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( x, t )( x, t )dx = 1 or
( x, y, z, t )( x, y, z, t )dv = 1
( x, y , z, t ) dxdydz or *dxdydz
2
or in 1D
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( x, y , z, t ) dxdydz = 1
2
[ dx ] = 1
Classical
QM
Dynamical
Operator
Variable
Representation
Position x
V(x)
f(x)
f(x)
Momentum p x
h
i x
Kinetic Energy
p 2x
2m
h
f
i x
f(p x )
h2 2
2m x 2
h2 2
+ V(x)
2m x 2
h
i t
( x, t )op ( x, t )dx
or =
( x, y, z, t )op ( x, y, z, t )dv
The expectation value, denoted by the braces <>, is also known as the average
value or ensemble average.
Brennan goes through a formal derivation on pages 28-29 of the text and points
out that the state of a QM particle is unknown before the measurement. The
measurement forces the QM particle to be compartmentalized into a known state.
However, multiple measurements can result in multiple state observances, each
with a different observable. Given the probability of each state, the expectation
value is a weighted average of all possible results weighted by each results
probability.
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1 x 1
otherwise
Ax
( x, t ) =
0
1=
( x, t )( x, t )dx
*
or 1 =
A2 3 1
2
1=
x
= A2
1
3
3
A x dx
2
A=
3
2
1 x
-1
1
3
31 1
x = (x 3 )dx = x 4
2 1
2 4 1
x = 0
( x, t ) x ( x, t )dx
*
x2 =
1 x
-1
or
3
xx 2 x dx
2 1
3 5 1 3
x
=
10 1 5
x2 x
3
3
0 =
0.775
5
5
op (x, t) = s (x, t)
Operator
Eigenfunction
of Operator
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Eigenvalue
Operand
d
op =
dx
(x, t) = e sx
d sx
e = s e sx
dx
Eigenfunction
of derivative
operator
Eigenvalue
Operand
Unlike the case for classical dynamical values, linear QM operators generally do
not commute. Consider:
Classical Mechanics : xp = px
?
x
(x,
t)
x (x, t)
i dx
i dx
h d
h
h d
x
(x,
t)
(x,
t)
+
x
(x, t)
i dx
i
i dx
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(x, t)
op
(x, t)dx
If is real and the dynamical variable is real (i.e. physically meaningful) then,
= * and = *
This says nothing about op as in general, op *op
Thus taking the conjugate of everything in the above equation,
*
*
(x,
t)
(x, t)dx
op
(x, t)
op
(x, t)dx =
(x, t)
*
op
* (x, t)dx
(x, t)
*
1
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This
equation is
simply the
case where
1=2
op
2 (x, t)dx =
*
*
(x,
t)
(x, t)dx
op
(x, t)
op
(x, t)dx =
* *
(x,
t)
s (x, t)dx
*
s
(x, t)
(x, t)dx
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=0
j+
t
( xo , t ) x = xo
( x, t ) =
x xo x
x
Simply stated, the wave function and its derivative are smoothly varying (no
discontinuities) . However, in a non-isotropic medium (examples at a
heterojunction where the mass of an electron changes on either side of the junction
or at an abrupt potential boundary) the full continuity equation MUST be used.
Be careful as the above isotropic simplification is quoted as a Postulate in MANY
QM texts but can get you into trouble (see homework problem) in non-isotropic
mediums. When in doubt, use
* (r ) (r )
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j=
h
* (r ) (r ) (r ) * (r )
2mi
j+
=0
t
ECE 6451 - Dr. Alan Doolittle
for
- x
for x - x
for
- x
for x - x
( x, t )( x, t )dx = 1
*
1
1
A x + 2 sin x + x + sin 2 x = 1
2
4
A2 (3 ) = 1
A=
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1
3
1
(1 + cos(x ))
(x ) = 3
for
- x
for x - x
ECE 6451 - Dr. Alan Doolittle
(x ) =
3
for x - x
is independent of time so
=0
t
1
so (x ) = * (x ) =
sin x
3
h
Probability Current Density j =
* (x ) (x ) (x ) * (x )
2mi
h 1
(1 + cos x ) 1 sin x 1 (1 + cos x ) 1 sin x = 0
j=
2mi 3
3
3
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j+
=0+0=0
t
(x ) = 3
for
- x
for x - x
Lim
1
1
(
)
(1 + cos )
x
1
+
cos
=
x (or - )
3
3
0 = 0 for x = - or
and
Lim
1
1
x
sin
=
sin
x (or - )
3
3
0 = 0 for x = - or
Thus, the wave function and its derivative are both zero and continuous at
the boundary (same for x=-).
