CHAPTER 3

Water treatment

Outlines
Coagulation and flocculation
Characteristics of particles
Common coagulants

Mixing and flocculation

Sedimentation
The Ideal Sedimentation Basin

Horizontal Flow Rectangular Sedimentation Basin Design

Granular filtration
Classification
Theory of granular filtration
Granular filtration practice

Coagulation and flocculation

Characteristics of particles

Charge is predominately negative

Particles repel so suspension is considered stable
Can be removed by physical means
Colloidal particles

Suspended particles

oA chemical coagulant with positive charge and high valence

is mixed into water.
oThe coagulant acts to destabilized the particles at neutral
pH.
oThe precipitates called flocs act as seed for forming larger particles.
+

+
+
+
++
+
+
+

Colloidal particles
(0.001 - 1 m)

+
+
+

++
+

++

++
+

+ +

++

floc
(1 - 100 m)

Coagulation/Flocculation/Physical Removal
o Designed to remove,
Microorganisms.
Toxic compounds that are sorted to particles.
NOM
o Designed to make the water more palatable.

Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulation: Addition of chemicals to destabilize

particles for flocculation.

Flocculation: Process of bringing the particles together
so that they aggregate into larger particles.
Physical Removal: Process of removing the larger
particles from the clarified water (sedimentation,
flotation, filtration).

Common coagulants
.

Alum: Al2(SO4)3 14H2O

Aluminum chloride: AlCl3

Ferric chloride: FeCl3
Ferric sulfate: FeSO4

Polyaluminum chloride (PACl):

Alw(OH)xCl3w-x
Polyaluminum sulfate (PAS)
Alx(OH)y(SO4)z
Polyelectrolytes

How does alum work?

Al2(SO4)314H2O 2Al3++ 3SO42-+ 14H2O

2Al3+ + colloids neutralize surface charge

If sufficient alkalinity is available:
2Al3+ + 6HCO3- 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2

If insufficient bicarbonate is available:

Al2(SO4)314H2O 2Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2SO4 + 14H2O

Optimum pH: 5.5 to 6.5

Operating pH: 5 to 8

Mixing and flocculation

Chemical reactor in water treatment and
biological aeration basins in wastewater

processing are designed as either completely

mixed or plug-flow basins (Fig. 3.1).
In water treatment, rapid mixing provide by
mechanical mixing (Fig. 3.2) using vertical shaft
impeller.
Other methods involve hydraulic mixing such as
injecting of chemicals into the inlet of the
centrifugal pump.

Mixing and flocculation

Figure 3.1 Ideal completely mixed and plug flow tanks. (a) completely
Mixed. (b) Plug flow.
Source: water and wastewater technology, 5th ed., Mark J. Hammer and
Mark J. Hammer, Jr.

Rapid Mixing

Figure 3.2 rapid mixing. Source: Principles of Environmental

Engineering and Science, 2nd ed., Davis M and Masten SJ McGraw
Hill)

Mixing and flocculation

For the steady-state conditions (in ideal
completely mixed reactor), the first-order reaction
kinetics are given by Eq. 3.1

.
t = detention time
V = volume of the basin
Q = flow rate
K = rate constant for first-order reaction
= influent reactant concentration
= effluent reactant concentration

3.1

Mixing and flocculation

For the steady-state conditions (in ideal plug-flow

reactor), the relationship between detention time

and concentration is given by eq. 3.2

3.2
Where t, V,

, and k, are the same as in eq. 3.1

L = length of the rectangular basin
= horizontal velocity of the flow

Example 3.1
Based on laboratory test studies, the rate constant for

chemical coagulation reaction was found to be firstorder kinetics with k equal to 75 per day. Calculate the
detention times required in completely mixed and
plug-flow reactors fro an 80 percent reduction, = 200
mg/l and = 40 mg/l.
If the flow rate of the water entering the tank is 200
m3/d, calculate the volume of the coagulation tank in
both cases.

Sedimentation
The objectives of sedimentation process is to allow the settling

out of particulate material in a reasonable period of time.

In the design of an ideal sedimentation tank, one of the
controlling parameters is the settling velocity (vs) of the particle
to be removed.
Settling properties of particles are categorized into four classes:
1. Discrete particle settling
2. Flocculant settling
3. Hindered settling
4. Compression settling
5. These categories are labeled as type 1, type II, type III and type
IV.

Type I Sedimentation
In type I, sedimentation is characterized by particles that settle

discreetly at a constant velocity(vs) of the particle to be removed.

They settle as individual particles and do not flocculate during

settling. Examples of these particles are sand and grit.

Type II Sedimentation
Type II sedimentation is characterized by particles that

flocculate during sedimentation.

