PERFORMANCE AND ANALYSIS OF OVERALL PLANT LAYOUT IN

GENTING LANCO POWER (INDIA) PVT LTD, KONDAPALLI

An
Internship Report
Submitted Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement
For the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
In

Mechanical Engineering
Submitted by
PARSA BHARGAV KRISHNA
08BME155

Under the guidance of

Sri V.Srinivasa Rao(LANCO)

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND BUILDING SCIENCES

VIT
UNIVERSITY
(Estd. U/s 3 of UGC Act 1956)

Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India

www. vit.ac.in

JUNE 2010

Acknowledgement
We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude and sincere
regards

to

our

institution

VELLORE

INSTITUTE

OF

TECHNOLOGY, VELLORE, for providing us an opportunity to

fulfill our most cherished dream
We thank Dr.Senthil kumar, Director, SMBS, for allowing
us to pursue this training.
We are also thankful to Prof.Kuppan,Program manager,
B.tech Mechanical Engineering for his valuable guidance.
We are grateful and indebted to our concerned guide,
Mr.V.Srinivasa Rao, Senior Section Engineer (LANCO) Kondapalli,
Vijayawada for his valuable guidance and cooperation.
My sincere thanks to all other faculty members of Department
of Mechanical Engineering for their kind co-operation and support
provided.

INDEX
INTRODUCTION
ABOUT LANCO POWER PLANT
PLANT BACKGROUND
PLANT HIGHLIGHTS

PLANT OVERALL VIEW

BASIC CYCLES
Brayton cycle
Processes of the Brayton cycle
Rankine cycle
Processes of the Rankine cycle
Combined cycle
Benefits of the combined cycle

GAS TURBINE
Gas Turbine Engine Fundamentals
Gas Turbine Main Components
Air Inlet Equipment
Compressor
Combustion Section

HRSG
HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATORS
Superheater
Economiser
Deaerator

STEAM TURBINE
STEAM TURBINES
Turbine Principles
Nozzles and Their Principles
Basic Turbine Types and Principles

Impulse Turbine
Reaction Turbine

Condenser
Cooling towers
Chimney

INTRODUCTION

ABOUT LANCO POWER PLANT:LAGADAPATI AMARAPPA NAIDU COMPANY, called as

LANCO at IDA KONDAPALLI, with a power generator capacity of 368.144MW. The
plant contains two gas turbines, two heat recovery steam generators, one steam turbine &
the cooling towers which consists 13cells. Natural gas, NAPTHA and HSD (high speed
diesel) are used as fuels either in mixed proportions or individually.
LANCO Kondapalli Power Plant is an Independent Power Project (IPP) located at
Kondapalli Industrial Development Area near Vijayawada in India. The Plant is a
368.144 MW Combined Cycle Power Project operating on Natural Gas as primary
fuel.
The plant has two Gas Turbines of GE Frame 9E, two Heat Recovery Steam
Generators and one Steam Turbine.

Based on a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) for a period of 15 years, the plant
supplies power to APSDCL (Andhra Pradesh Southern Distribution Company Limitedrest while Transmission Corporation of Andhra Pradesh Limited (AP TRANSCO)).
The Operation and Maintenance of the power plant is done by the Genting Lanco
Power (I) Private Limited, which is jointly owned by Genting Group, Malaysia and
LANCO Group, India.

Plant Background
The plant was set up as a short gestation power projects in the private sector on the
basis of "Tariff-Based International Competitive Bidding" as per the Government of
India's guidelines dated 18 January 1995.
Based on Andhra Pradesh State Electricity Boards (now the Transmission Corporation
of
Andhra

Pradesh Limited (AP TRANSCO) tender, Lanco Kondapalli Power Private Limited was
awarded the project on Build, Own and Operate (BOO) basis.

Plant Highlights
First Project cleared by Central Electricity Authority (CEA) under the
International Competitive Bidding (ICB) route for Power Projects in India.
First ICB Power Projects in India to achieve Financial Closure.
one of the lowest in terms of evacuation cost to AP TRANSCO.
First private sector Power Project to receive disbursement of finance from
the Power Finance Corporation Limited, India.
Largest Independent Power Project (IPP) in South India and one of the
largest IPPs in India.

