with the stub axles. These links are connected
with each other through track rod AB. When the vehicle is in straight ahead
position, links RA and SB make equal angles α with the center line of the
vehicle. The dotted lines in fig.1.50 indicate the position of the mechanism
when the vehicle is turning left.
Let AB=l, RA=SB=r; PRˆ A QSˆB and in the turned position,
ARˆ A1 & BSˆB1 . IE, the stub axles of inner and outer wheels turn by θ
and φ angles respectively.
Neglecting the obliquity of the track rod in the turned position, the
movements of A and B in the horizontal direction may be taken to be same
(x).
dx dx
sin sin
Then, r and r
sin sin
2d
2 sin
Adding, r [1]
Angle α can be determined using the above equation. The values of θ and φ
to be taken in this equation are those found for correct steering using the
w
cot cot
equation L . [2]
This mechanism gives correct steering in only three positions. One, when θ
= 0 and other two each corresponding to the turn to right or left (at a fixed
turning angle, as determined by equation [1]).
The correct values of φ, [φc] corresponding to different values of θ, for
correct steering can be determined using equation [2]. For the given
dimensions of the mechanism, actual values of φ, [φa] can be obtained for
different values of θ. T he difference between φ c and φa will be very small
for small angles of θ, but the difference will be substantial, for larger values
of θ. Such a difference will reduce the life of tyres because of greater wear
on account of slipping.
But for larger values of θ, the automobile must take a sharp turn; hence is
will be moving at a slow speed. At low speeds, wear of the tyres is less.
Therefore, the greater difference between φc and φa larger values of θ ill not
matter.
As this mechanism employs only turning pairs, friction and wear in the
mechanism will be less. Hence its maintenance will be easier and is
commonly employed in automobiles
c
R S
A'
A B
d x B'
x
P
d Q
Fig.1.49
Tracked Vehicle Steering: In order to steer a tracked vehicle, it is
necessary to drive one track faster than the other, causing the vehicle to turn
toward the slower track. This is called "skid steering" or "differential
steering". While the theory is simple.
Dual Drive: The simplest way to achieve this is to drive each track with a
separate power source. However, it has its drawbacks. First of all, it requires
two driving source. With all the attendant extra weight, complexity, and
maintenance headaches. In this case, two motors does not result in twice the
reliability, but half the reliability, as if either fails, the vehicle is effectively
immobilized and capable only of spinning in circles.
300+300
P=
6
P = 100 kg
P = 100 ×9.81
P = 981 N
Where f r is coefficient of rolling resistance, for car tires and concrete its
value is 0.013
Frolling = 981 × 0.013
= 12.75
F = 60 + Frolling
F = 60 + 76.5
=136.5N
P = 136.5 × 1.5
= 204.75 W
= 205 (suppose) watts
P = 205×1.5
= 307.5 watts
Hence the power required to drive the motor will be approximately 308
watts.
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