ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Leggett APIB Atomic Structure

Intro 1 (11 min)

http://youtu.be/mRMVj70Fb0

http://vimeo.com/71537427

How can we develop a new computer chip with smaller geometries and faster speeds?
What would be the best chemical for reducing wrinkles?
How can I develop a sunless tanning product that doesnt turn my skin orange?
What structure is required that would make my catalyst as effective as the corresponding
enzyme?
The answers to such questions begin with an understanding of the atom, which in turn
provides insight into the structure of molecules. Dont forget:

I.

Life its all about attractions and repulsions!

Coulombs Law for Potential energy: =

!! !!
!

Q is the charge can be positive (like a nucleus!) or negative (like an

electron!)
d is the distance between the charges (sometimes the symbol r is used).
PE is the potential energy that arises as two charged particles approach
one another.
We will use this more qualitatively than quantitatively. Over the next
few chapters we will evaluate charges that are:
Fully positive or fully negative like electrons and protons or cations
and anions.
Partially positive or negative polar molecules and intermolecular
forces
Temporarily positive or negative non-polar molecules and
intermolecular forces

II.

History The wheel o dead guys

Models: People use models to describe understanding of truth. The models we have of
the periodic table have changed over time at improved technology was used to study the
atom. There were MANY scientists involved in this process, but we will focus on a few
of the main ones.
A. JOHN DALTON was an Englishman in the 19th century who was the first
to develop and publish a theory about how atoms looked and behaved. He
conceived of the atom as a solid sphere, much like a billiard ball.
The following are statements of John Daltons ATOMIC THEORY:

(1) Proposed: all elements are composed of very small particles called atoms - which
are indivisible. He thought you could not split an atom into smaller pieces!
________________: Today we know that atoms can be divided into protons, electrons,
neutrons and almost 200 other subatomic particles.
(2) Proposed: All atoms of the same elements are identical.
________________: We know that this is not true due to the presence of isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons (same element) but different
numbers of neutrons (different masses). For example, carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6
neutrons, but carbon-14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons.
(3) Proposed: Atoms of different elements are different. ________________
(4) Proposed: Atoms of different elements can combine with each other only in simple
whole number ratios to form compounds. ________________
(5) Proposed: Chemical reactions occur when atoms are separated, joined or arranged.
However, atoms of one element ARE NOT changed into atoms of another element by a
chemical reaction. (Only by nuclear reactions, which are different!) ________________
B. J. J. THOMSON discovered both electrons and protons by means of his
CATHODE RAY TUBE EXPERIMENT! By varying the applied
magnetic field, Thomson determined the mass:charge ratio of an electron.
Electron Stream after applying field, + on top, on bottom
+ Magnetic
field
- Magnetic field
Electron Stream without applied electric field
Notice how the electron stream bends toward the + plate and away from the plate.
Thomson knew that electrons must be negative because they are attracted to the positive
field! (Remember, positive attracts negative.) Also: Since the e stream could be
produced from any metal, Thomson suggested that all atoms had electrons and they were
negatively charged.
(1) Proposed: Through his interpretation of the results of the Cathode Ray Tube
Experiment, he proposed that electrons are negatively charged particles,
abbreviated e; very lightweight their mass is considered negligible when

describing the mass of an atom because they only weigh about 1/1839 the mass
of a proton or neutron. ________________
(2) Proposed: Plum Pudding model diffuse sphere of positive charge (not
positive particles) in which negative electrons are embedded.
________________
C. ERNEST RUTHERFORD worked for Thomson in his lab for a while.

GOLD FOIL EXPERIMENT - Shot alpha particles through gold foil. An alpha
particle is made of two protons and two neutrons so it has a +2 charge.

RESULTS:
1. Most particles went through (which is what was expected)
2. Some were slightly deflected (hmm.)
3. Some were deflected back and missed the fluorescent screen (HMMMMMMM.)
Why did some of the particles get deflected? Reason: the positive alpha particles were
hitting the positive, small, dense nucleus and getting deflected (since positive repels
positive).
(1) Proposed: the atom as mostly space and that all of the positive charge was located
in a very small central nucleus with negative electrons outside ________________
D. Millikan oil drop experiment (ctrl +
click on picture goes to animation on internet)

Determined the magnitude of the charge on an
electron.

D.

NIELS BOHR Danish scientist who originally worked for Thomson

and Rutherford.

okay, I admit itI really dislike this model. Not because Bohr was a bore he was a
very intelligent scientist (although I guess that doesnt disprove the bore theory!). I
dislike this model because teachers use it to have students do silly little planet models
and forever burn the idea into the vulnerable minds of children that electrons orbit around
the nucleus like planets orbit the sun. It is child abuse I say!!! Sorry I got a little
carried away. Lets look at the good that Bohr contributed to our understanding of
atomic structure.