PLANT OVERALL VIEW

LANCO POWER PLANT OVERALL VIEW
The Lanco power plant consists of two gas turbines and steam turbine natural air
from atmosphere is drawn into the compressor and these compressed air mixed with fuel
in combustion chamber and is ignited the thermal energy with gases produced is utilized
for running the gas turbine, coupled to alternator generating electric power at 15k.v. the
heat of flue gases coming out at gas turbine, is used to heat the water and produce the
steam. The steam thus produce is sent to the steam turbine. There by effectively using the
waste heat of the flue gases for power generation and increasing the efficiency of the
plant.
Steam coming out from the steam turbine is condensed to water in the
condenser. Which is water cooled in condenser, the circulating water takes heat from
steam. There by condensing the steam to water. The plant uses the cooling towers to cool
the hot water from the condenser, to a required temperature range by rejecting the heat
from the atmosphere finally; the cold water is fed back to the condenser from the cooling
towers.
Water required for various purposes is obtained from the Krishna River. There is
a pump arrangement at ferry to pump water to Lanco. The plant also consists of two large
water ponds to store water for the extreme conditions. With this stored water plant can
run for 15 days without any obstruction in adverse conditions.
The type of cooling tower used is of mechanical draft induced type where the
air flow (or draft) needed is provided (sucked) by a fan which is arranged at the top of the
cooling tower& is externally driven by a power source motor. The flow of water to air is
of counter flow type. I.e. the hot water from a particular height falls down words through
the nozzles of the pipes within the tower and where as the air moves through it vertically
up words taking away the heat from the water in the form of evaporated water (water
vapour).

BASIC CYCLES

Brayton cycle

A common arrangement of a gas turbine driving an electric generator is shown in Figure

below. The basic gas turbine consists of a compressor, a combustion section, and a
turbine section. Air is drawn in to the compressor which raises the air pressure by a factor
of 12 to18:1. The temperature of the air also increases with compression, and may be as
high as 600F (316C) at the compressor discharge.

In the combustion section, fuel is injected into the compressed air and burned to convert
the fuel's chemical energy into heat energy. Burning the fuel results in a high temperature,
high pressure gas with considerable thermal energy. This hot gas enters the turbine
section where it expands, giving up its thermal energy to the blades of the rotating
turbine. In the process of expanding and cooling through the turbine section, the thermal
energy of the gas is converted into mechanical energy that is used to do work. A large
portion of the work from the turbine, about 60%, is used to drive the compressor. The
remainder of the turbine work is available to produce power by driving a generator. The
heat exhausted from the gas turbine is typically in the range of 900 to 1100F (482-973)
C.

Processes of the Brayton cycle

The first process is the compression of air in the compressor represented by the
line AB. As the air is compressed, its temperature and pressure increases and there
is a corresponding increase in enthalpy. As work is done on the air, the air stores
this energy in the form of temperature and pressure. The power (energy) to
perform this work originates from the turbine which is directly coupled to the gas
turbine compressor through a common shaft.

Brayton Cycle T-h Diagram

The second process is the addition of heat to the cycle at a constant pressure by
burning of fuel represented by the line B-C. The temperature of the gas that
results from the combustion increases considerably from the temperature of the
air at the compressor outlet.

The third process is the expansion and cooling of the gas as it passes through the
turbine, is represented by the line C-D. Here, the energy of the hot pressurized gas
is used to perform work.

The final process in the Brayton cycle is the cooling of the hot gas that exhausts to
the atmosphere, represented by line D-A. The exhausted gas mixes with ambient
air, thus decreasing in temperature.
The amount of heat that is required to make the Brayton cycle work is represented by the
area under line B-C. The fraction of heat that is rejected is represented by the area under

the line D-A. The area between these two lines represents the heat that is converted to
useful mechanical energy. The heat converted to useful mechanical energy is 25% to 30%
of the total heat required to make the process work.

Ideal Brayton cycle:

Isentropic process - Ambient air is drawn into the compressor, where it is

pressurized.

isobaric process - The compressed air then runs through a combustion chamber,
where fuel is burned, heating that aira constant-pressure process, since the
chamber is open to flow in and out.

Isentropic process - The heated, pressurized air then gives up its energy,
expanding through a turbine (or series of turbines). Some of the work extracted by
the turbine is used to drive the compressor.

Isobaric process - Heat Rejection (in the atmosphere).

Actual Brayton cycle:

Adiabatic process - Compression.

Isobaric process - Heat Addition.

Adiabatic process - Expansion.

Isobaric process - Heat Rejection.

