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sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Engineering (Electrical)
Signature
JUNE 2014
ii
I hereby declare that this thesis entitled High Brightness Light Emitting Diode
Dimmer Using Flyback Converter is the result of my research except as cited in the
references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently
submitted in the candidature of any other degree.
Signature
: ..
Name of Author
Date
iii
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praises to God the Almighty, who has given me the strength that I need in
completing this final year project. First and foremost, my sincerest appreciation to my
supervisor, Mr Abd Jaafar bin Shafie for his encouragement, guidance and kind words
which have helped me write up this thesis. My appreciation too, to the lecturers who
contributed a lot of ideas and much insight into the development of this project. I also
would like to express my gratitude to Power Electronics Lab technicians, Mr Yusuf
and Mr Shafie, and my seniors for their invaluable suggestions, guidance and
assistance especially during tough times. A very special thanks to my beloved parents
for their love, motivation and continuous prayer, without which, I may not have had
the strength that pushed me to the finishing line, at least for this semester. Last but
definitely not the least, kudos to my friends, lab colleagues, and people around me who
have, directly or indirectly contributed towards the completion of my project. May
God bestow all of you with His kindness and love.
ABSTRACT
vi
ABSTRAK
vii
LIST OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
vi
LIST OF CONTENTS
vii
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
xiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xvi
INTRODUCTION
1.0
Overview
1.1
Problem Statement
1.2
Objectives
1.3
Scope of Work
1.4
Thesis Outline
viii
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
Introduction
2.1
2.2
Flyback Converter
2.2.1 Theory
11
13
Rectifier
15
METHODOLOGY
16
3.0
Introduction
16
3.1
17
17
23
3.1.3 Rectifier
26
Simulation
27
3.2.1 Procedures
27
28
Circuit Building
29
29
30
31
3.3.4 Rectifier
33
Hardware Implementation
34
2.3
3.2
3.3
3.4
36
4.0
Introduction
36
4.1
38
4.2
38
ix
4.3
Transformer
39
4.4
Output Voltage
41
4.5
LED Brightness
43
CONCLUSION
45
5.1
Conclusion
45
5.2
Recommendation
46
REFERENCE
48
APPENDICES
50
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
TITLE
PAGE
18
22
Output voltage
43
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
12
2.7
12
2.8
13
2.9
14
2.10
Bridge rectifier
15
2.11
15
3.1
16
3.2
HB LED arrangement
17
3.3
18
3.4
PWM signal
23
3.5
24
3.6
25
3.7
25
3.8
ACDC converter
26
3.9
Simulation circuit
28
3.10
28
3.11
29
3.12
30
xii
3.13
31
3.14
32
3.15
33
3.16
34
3.17
35
3.18
35
4.1
37
4.2
38
4.3
39
4.4
40
4.5
40
4.6
41
4.7
42
4.8
LED brightness
44
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
LED
HB LED
SMPS
DC
- Direct Current
AC
- Alternating Current
MOSFET
BJT
PWM
IC
- Integrated Circuit
VF
- Forward Voltage
iL
Vs
- Source Voltage
- Duty Cycle
- Period
- Frequency
Lm
- Magnetizing Inductance
N1
N2
Vds(max)
xiv
Vsec
- Secondary Voltage
Vin
- Input Voltage
VD
- Diode Voltage
- Resistance
L1
- Primary Inductance
L2
- Secondary Inductance
Ton
- MOSFET ON period
Pout
- Output Power
Co
- Output Capacitor
vo
Vo
- Output Voltage
Vm
- Peak Voltage
IF
- Forward Current
- Inductance
lc
- Length of Core
lg
- Air Permeability
Ac
Ag
CT
- Timing Capacitor
RT
- Timing Resistor
xv
RD
RF
- Forward Resistor
LCR
CAD
PCB
RCD
I-V
- Current vs Voltage
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
50
53
58
62
63
65
72
78
79
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0
Overview
Light Emitting Diode (LED) is one of the many unique electronic components
that are useful in daily life. Its operation is the same as diodes. LEDs applications are
notable that it is not only used as indicator lights, but also used to replace conventional
lights for general lighting[2]. LED generally is used as indicator lights like train
signals, traffic lights, and billboards because of its special ability which is its visibility
even from far away. High Brightness (HB) LED is newer compared to normal LED
and its applications for building lighting, road lighting, and pedestrian is growing
rapidly in Malaysia. The difference of HB LED compared to LED is that HB LED has
the ability to light up a dark room or space. HB LED has several advantages over
conventional lights. LED is more efficient, energy saving, smaller in size, longer
lifetime, rugged, and known for its fast turn on and turn off capability which make it
suitable for intelligent lighting[2].
By designing the right circuit, LED brightness can be controlled, thus make it
applicable to more applications.
1.1
Problem Statement
To turn on the LED, the supply needs to be DC voltage, but the voltage
supplied to our houses from the utility is 240V AC. Therefore, despite its many
advantages, LED requires a driver for it to be turned on and the brightness to be
controlled.
There are many active topologies that can be used as LED driver and Flyback
converter is one of them[2]. Flyback converter is a Switched Mode Power Supply
(SMPS) that can do both jobs; turn on the LED and brightness control. It is a DC to
DC converter and has some advantages over the other SMPS topology such as simple,
low in cost, not difficult to design[3] while providing isolation between input and
output side thus make it safer. Brightness of HB LED in Flyback converter is
controlled by adjusting the duty cycle of the switch.