These types of particles occur in alum or iron coagulation, in
wastewater primary sedimentation and in settling tanks in
trickling filtration.

Type II Sedimentation
There is no adequate mathematical relationship
that can be used to describe Type II settling.

Laboratory tests with settling columns serve as a

model of the behavior of flocculant settling.

Type III and type VI Sedimentation

When the water contains a high concentration of

particles (for example, greater than 1,000 mg/L)

both Type III (hindered settling or zone settling)
and Type IV (compression settling) occur along
with discrete and flocculant settling.
Zone settling occurs in lime-softening
sedimentation, activated sludge sedimentation,
and sludge thickeners

Type III and type VI Sedimentation

Type III (hindered settling or zone settling)
Because of the high concentration of particles, the liquid

tends to move up through the interstices of the contacting

particles. As a results, the contacting particles tend to settle
as zone or blanket maintaining the same relative position
with respect to each other. As settling continues, a
compressed layer of particles begins to form on the bottom
of the cylinder in compression settling region.
Regions containing successively lower concentration of
solids than those in compression region extend upward in
the cylinder (see following Figure).

Definition sketch for hindered settling: settling Column

in which the suspension is transitioning through various
phases of settling. (source Metcalf & Eddy)

The Ideal Sedimentation Basin

o

The ideal settling basin theory assumes the following:

Type I settling.
Four zones in the basin: inlet, outlet, sludge. and settling.
Even distribution of flow (uniform horizontal velocity) entering
the settling zone.
Even distribution of flow leaving the settling zone.
Uniform distribution of particles through the depth of the inlet
zone to the end of the settling zone.
Particles that enter the sludge zone are captured and remain in
the sludge zone.
Particles that enter the outlet zone are not removed from the
water.

Figure 3.3 zones of sedimentation: (a) horizontal flow clarifier; (b)

upflow clarifier.
Source: water and wastewater engineering, design principles and practice.
Machenzie L. Davis.

The Ideal Sedimentation Basin

ln the upflow clarifier, particle-laden water enters the

bottom of the clarifier as shown in figure 3.4, at the bottom

of the clarifier the velocity of the rising water is greater
than the settling velocity of the particle.
As the water rises, the area through which it passes is
increasing.
From the continuity principle the velocity of the water
decreases as it rises:

...3.3
The velocity of the particle remains the same.

Where

= velocity of water, m/s

= Flow rate of water, m3/s
= cross-sectional area through which the water flows, m2

The upward water velocity that will enable the separation of the

water from the particle is called the overflow rate because it is the
rate at which water overflows the top of the tank into the weirs.

The notation

, is used to denote the overflow rate. It is also called

the hydraulic surface loading, or the surface loading, because it has
units of m3/d.m2.

The Ideal Sedimentation Basin

For an upflow clarifier, 100 percent of the particles having a

settling velocity greater than or equal to the overflow rate

will remain in the settling tank (that is, they will be
captured), and no particles with a settling velocity less than
the overflow rate will be captured.
Particle removal in a horizontal flow settling tank is
likewise depend on the overflow rate.

(which is the overflow rate (

) .3.4

Figure 3.4 settling in an upflow clarifier.

Source: water and wastewater engineering, design principles and practice.
Machenzie L. Davis.

 In a similar fashion to an upflow clarifier, if the settling

velocity of a particle is equal to or greater than the overflow

rate, 100 percent of the particles will be captured in a
horizontal sedimentation tank. Unlike an upflow clarifier,
some percentage of the particles with less than will be
removed (Figure 3.5).
The percentage of particles removed, P, with a settling
velocity of , in a horizontal flow sedimentation tank
designed with an overflow rate of
,is

3.5

50 %
50 %
Figure 3.5 Partial particle removal in an ideal sedimentation tank

Example 3.2
A horizontal-flow sedimentation tank with an overrate

of 17 m3/d.m2. What percentage removal should be

expected for each of the following particle settling
velocities in an ideal sedimentation tank: 0.1 mm/s,
0.2 mm/s, and 1 mm/s?

Horizontal Flow Rectangular Sedimentation

Basin Design

Horizontal flow velocities must be controlled to avoid undue

turbulence, back mixing and scour of the particles from the
sludge. Velocity not exceed 0.15 m/min is recommended.