Rankine Cycle
The "traditional" thermal power plant is the Rankine Cycle plant, named
after the man who invented the cycle. A power plant cycle is a series of processes in
which a fluid, generally water/steam, is used to convert heat energy to mechanical energy.
The Rankine Cycle in its simplest form consists of a boiler, a turbine, a condenser, and a
boiler feed pump. Early plants had thermal efficiencies of approximately 25% to 30%.
Only 25% to 30% of the heat energy in the fuel burned in these plants was converted to
electrical energy. The rest was lost in various ways. Rankine Cycle plants are still being
built today. The Rankine Cycle has been refined considerably over the years and made
more efficient by the addition of components like feed water heaters, super heaters, and
reheaters. The efficiency of the Rankine Cycle has also been improved by increasing the
pressure and temperature of the cycle. One of the most efficient Rankine Cycle plants
ever built (Philadelphia Electric's Eddy stone plant, Units 1 and 2) was placed in service
around 1960. The thermal efficiency of the Eddy stone plant was 42%. The laws of
thermodynamics and considerations such as material limitations have prevented any
significant improvement since then.

Processes of the Rankine cycle

There are four processes in the Rankine cycle, each changing the state of the working
fluid. These states are identified by number in the diagram below.

Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure, as the fluid
is a liquid at this stage the pump requires little input energy.

Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant
pressure by an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor.

Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating
power. This decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some
condensation may occur.

Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a
constant pressure and temperature to become a saturated liquid. The pressure and
temperature of the condenser is fixed by the temperature of the cooling coils as
the fluid is undergoing a phase-change.

The first process in the Rankine Cycle is the increase in pressure of the
condensate from the condenser by the boiler feed pump. The increase in

pressure occurs with a slight increase in enthalpy. The increase in energy which
the boiler feed pump adds to the cycle is represented by line 1-2.
The second Rankine Cycle process (Line 2-3) is the addition of heat
(represented by Q) to the water entering the boiler. Within the boiler, the water is
transformed from a liquid to a gas (steam). The generation of steam is assumed
to occur at a constant pressure. Additional energy is added to the steam as it
passes through the superheated (line 4). The steam is then expanded and
cooled as it passes through the turbine as represented by line 4-5. Here, the
energy of the steam is used to perform work.
The last process in the Rankine Cycle is the condensation of the steam that
exhausts from the turbine, represented by line 5-1. During condensation,
considerable heat, called the heat of vaporization, is lost.
The heat required making the Rankine Cycle work is determined by the area under the
lines between points 2 to 4; and the heat lost from the cycle is under the line between
points 5 and 1. The area between the lines represents the heat that is converted to
useful mechanical energy. The useful mechanical energy is only about 1/3 of the heat
required to make the cycle work.

In an ideal Rankine cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic, i.e., the pump and
turbine would generate no entropy and hence maximize the net work output. Processes 12 and 3-4 would be represented by vertical lines on the Ts diagram and more closely
resemble that of the Carnot cycle. The Rankine cycle shown here prevents the vapor
ending up in the superheat region after the expansion in the turbine which reduces the
energy removed by the condensers.

Gas Turbines and Combined Cycle

The first practical gas turbine was developed in Europe in 1939. At the
end of World War II, the first gas turbines were developed for aircraft. Shortly after the
war, the first industrial gas turbines for power production and other industrial
applications, such as driving locomotives, were introduced. Gas turbines use another type
of cycle called the Brayton cycle, also named after its inventor. The first commercial,
industrial gas turbines were relatively inefficient, typically having a thermal efficiency of
16%to 17%.
A combined cycle plant consists of one or more gas turbines that drive
generators and exhaust into a special boiler called a heat recovery steam generator
(HRSG) that generates steam for a Rankine Cycle unit.
One of the principal reasons for the popularity of the combined cycle power
plants is their high thermal efficiency. Combined cycle plants with thermal efficiencies as
high as 60% are being built. Combined cycle plants can achieve these efficiencies
because much of the heat from the gas turbine(s) is captured and used in the Rankine
Cycle portion of the plant. Refer to Figure the heat from the exhaust gases would
normally be lost to the atmosphere in a simple gas turbine cycle
Another reason for the popularity of combined cycle plants is the relatively
short time required for their construction. Although it takes longer to build a combined
cycle plant than a simple gas turbine plant, a combined cycle plant can be built in much
less time than a Rankine Cycle plant of comparable output.
One of the biggest obstacles to even greater acceptance of combined cycle
plants is the fact that the gas turbines used in combined cycle plants still burn oil and gas.
Gas turbines built to date cannot burn coal directly. Often oil and gas cost much more
than coal. While the combined cycle plant might be more efficient thermodynamically
than a coal fired plant, the coal plant might be less expensive to run because of the lower
cost for fuel. One solution to the high fuel cost for gas turbines is the development
Of gas turbines that can burn coal. While there have been experimental gas turbines built
with this capability, none have reached commercialization