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(x ) = 3
- x
for
for x - x
x =
xdx
x =
1
x =
3
1
(1 + cos x )x 1 (1 + cos x )dx
3
3
(x ) =
1
2h
Fourier Transform
( p )e
ipx / h
( p) =
dp
Momentum
Space
1
2h
ipx / h
(
)
x
e
dx
If (x ) is normalized then so is (p )
(x ) (x )dx =
(p) (p)dp = 1
x2
( x ) = e 2b
Fourier Transform
( p ) = be
b2 p 2
2h 2
The above wave function is a superposition of 27 simple plane waves and creates a net wave function
that is localized in space. The red line is the amplitude envelope (related to ). These types of
wave functions are useful in describing particles such as electrons. The wave function envelope can
be approximated with a Gaussian function in space. Using the Fourier relationship between space and
momentum, this can be transformed into a Gaussian in momentum (see Brennan section 1.3). The
widths of the two Gaussians are inversely related.
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x2
( x ) = e 2b
Fourier Transform
( p ) = be
b2 p 2
2h 2
The widths of the two Gaussians are inversely related. Thus, accurate knowledge of position leads to
inaccurate knowledge of momentum.
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Ax
x2
( ) 2
2 ( )2
( )
Taking the Fourier transformation of this function into the momentum space
we get,
1
ipx / h
(
)
x
e
dx
( p ) =
2h
( p ) =
(4 ) 14 ( ) x 2
1
2 ( )
e
2h ( ) 2
e ipx / h dx
The standard
deviation in
p2
( p ) = (4 )
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h
( )
2 h
1
( )
e
h
2
( )
momentum space is
inversely related to
the standard deviation
in position space.
ECE 6451 - Dr. Alan Doolittle
x = ( ) and p = h / ( )
Defining:
Position Space
(x ) =
(x ) =
(4 )
(4 )
Momentum Space
x2
X 2 (
e
2
1
X 2
)2
( p ) =
x2
e 2 ( X )
( p ) =
(4 )
p 2
(4 ) 4
( )2
2 p
p2
p 2
p2
( )2
2 p
x = (x ) and p = (p )
xp = h
x = (x )
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p = (p )
ECE 6451 - Dr. Alan Doolittle
x = iC
x
i dx i dx
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xp x p x x = iC
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h d h d
x = iC
x
i dx i dx
h d
h d
(x ) = iC
x
i dx
i dx
h d h
h d
= iC
x
i dx i
i dx
h
= iC
i
h=C
(x ) (p )
2
h
2
(x )(p ) h
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(p )
Using Group Velocity
2
k
h
t
(
)
h 2
(t )(E ) h
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Position x
QM
Operator
Momentum Space
Representation
i px
V(x)
h
V
i p x
f(x)
f(x)
h
f
i p x
Momentum p x
h
i x
px
2 2
h
2
2m x
px
2m
Kinetic Energy
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QM
Operator
Real Space
Representation
px
2m
f(p x )
h
f
i x
2 2
h
+ V(x)
2
2m x
i t
f ( px )
px
+ V h
2m
i p x
i t
Dirac Notation
There exists a short hand notation known as Dirac notation that simplifies
writing of QM equations and is valid in either position or momentum space.
op =
or in momentum space,
op =
Note: The left side, <, is known as a Bra while the right side, >, is known
as a ket (derived from the Bracket notation). The ket is by definition,
the complex conjugate of the argument.
op =
Dirac Notation
The operator acts on the function on the right side:
op = op =
If you need the operator to act on the function to the left, write it explicitly.
op 1 2 =
*
*
(x,
t)
op 1 (x, t)dx
2
Note that in this example, we have commuted the left hand side (operator and
1) with the right hand side (2). This is okay. While not all operators
commute, any function times another function does commute (i.e. once the
operator conjugate has acted on the 1* , the result is merely a function which
always commutes). Thus, it is the operator that may or may not commute but
the functions that result from an operator acting on a wave function always
commute.
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Dirac Notation
The Dirac form of Hermiticity is:
*
1
(x,
t)
op 1 (x, t)dx
2
*
1 op 2 = 2 op 1 *
or
1 op 2 = op 1 2
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1
e
2
( x xo ) =
( x xo ) = 0
1 x x 2
o
2
for x = x o
for x x o
(x x )dx = 1
o
1
(x )
a
f ( x ) ( x xo ) = f ( xo ) ( x xo )
xo
(ax ) =
( x xo ) = 0
for x x o
f ( x ) (x x )dx =
o
f ( xo )
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f ( x)
d
d
(x xo )dx =
f ( x ) x = xo
dx
dx
ECE 6451 - Dr. Alan Doolittle
( x xo )
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