Reynolds and Froude numbers can be used to check on

turbulence and back mixing.
The Reynolds number is determined as
..3.6
Where R = Reynolds number, dimensionless

Horizontal Flow Rectangular Sedimentation

Basin Design
= average horizontal fluid velocity in tank, m/s
= hydraulic radius, m =
= cross sectional area, m2
= wetted perimeter, m

= kinematic viscosity,m2/s
= dynamic viscosity, Pa.s
= density of fluid, kg/m3

Froude number
The Froude number is determined as:

..3.7

Where Fr = Froude number, dimensionless

g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2

Figure 3.6 Typical sedimentation tanks: (a)

rectangular horizontal flow tank; (b)
circular, radial-flow tank; (c) hopperbottomed, upward flow tank

Table 3.1

Example 3.3:
Design the settling tank (s) for the city of Stillwaters

water treatment plant using the design overflow rate

(v0) of 32.5 m3/d.m2. The maximum day design flow is
0.5 m3/s. Assume a water temperature of 100 C.

Table 3.2

Granular filtration
The objective of filtration process is to remove non-

settelable particles and microorganisms.

Granular filters are called depth filters because the
particulate matter in the water penetrates into the
filter as well as being caught on the surface.
The bottom of the filter consists of a support media
and water collection system (fig 3.7). The support
media is designed to keep the filtration media (sand,
coal, etc.) in the filter and prevent it from leaving with
the filtered water.

Figure 3.7 typical gravity filter box

Source: water and wastewater engineering, design principles and
practice.Machenzie L. Davis

Granular filtration
Layers of graded gravel (large on bottom,small on top)

traditionally have been used for the support. The under

drain blocks collect the filtered water.
In newer designs, integrated media support that combines
a synthetic layer with a synthetic underdrain block is being
used.
As material accumulates in the interstices of the granular
medium, the headloss through the filter increases.
When either the headloss or the effluent turbidity reaches
a predetermined limit, filtration is terminated and the
filter is cleaned

Classification
Filters are classified based on hydraulic rate as:
Slow sand filters, rapid sand filters, or high-rate filters.
o Slow sand filters
Slow sand filters were first introduced in the 1800s. The

water is applied to the sand at loading rate of 3 to 8

m3/d.m2.
As the suspended or colloidal material is applied to the
sand the particles begin to collect in the top 75 mm and to
clog the pore spaces.
As the pores clogged, water will no longer pass through the
sand. At this point the top layer of sand is scraped off,
cleaned, and replaced.

Classification
o Rapid sand filters
These filters have graded (layered) sand in a bed. The

sand grain size distribution is selected to optimize the

passage of water while minimizing the passage of
particulate matter.
Rapid sand filters are cleaned in place by backwashing.
Rapid sand filters are the most common type of filters
in service in water treatment plants today.
Rapid sand filters have been designed to operate at 120
m3/d.m2.

Classification
o Deep-bed (high rate filters)
They have been introduce in mid- 1980s.
They are designed to achieve higher loading rates and

producing lower turbidity.

They operated at loading rate up to 600 m3/d.m2.

Theory of granular filtration

o The hydraulic issues to be considered in the design of

filter system include:

Head loss through a clean filter bed
Head loss resulting from the accumulation of particles
in the bed.
The fluidization depth of the bed during backwashing,
and head loss in expanding the filter bed.

Clean filter headloss

The headloss through a clean filter with uniform

porosity can be determined as:

Terminal headloss
Terminal headloss is the headloss after which the filter

should be cleaned.
Terminal headloss selected based on experience and
the hydraulic profile of the entire treatment plant.

Backwashing hydraulics
The expansion of filter bed during backwash is

calculated to provide the starting point in determining

the placement of the backwash troughs above the filter
bed.

Granular filtration practice

oNumber of filters
For smaller plants (< 800 m3/d), the minimum number of

filters is two.
For plants > 800 m3/d, the minimum number of filters is
four.
A rule-of-thumb estimate for larger plants may be made
using

.3.7

Filtration rate
When a plant has a small number of filters, the

filtration rate in the remaining filters increases

dramatically when one filter is taken off-line for
backwashing or maintenance.
A sudden increase in the filtration rate in those filters
in service may result in particle detachment and an
increase in the turbidity in the effluent. This condition
must be analyzed when the filtration rate is selected.

Dimensions
The area of a filter bed may be estimated as

3.8

 In general, filter area range from 25 to 100 m2 with an

average of about 50 m2.

Filters generally composed of two cells per filter box to
form a bed.
The width of a filter cell should be less than 6 m.
Length to width ratio of a cell is in the range of 2:1 to
4:1.
The filter box depth is in the range of 4 to 8m. Due to
construction cost, filters rarely provide more than 2 to
3m.

Example 3.4
A sand filter is to be designed for Putrajaya new water

treatment plant. If the maximum day design flow rate

is 18,400 m3/d, and the filtration rate is 216 m3/d.m2.
Determine the area of each individual filter and the
plan (horizontal) dimensions of a filter box.