Natural gas is the most common fuel used by combined cycle gas turbine
power plants. In recent years however, manufacturers have designed and built gas
turbines which can burn various forms of low and medium Btu gas. These low Btu gasses
can be derived as a byproduct of the refinery process, or in some cases, produced through
a process referred to as gasification. During gasification, solid fuel such as coal or wood
is routed through a heated vessel of approximately 1500-2000F (816-1093C). The high
temperature environment causes an immediate release of volatile gasses from the solid
fuel; with the resulting byproducts of the gasification process being char, ash, and
low-medium Btu gas. Gas turbines can burn the resultant gas as easily as natural gas, and
thus indirectly can use wood or coal as a fuel.

A typical simple-cycle gas turbine will convert 30% to 40% of the fuel input
into shaft output. All but 1% to 2% of the remainder is in the form of exhaust heat. The
combined cycle is generally defined as one or more gas turbines with heat-recovery

steam generators in the exhaust, producing steam for a steam turbine generator,
heat-to-process, or a combination thereof.
Figure below shows a combined cycle in its simplest form. High
utilization of the fuel input to the gas turbine can be achieved with some of the more
complex heat-recovery cycles, involving multiple-pressure boilers, extraction or topping
steam turbines, and avoidance of steam flow to a condenser to preserve the latent heat
content. Attaining more than 80% utilization of the fuel input by a combination of
electrical power generation and process heat is not unusual.

Combined cycle
BENEFITS OF THE COMBINED CYCLE
The demand for combined cycle power plants has increased dramatically
over the last decade. The principal reason for this increase in popularity is probably the
fact that combined cycle plants offer the most efficient, proven technology for generating
steam and/or electric power commercially available today. There are other reasons for the
increase in popularity however, including availability of gas and oil fuel, moderate capital
cost, and short construction schedule as compared to conventional Rankine Cycle plants.
This Section describes the benefits of combined cycle technology

Gas Turbine
Gas Turbine Engine Fundamentals
A gas turbine is an internal combustion engine. Like all internal combustion
engines, gas turbines compress air, take in fuel for combustion, and use the resultant
volume of hot gases to develop shaft horsepower. Referring to Figure the three primary
sections of a gas turbine engine are:
Compressor - Air is drawn into the air inlet by the compressor. Within the compressor,
the air in compressed and a corresponding temperature increase is incurred. The hot,
compressed air is discharged to the combustion section of the engine.
Combustor - Fuel is admitted into the combustion section by fuel nozzles. The fuel/air
Mixture is ignited and combustion occurs.
Turbine - The hot and rapidly expanding gases are directed aft through the turbine
rotor
Assembly. There, thermal and kinetic energy are converted into mechanical energy. The
Gases are then expelled out the turbine exhaust.

Basic Gas Turbine Engine

Gas Turbine Main Components

1. Air Inlet Equipment
The function of the air inlet is to deliver air, with minimal turbulence and
pressure variation to the gas turbine compressor. Gas turbines are sensitive to inlet air
quality because of the inherent design and the enormous amount of air consumed.
Filtration is necessary to provide protection against the effects of contaminated air that
may degrade gas turbine performance and life through erosion, corrosion, fouling, and
plugging of the cooling passages

2. Compressor
The function of the gas turbine compressor is to efficiently compress the
required mass of air and deliver the air to the combustion section. There are two basic
types of compressors used for gas turbine applications; centrifugal compressors and axial
flow compressors. Axial flow compressors are most often used in power plant
applications because of their ability to pump large volumes of air at a high efficiency.
Both the centrifugal and axial-flow compressors compress air by imparting momentum to
the air by means of rotating elements and then converting that momentum to pressure in
suitable stationary passages. Refer to Figure 2-4. In the centrifugal type compressor, air is
drawn in at the center, or eye of a rapidly rotating vane disc. Centrifugal action on the
rotating air mass forces it to the tips of the disc where it is flung off at high tangential
velocity. Suitably shaped stator blades receive this fast moving air stream and slow it
down in such a manner as to increase the pressure. About half of the pressure rise
Occurs in the rotor and the remainder in the stator passages.
The two main elements of an axial flow compressor are the stator and the
rotor. The rotor is constructed with several rows of fixed blades which impart momentum
to the air and force it rearward. Following each row of rotor blades is a row of stationary
Stator blades. An axial flow compressor draws in air from the atmosphere and moves it
Parallel to the axis of rotation. The air is compressed in both the rotor and stator Blade
passages, by continually diffusing the air flow from a high velocity to a low velocity, with
a corresponding rise in pressure. Each consecutive pair of rotor and stator blades
constitutes a pressure stage.