(1) Proposed: Electrons were in energy levels. The
further an electron was from the nucleus, the higher its
energy. This proposal provided a great starting point for our
current understanding of the atom YEAH BOHR!!
_______________
(2) Proposed: the planetary model of the atom in which
the electrons orbit the nucleus much as the planets orbit the
I
sun. ________________
M

P
SUMMERY OF HIS GOOD STUFF!
O
proposed electrons (somehow!) move around the nucleus in energy
R
levels
T
not all energy levels are allowed
A
energy levels are said to be quantized
N
more on this later!
T
a. ERWIN SCHRODINGER an Austrian physicist, along with
Werner Heisenberg and Louis de Broglie, postulated the
quantum (wave) mechanical model of the atom - which is the
most current model we have! In this concept, the electrons do not
actually orbit the nucleus, but are found only in areas based on
the amount of energy they have, and move according to wave
functions.
The key of the model is that we dont really know exactly how an electron moves just
the probability of finding it in a particular region of space around the nucleus.

III.

Components of an atom
A. Protons

Positive particle(s) in the ___________________________ of an atom

Mass = 1 atomic mass units (amu)
Define the __________________________ of the element
Changes in the number of protons occur as a result of
___________________________ in which one element is converted to a different
element (called ___________________________)
The periodic table is now arranged according to the number of protons in an element.
While this is a REALLY interesting area of chemistry, we do not cover it in AP or IB
Chemistry

B. Electrons

Negative particle(s) moving in quantized regions of space around the nucleus.

Mass ~ 1/1800 amu
In a neutral atom, # protons = # electrons
Changes in the number of electrons result in ___________________________.

When electrons are lost, the process is ___________________________ and the

element becomes a ___________________________.

When electrons are gained, the process is ___________________________ and the

element becomes an ___________________________.

This staircase from the periodic table can help you

remember! One with +1, two with +2, and three
with +3. These do NOT need a roman numeral in
the name.

Ag
+1

Zn
+2
Cd
+2

Al
+3
Ga
+3
In
+3

There really arent any problems to do here. You just

need to remember the following:
Group 1
+1 always
Group 2
+2 always
Aluminum
+3 always
Silver
+1 always
Zinc
+2 always
Cadmium
+2 always
Group 17
-1 when most electronegative
Group 16
-2 when most electronegative
Group 15
-3 when most electronegative
Group 14
-4 when most electronegative
Sn/Pb
+2/+4
As/Sb/Bi
+3/+5

C. Neutrons
___________________________ particles in nucleus
Mass = 1 amu
___________________________ = # protons + # neutrons
Changes in number of neutrons result in
___________________________ same
Note the distinction
element, same chemical properties, different
between mass number and
mass number.
atomic mass. People can
The ___________________________ on the periodic
be sloppy in their use of
table represent ___________________________ of
these terms.
the different isotopes of the element.

Leggett APIB Atomic Structure

Isotope 2 (11 min)

http://youtu.be/y59t50PewKc

https://vimeo.com/29900447

Let's do it 1. We will study alloys in more detail later in the semester. Tellurium improves
the machinability of copper and stainless steel, and its addition to lead decreases the corrosive
action of sulfuric acid on lead and improves its strength and hardness. Tellurium is used as a
basic ingredient in blasting caps, and is added to cast iron for chill control. 1 Using the
following table2, determine the atomic mass of Tellurium.
Isotope
Te-120
Te-122
Te-123
Te-124
Te-125
Te-126
Te-128
Te-130

% Abundance
0.089
2.46
0.87
4.61
6.99
18.71
31.79
34.48

1
2

http://www.scescape.net/~woods/elements/tellurium.html#abundance
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/isotopes/s_te.html

Let's do it 2. Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the earths crust. Nickel-based superalloys for use in jet engines contain up to 6% of rhenium, making jet engine construction the
largest use for the element, with chemical industry catalytic uses being next-most
important.3 There are two naturally occurring isotopes for Re: Re-185 and Re-187. If the
average atomic mass of Re is 186.2 determine the % abundance for each.

Wikipedia.org

Leggett APIB Atomic Structure Mass

Spec 3 (8 min)

http://youtu.be/RFoluwheOg

https://vimeo.com/74071819

Mass Spectroscopy
Mass spectroscopy is a key analytical tool in chemistry, biochemistry, biomedical sciences,
forensic sciences and more. Among its uses are the identification of unknowns, measurement of
contaminants, determination of structure, and the study of isotopes. We will be focusing on the
latter. A mass spectrometer involves the following processes:
(1) Vaporization of the sample
(2) Ionization of the sample.
The technique focuses on
cations, the vast majority of
which are +1.
(3) Accelerate ions to a uniform
kinetic energy.
(4) Select species of a desired
mass to charge ratio (m/e or m/z)
using a magnetic field.
(5) Detection of desired m/e
ions
Simplified schematic:
Spectra (plural) show the mass to charge ratio on the x-axis and a relative scale on the y-axis.
The relative scale can be relative to the cation with the greatest abundance or on a percentage
basis out of 100%. The spectrum (singular) for titanium is shown below. Although the lines
typically resemble peaks, it is common to show the peaks as lines to simplify the interpretation.
CAUTION: read the y-axis carefully. Sometimes it shows the actual percentage, but more often
the most abundant is set to 100 and the others are RELATIVE to that.

m/e

Rel %

46

11.2

47

10.1

48

100

49

7.3

50