UNIT 1.

PHONETICS: THE
SOUNDS OF THE LANGUAGE

1. Three factors in the production of speech sounds

- the production of speech sounds: depending
upon 3 factors:
* a source of energy to cause vibration:
outgoing air stream.
* a vibrating body: vocal bands
* a resonator to modify the speech sounds
produced: the pharynx, the oral & nasal cavities.
- the process of producing speech sounds: the air
stream going out from the lungs through the
windpipe will go past the larynx (Adams apple)
in which are located 2 vocal bands.

If the vocal bands are stretched & partially open,

the air will make them vibrate. The vibration at
some frequency will produce speech sounds
which will be resonated or amplified & modified
in the resonance chambers (pharynx, nasal & oral
cavities) before going out & reaching our ears.
2. The vocal tract
- the vocal tract: the breathing passage through
which the air travels.
- the vocal tract: beginning with the lungs, which
furnish the source of energy for the vocal sound,
then continuing with the windpipe.

- at the top of the windpipe: the larynx. Passing

through the larynx, the air goes into the pharynx,
or upper throat, & escapes outside through the
mouth or the nose.
- the organs of the vocal tract are located in the
head, throat & chest. They are involved in the
process of producing or modifying the speech
sounds, including articulators & points of
articulation.
- articulation: the formation of speech sounds.
- articulators: the movable organs of the vocal
tract which are involved in articulation,

including the tongue, the most movable articulator

& the lower lip.
- points of articulation: the parts of the vocal tract
which cant move but which are involved in
articulation. They are the upper lip, the teeth, the
alveolar ridge, the hard palate, the soft palate or
velum, the pharynx, & the larynx.
- articulation: consisting of bringing an articula-tor into contact with a point of articulation while
the breath stream is released.
3. Larynx & different position of the glottis
3.1. larynx: in the neck. The front of the larynx is
called Adams apple.

* inside the larynx, there are 2 vocal bands/ folds/

cords which are 2 bands of elastic tissue attached
to the side walls of the larynx & can move. The
opening b/w the vocal bands is called the glottis.
3.2. different positions of the glottis
- since the vocal bands move, the glottis can be
of different positions & different sounds are
produced.
* wide apart: during the normal breathing, the
glottis: open as far as possible: the vocal bands
are relax. This is the position for voiceless
sounds.

* narrow glottis: the opening: narrow. When the

air goes through it, a sound like a whispered
vowel (V) is produced: the sound /h/, called a
voiceless glottal fricative.
* partially open / closed: the edges of the vocal
bands : touching each other, or nearly touching,
air passing through the glottis will cause
vibration position for vocal band vibration &
voiced sounds.
* tightly closed: the vocal bands : firmly
pressed together so that air cant pass b/w them
position for a glottal stop or plosive.

4. Consonants (Cs) & Vowels (Vs)

I. Differences b/w consonants (Cs) & vowels
(Vs)
Cs & Vs: different from each other by:
1. Manner of articulation: the way how the sound
is produced
a. Consonants: obstruction of the airstream,
totally or partially.
ex: /p/: the airstream is obstructed totally before
being released with a small plosion
/s/: the airstream is partially obstructed & forced
to escape through a narrow passage with a
friction

Vowels: no obstruction of the airstream & it

freely escapes
ex: /1/: the airstream escapes freely & the lips
are spread/neutral
2. Distribution: the way how the sounds occur in
the lang.
a. Consonants: in an English syllable, there may
be no or many Cs occurring before or after the
Vs.
ex: are /@/; on /4n/; car /k@/; play /pl_1/; spring
/spr17/; bank /b`7k/; texts /t_ksts/
b.

Vowels: in an English syllable, there must be

one & only one V as the centre/nucleus of the
syllable.
ex: cat /k`t/; food /fud/; could /k$d/
II. Vowels
a. Definition: Vs: sounds produced with a totally
unobstructed oral cavity (Buchanan, 1961).
In English, 12 simple Vs/monothongs : /1 - 4 - $ ^ - 6 - ` - _/ (short Vs) & long Vs /i - u - 3 - 0 @/ as well as 8 diphthongs /@1 - _1 - 01 - 6$ - @$ 16 - _6 - $6/
b.

Description/Classification of monothongs or
simple Vs
12 simple Vs in English: described/ classified
basing on the following criteria:
v Tongue position/part: front centre back
v Tongue height: high mid low
v Lip shape: unrounded rounded
v Jaw position: open mid close
v Length of sound & tension of muscles:
long/tense short/lax
vowels: described based on the above criteria
b.