Axial and Centrifugal Compressors

Combustion Section
The combustion section is the area of the gas turbine engine where fuel
is injected for combustion. The injected fuel is very efficiently mixed (atomized) with the
continuous flow of hot compressed air discharged by the compressor. The resultant
thermal energy from the combustion section is directed to the nozzles and blades of the
turbine section where shaft horsepower is produced. Various arrangements of the gas
turbine combustion section are used by different manufacturers.
The four basic arrangements of combustion sections are:
Can-Type Combustor
Annular Combustor
Can-Annular Combustor
Silo Combustor

HRSG

HEAT

RECOVERY STEAM GENERATORS

In the simple cycle mode of operation, the temperature of the exhaust gas
leaving a gas turbine can be as high as 1,100F (593C), and flow rates can be as high as
3 million pounds per hour. This high temperature gas represents a source of heat energy
that can be recovered if the means to do so are available. By recovering this waste heat,
not only can the output of a power plant be increased, but its overall efficiency will be
greatly enhanced.
The function of a heat recovery steam generator is to recover the waste heat
available in the exhaust gases from a gas turbine and transfer it to the water and steam
contained in its tubes. The heat recovered is used to generate steam at high pressure and
high temperature, which is then used to generate additional power in the steam turbine
generator.
An HRSG is basically a heat exchanger composed of a series of superheated,
evaporator, and economizer sections. These sections are positioned from gas inlet to gas
outlet to maximize heat recovery from the gas turbine exhaust gas. The heat recovered in
the HRSG is used to generate superheated steam which is conditioned to a specific
temperature for supply to the steam turbine generator.
HRSGs can be categorized into single pressure and multi pressure. Single
pressure HRSGs have only one steam drum and steam is generated at single pressure
level whereas multi pressure HRSGs employ two (double pressure) or three (triple
pressure) steam drums. As such triple pressure HRSGs consist of three sections: an LP
(low pressure) section, a reheat/IP (intermediate pressure) section, and an HP (high
pressure) section. Each section has a steam drum and an evaporator section where water
is converted to steam. This steam then passes through super heaters to raise the
temperature and pressure past the saturation point
In combined cycle applications, it is typical to have HRSG's with two or
three pressure levels in order to capture as much of the heat from the flue gas as
possible. The highest pressure heat transfer sections are installed first in the flue gas
path, followed by the lower pressure heat transfer sections. A simplified illustration of a
three pressure HRSG is shown in Figure be

Simplified Schematic of HRSG

Superheater
A superheater is a device used to convert saturated steam into dry steam used for power
generation or processes. There are three types of superheaters namely: radiant,
convection, and separately fired. A superheater can vary in size from a few tens of feet to
several hundred feet (a few meters or some hundred meters).
A radiant superheater is placed directly in the combustion chamber.
A convection superheater is located in the path of the hot gases.
A separately fired superheater, as its name implies, is totally separated from the boiler.
The main advantages of using a superheater are reduced fuel and water consumption but
there is a price to pay in increased maintenance costs. In most cases the benefits
outweighed the costs and superheaters were widely used.

Economisers
Economisers are mechanical devices intended to reduce energy
consumption, or to perform another useful function like preheating a fluid. In simple
terms, an economizer is a heat exchanger.
Modern-day boilers, such as those in coal-fired power stations, are still
fitted with economizers which are descendants of Green's original design. In this context

they are often referred to as feed water heaters and heat the condensate from turbines
before it is pumped to the boilers.
Economisers are commonly used as part of a heat recovery steam generator
in a combined cycle power plant. In an HRSG, water passes through an economizer, then
a boiler and then a superheated. The economizer also prevents flooding of the boiler with
liquid water that is too cold to be boiled given the flow rates and design of the boiler.
A common application of economizers in steam power plants is to capture
the waste heat from boiler stack gases (flue gas) and transfer it to the boiler feed water.
This raises the temperature of the boiler feed water thus lowering the needed energy
input, in turn reducing the firing rates to accomplish the rated boiler output. Economisers
lower stack temperatures which may cause condensation of acidic combustion gases and
serious equipment corrosion damage if care is not taken in their design and material
selection.

Deaerator
The primary function of the deaerator is to remove non-condensable gases
from the feedwater entering the HRSG. The efficiency of the deaerator in performing this
function is partially dependent on the temperature of the incoming feedwater. If the inlet
water temperature is abnormally low, proper deaeration cannot take place. This creates
the need for additional chemical injection to control feedwater dissolved oxygen content;
and thus wasted chemicals and money are expended. The Operator must ensure that
the feedwater heater to the deaerator is in service and operating properly, and that it is
not bypassed for any reason.

The removal of dissolved gases from boiler feed water is an essential

process in a steam system. The presence of dissolved oxygen in feed water causes rapid
localized corrosion in boiler tubes. Carbon dioxide will dissolve in water, resulting in low
pH levels and the production of corrosive carbonic acid. Low pH levels in feed water
causes severe acid attack throughout the boiler system. While dissolved gases and low pH
levels in the feed water can be controlled or removed by the addition of chemicals, it is
more economical and thermally efficient to remove these gases mechanically. This
mechanical process is known as deaeration and will increase the life of a steam system
dramatically.
Deaeration is based on two scientific principles. The first principle can be
described by Henry's Law. Henry's Law asserts that gas solubility in a solution decreases
as the gas partial pressure above the solution decreases. The second scientific principle
that governs deaeration is the relationship between gas solubility and temperature. Easily
explained, gas solubility in a solution decreases as the temperature of the solution rises
and approaches saturation temperature. A deaerator utilizes both of these natural
processes to remove dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other non-condensable gases
from boiler feed water. The feed water is sprayed in thin films into a steam atmosphere
allowing it to become quickly heated to saturation. Spraying feed water in thin films
increases the surface area of the liquid in contact with the steam, which, in turn, provides
more rapid oxygen removal and lower gas concentrations. This process reduces the
solubility of all dissolved gases and removes it from the feed water. The liberated gases
are then vented from the deaerator.

STEAM TURBINE

STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbines convert the heat energy of steam into rotational
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy of the steam turbine is then used to produce
electrical energy from a generator. The steam turbine-generator is, by itself, a very simple
machine with few moving parts. This is desirable because it allows the steam turbinegenerator to have very good reliability. It is not unusual for a steam turbine-generator to
operate continuously for more than a year without shutdown.

Turbine Principles
The power plant is often described as an energy conversion factory in
which the chemical energy in the fuel is transformed in a series of steps into electrical
energy, with the turbine-generator as one part of the power plant. The function of the
steam turbine is to convert the energy in superheated high pressure steam from the boiler
or HRSG, into mechanical energy. It is common to refer to the energy conversion that
occurs in the turbine as happening in a single step. The conversion of energy in the
turbine actually occurs in two steps. First, the heat energy in the steam is converted into
kinetic energy of a steam jet by nozzles. Second, the steam jets are used with buckets or
blades mounted on a rotor to produce a mechanical force and torque.

Nozzles and Their Principles

A steam turbine nozzle is a device that converts heat energy of steam into
kinetic energy (energy of motion) by expanding the steam. A simplified, convergent
nozzle of the type most often used in steam turbines is shown at the Figure below.
Assume that steam at temperature T1 and pressure P1 enters a convergent
nozzle. The higher the pressure and temperature, the more thermal energy is in the steam.
The steam is moving at velocity V1 before entering the nozzle. The steam leaves the
nozzle at a lower pressure and temperature, T2 and P2 but at a higher velocity, V2. This is
because some of the heat energy in the steam has been converted into energy of motion,
called kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is a function of the square of velocity; therefore, as
the velocity increases, so does the kinetic energy.
The ratio of the pressure upstream and downstream of the nozzle is
critical in the efficient operation of the nozzle. It is designed to operate with a constant
pressure ratio for best efficiency in energy conversion. If turbine conditions change the
pressure ratio, inefficiency results. Also, if changes to the nozzle such as erosion occur,
the design is upset and inefficiency results. Common problems with nozzles which occur

in operation are erosion from debris in the steam and deposits from contamination of the
steam.

Convergent Nozzle

Basic Turbine Types and Principles

The kinetic energy in a jet of steam is not useful as it is. The nozzle by
itself cannot convert the energy in the steam to useful mechanical energy. There are two
basic turbine types: impulse and reaction. Both use nozzles and rotor buckets (also called
blades), but in different ways.