Characteristics
Shortening: Vs & diphthongs: a bit shortened
when preceding final voiceless Cs & its symbol:
[], e.g. bit [b1t]; beat [bit]; goat [g6$t]
Nasalization: Vs & diphthongs: nasalized when
preceding a final nasal & its symbol: [], e.g. pin
[pn]; time [t1m]; singer ['s76]
III. Diphthongs
a. Definition: diphthongs: sounds consisting of a
glide from one V to another in which the 1st
one is much longer & stronger than the 2nd one
(Roach, 1989)
c.

b.

Diphthong tree
Diphthong
centring

ending in 6
16

_6

$6

closing
ending in 1
_1

@1

01

ending in $
6$

@$

Consonants
a. Definition:
Cs: sounds produced with
obstruction of the airstream whether totally or
partially
b. Description or classification
24 English Cs: described/classified basing on 3
criteria:
q Manner of articulation: the way how the sound is
produced or how the airstream is released
plosives/stops:
the airstream is stopped
completely then released sharply with a small
plosion 6 plosives /p - b - t - d - k - g/
IV.

 fricatives:

the airstream is stopped partially &

forced to escape through a small passage with a
friction 9 fricatives /f - v - 8 - 5 - s - z - ~ - 2 - h/
affricates: the airstream is stopped totally & then
forced to escape with a friction. In other words,
affricates begin as a stop & end as a fricative 2
affricates /t~ - d2/
nasals: the airstream is stopped in the mouth & thus
escapes through the nose
3 nasals /m - n - 7/
lateral: the air is stopped in the middle of the tongue
& escapes along its both sides 1 lateral /l/

 approximants:

one articulator approaches another

but doesnt touch it 3 approximants /r - w - j/
semi-vowels/semi-consonants: the sounds that are
both similar to Vs or Cs 4 semi-vowels /h - w j
- r/
* manner of articulation: similar to Vs (the air
escapes freely), e.g. twin /tw1n/; ghost /g6$st/ ..
* distribution: similar to Cs, e.g. a wet year
/6 w_t j16/; a uniform /6 'jun1f0m/
q Place/point of articulation: the point of contact b/w
an articulator & a point of articulation to obstruct
the airstream (the place where the air is stopped)

 bilabials:

lower lip against upper lip 4

bilabials /p - b m - w/
labio-dentals: lower lip against upper teeth 2
labio-dentals /f - v/
inter-dentals: tongue tip b/w lower & upper teeth
2 inter-dentals /8 5/
alveolars: tongue tip against/close to the alveolar
ridge 6 alveolars /t - d - n - s z - l/
alveo-palatals: tongue front b/w alveolar ridge &
hard palate 5 alveo-palatals /~ - 2 - t~ - d2 - r/
palatal: tongue front towards hard palate 1
palatal /j/

 velars:

tongue back against velum/soft palate

3 velars /k - g - 7/
glottal: in the glottis 1 glottal /h/
q Voicing: the vibration of the vocal cords
* voiced sounds: the sounds produced while the
vocal cords are vibrating , e.g. /b - d - g - n/
* voiceless sounds: the sounds produced while
the vocal cords arent vibrating 9 voiceless
sounds in English /p - t - k - f - 8 - s - ~ - t~ - h/
V. Characteristics of consonants
a. plosives/stops:
- aspirated: in English, voiceless plosives

/p - t - k/: aspirated in the following cases:

* at the beginning of a word or syllable followed
by a stressed vowel
ex: pin [ph1n]; appear [6ph16]
- devoicing: voiceless plosives /p - t - k/ at initial
position devoice the /w - r - l - j/ & symbol:
[o]
ex: play [p!_1]; clean [k!in]
- shortening: voiceless plosives /p - t - k/ at final
position shorten the preceding vowel & diphthongs;
symbol [v]
ex: bit [b1vt]; goat [g6v$t]
b. fortis consonants /p - t - k - f - 8 - s - ~ - t~/: strong

as they are produced more force than voiced Cs

c. lenis consonants (weak): all the voiced Cs
when they are at initial & final position
d. /7 - 2/ never occur at initial position
e. /h - w - r - j/ never occur at final position
f. /7/ never occurs after a long vowel or
diphthong, only after /1 - 4 - ` - ^ - _/
g. at final position, /m - n - 7/ nasalize the
preceding vowel or diphthong, symbol [ ~]
ex: pin [pn]; singer [s76]
h. when occurring before a velar sound /k - g/,
/n/ becomes /7/

i. /l/: clear when occurring before a vowel, e.g.

love /l^v/; belong /b1l47/
j. /l/: dark when occurring after a vowel, e.g.
bill [b1]; children [t~1dr6n]