Impulse Turbine

The basic concept of an impulse turbine is, a steady jet of high velocity steam
is directed toward a turbine wheel. The impulse of the steam velocity acting against the
turbine blades causes the wheel to rotate.
The operating principles of an impulse turbine are, Steam enters an impulse
turbine through a stationary nozzle that expands the steam and creates a steam jet. The
steam jet strikes the rotor buckets (blades). Each set of nozzles and rotor buckets is called
a stage. The graph in Figure illustrates that the entire pressure drop in the stage occurs at
the nozzles, and the velocity and volume of the steam increase in the nozzles.
Within an impulse turbine, the expanded steam strikes the buckets forcing
them to rotate and reducing the velocity of the jet of steam. The force of the steam on the
buckets produces the mechanical energy needed to turn the generator. This mechanical
energy comes from the jet of steam which has its velocity reduced considerably.
In large modern power plants, there is considerable thermal energy in each
pound of steam delivered to the turbine. It is impractical and inefficient to build a single
nozzle and rotor large enough to convert all the steam's thermal energy into useful work.
Therefore, large modern turbines are usually multi-staged, with each stage converting
part of the steam's thermal energy to mechanical energy. In a basic multi-staged steam
turbine, steam enters through the first stage nozzle, which converts part of the thermal
energy in the steam into kinetic energy. The steam jet from the first stage nozzle strikes
the first stage rotor buckets. After leaving the first stage rotor buckets, the steam passes
through the second stage nozzle. Some of the remaining thermal energy is then converted
to kinetic energy. The second stage rotor buckets are forced to rotate by the steam jet
leaving the second stage nozzles.

Reaction Turbines
The basic operating principles of an ideal reaction turbine are, the turbine
rotor is forced to turn by the active force of the steam jet leaving the nozzle. In an ideal
reaction turbine, the moving buckets would be the only nozzles. Therefore, all the steam
expansion would occur in the moving buckets. This is impractical in large turbines
because it is difficult to admit steam to moving nozzles. Thus, large turbines use fixed
nozzles to admit steam to moving nozzles. Therefore, practical, large reaction turbines
use a combination of impulse and reaction principles.
The rotary lawn sprinkler is an example of a pure reaction turbine. In
practice, so called pure reaction turbines are seldom used, and are never used in
Practical utility turbines. Practical reaction turbines are a combination of reaction and
impulse. There are stationary nozzles just as there are for impulse turbines. There are
also rotating nozzles, not of the sort one might expect from the figure of the simple
reaction turbine.
The typical reaction turbine has stationary nozzles and moving nozzles. The
moving nozzles are created by varying the cross section of the openings between
adjacent buckets (usually called blades in such turbines) as shown in Figure below.

Reaction turbines can be classified by the percentage of the energy

conversion that occurs in the moving nozzles. Typically, turbines that are called reaction
turbines have about 50% reaction and 50% impulse. Turbines which use a combination
of impulse and reaction principles are often referred to simply as reaction turbines to
distinguish them from the impulse turbines. There are rotating blades (similar to impulse
turbine buckets) in the practical reaction turbine and the profile of the blades is such that
the passages between adjacent blades form nozzles, as shown in Figure above, in
which the stationary nozzles are shown at the top and the moving blades are below.

Reaction Turbine Stage

One practical result of this design is that, unlike impulse turbines, there is
a pressure drop across the moving row of blades by design that is P2, the pressure
between the nozzles and the blades is higher than the pressure downstream of the
blades, P3. This results in a force being imposed upon the rotor in the downstream
direction, unlike the impulse turbine. Accordingly, one characteristic of reaction
Turbines are high thrust loading that requires special design features to make
reasonable sized thrust bearings practical.
Figure below shows a series of reaction turbine stages. Each stage
consists of a set of fixed nozzles and a set of moving nozzles. The pressure drop occurs
over both the fixed and moving nozzles. Reaction turbines are multi-staged by
alternating sets of fixed and moving nozzles. Each pair of fixed and moving nozzles
makes up one stage.

Reaction Turbine Characteristic

CONDENSER

Condenser

Condenser is the commonly used term for a water cooled shell and tube
heat exchanger installed on the exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power
stations. These condensers are heat exchangers which convert steam from its gaseous to
its liquid state at a pressure below atmospheric pressure. Where cooling water is in short
supply, an air-cooled condenser is often used. An air-cooled condenser is however
significantly more expensive and cannot achieve as low a steam turbine exhaust pressure
as a condenser.
Condensers are also used in applications and industries other than the
condensing of steam turbine exhaust in power plants.
The primary function of a condenser is to condense the turbine exhaust
steam into condensate. In this respect, the condenser serves as the heat sink for the
Rankine Cycle and consequently, the point of heat rejects and heat loss from the cycle.
The more efficient the condenser is, the less heat that is dumped out of the cycle, and thus
overall plant efficiency is increased.
In thermal power plants, the primary purpose of a surface condenser is
to condense the exhaust steam from a steam turbine to obtain maximum efficiency and
also to convert the turbine exhaust steam into pure water (referred to as steam
condensate) so that it may be reused in the steam generator or boiler as boiler feed water.
Steam surface condensers are the most commonly used condensers in modern
power plants. The exhaust Steam from the turbine flows on the shell side (under vacuum)
of the Condenser, while the plants circulating water flows in the tube side. The source of
the circulating water can be either a closed-loop (i.e. cooling tower, spray pond, etc.) or
once-through (i.e. from a lake, ocean, or river). The condensed steam from the turbine,
called condensate, is collected in the bottom of the condenser, which is called a hot well.
The condensate is then pumped back to the steam generator to
Repeat the cycle.
The main heat transfer mechanisms in a surface condenser are the
condensing of saturated steam on the outside of the tubes and the heating of the
circulating water inside the tubes. Thus for a given circulating water flow rate, the water
inlet temperature to the condenser determines the operating pressure of the condenser. As
this temperature is decreased, the condenser pressure will also decrease. As described
above, this decrease in the pressure will increase the plant output and efficiency.

Cooling towers
In power plants, the hot water from condenser is cooled in cooling tower, so
that it can be reused in condenser for condensation of steam. In a cooling tower water is
made to trickle down drop by drop so that it comes in contact with the air moving in the
opposite direction. As a result of this some water is evaporated and is taken away with air.
In evaporation, the heat is taken away from the bulk of water, which is thus cooled.

Classification
With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers:

Natural draft
This utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air naturally rises due to the
density differential to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm moist air is less dense than drier
air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces a current of air through the
tower.

Cross flow
Cross flow is a design in which the air flow is directed perpendicular to the water flow
(see diagram below). Air flow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to
meet the fill material. Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity.
The air continues through the fill and thus past the water flow into an open plenum area.
A distribution or hot water basin consisting of a deep pan with holes or nozzles in the
bottom is utilized in a cross flow tower. Gravity distributes the water through the nozzles
uniformly across the fill material.

Counter flow
In a counter flow design the air flow is directly opposite of the water flow (see diagram
below). Air flow first enters an open area beneath the fill media and is then drawn up
vertically. The water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles and flows downward through
the fill, opposite to the air flow.

Hyperboloid cooling towers

Hyperboloid cooling towers have become the design standard for all
natural-draft cooling towers because of their structural strength and minimum usage of
material. The hyperboloid shape also aids in accelerating the upward convective air flow,
improving cooling efficiency. They are popularly associated with nuclear power plants.
However, this association is misleading, as the same kind of cooling towers are often
used at large coal-fired power plants as well. Similarly, not all nuclear power plants have
cooling towers, instead cooling their heat exchangers with lake, river or ocean water.

Mechanical draft
This uses power driven fan motors to force or draw air through the tower.

Induced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge which pulls air
through tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low
entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation in which
discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fill arrangement is also known as
draw-through.

Forced draft: A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake. The fan
forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities. The low
exiting velocity is much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air intake,
the fan is more susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions. Another
disadvantage is that a forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than
an equivalent induced draft design. The forced draft benefit is its ability to work with
high static pressure. They can be installed in more confined spaces and even in some
indoor situations. This fan/fill geometry is also known as blow-through.

Chimney
A chimney is a structure for venting hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler,
stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or
as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into the
combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney, effect. The space inside a chimney
is called a flue.
Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships. In the
US, the term smokestack (colloquially, stack) is also used when referring to locomotive
chimneys. The term funnel is generally used for ships' chimneys and sometimes to refer
to locomotive chimneys. Chimneys are tall to increase their draw of air for combustion
and to disperse pollutants in the flue gases over a greater area so as to reduce the
Pollutant concentrations in compliance with regulatory or other limits.