1.2
Objectives
1.
2.
To design a High Brightness Light Emitting Diode (HB LED) light dimmer
using Flyback converter topology
3.
1.3
Scope of Work
The first thing we need to study before starting this project is the specification
of the HB LED that we are going to use in this project. The specification of the HB
LED is important because everything that we design in the circuit will be designed
with respect to our output which is the HB LED itself.
condition and what occurs during switch OFF. Knowledge about the transformer of
Flyback converter need to be well studied and understood. We also need to study the
input source part, the switching part, the Flyback converter transformer, and many
more.
1.4
Thesis Outline
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1 is basically the part where High Brightness LED is introduced. Some
of its applications and problems regarding LED such as the requirements of the driver
are also described in this chapter. Other than that, the driver that we are designing,
Flyback converter is explained briefly.
Chapter 3: Methodology
The analysis results of hardware are described in here. That includes the final
circuit diagram, the output waveform, observations and others. The analysis result of
the hardware was compared to the theoretical and simulation results. Results of
hardware are discussed.
Chapter 5: Conclusion
The summary of the project and recommendations to improve the final circuit
are discussed here.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0
Introduction
The theory and literature review of the components in the circuit of this project
are discussed in this chapter. Figure 2.1 shows block diagram of HB LED light dimmer
using Flyback converter.
Figure 2.1: Flyback Converter HB LED Light Dimmer General Block Diagram
2.1
Light emitting diode (LED) is a type of diode that produces light when current
flows through it[4]. LED is a semiconductor based device and its operation principle
is the same to diode. It conducts current and emits light when the forward voltage
is reached and blocks current when reverse biased.
High Brightness LED (HB LED) nowadays are applied in lighting applications
such as vehicle lights, home, street lighting and many more. It is predicted that the
high brightness LED is going to be the future trend in lighting application as it has
many advantages over conventional lights that we use today[2].
LED is better in efficacy. For the same luminous intensity, the power
consumption of an LED is lower compared to the power consumption of conventional
lights. LED can last longer. LED can last up to 50000 hours, dependent on the peak
current and temperature. LED is one of the products that promotes environmental
friendliness because it is produced without mercury. LED is semiconductor based,
therefore it is resistant to shock. Other than that, LED is known for its fast and easy
turn on and turn off, which make it suitable for intelligent lighting.
2.2
Flyback Converter
In this chapter, the theory of a Flyback converter, the switching technique, and
the reason behind the creation of the transformer air gap are explained.
2.2.1
Theory
Flyback converter is one of the many Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)
topologies that were developed in purpose to produce a DC output voltage that is
higher or lower than supplied DC input voltage. Flyback converter has several
advantages over the other SMPS topologies. The first advantage of Flyback converter
is it is simple and easy to design[3]. In terms of safety, Flyback converter is safe
because it provides isolation at the transformer which makes the output side separated
from the input side or the source. As shown in Figure 2.3 below, the dot sign at the
primary side and secondary side represents the relative polarity of the coupling
inductance. From the circuit figure below, we can see that the relative polarity of the
coupling inductance is opposite to each other[5-7].
Flyback converter circuit analysis can be divided into two parts, the analysis
during switch ON and analysis during switch OFF. Figure 2.4 shows the condition
when the switch is ON. Current from the voltage source flows into the primary side,
but the current cannot flow at the secondary side at the same time as the primary
because the diode on the secondary side is reversed biased. Therefore the primary
winding is magnetized and magnetic energy is stored in the air gap.
(() ) =
(2.1)
When the switch is opened, the energy stored in the air gap is released and
current at the secondary winding flows through the forward biased diode along with
the energy stored.
The equation that can be yielded from the equivalent circuit during switch opened
is[6]:
10
(() ) =
(1) 1
(2.2)
The sum of current that flows into and out of the transformer or the net change of the
current must be equal to zero[6]:
() + () = 0
(2.3)
(1 ) 1
=0
= (1)(1 )
(2.4)
(max) = + 1 ((max) )
2
(2.5)
(2.6)
11
Primary Inductance[7]:
1 = 2.5
)2
(2.7)
1
2
= 1
2
(2.8)
2.2.2
(2.9)
Switching Technique
12
As shown in Figure 2.7, the saw tooth voltage is compared to the reference
voltage. If the saw tooth voltage is lower than the reference voltage, the output signal
will be high and vice versa. ON period, over switching period, T, is called duty
cycle.
(2.10)
Duty cycle varies from 0 to 1. The higher the duty cycle, the longer the ON period.
13
The PWM generator, SG3525 must be isolated from the MOSFET. In this
project, Optocoupler MOSFET gate driver is used for isolation of the PWM generator
from MOSFET.
2.2.3
14
Observe the magnetization curve in Figure 2.9 above. Flux density goes into a
saturation level if the magnetic flux is too high. Saturation of flux density in the core
can cause overheating, hissing sound, and vibration[7]. This does not happen in typical
transformers because they do not have the function of energy storage, hence the flux
density is kept low[7].
The center leg of a Flyback converter transformer core is gapped to ensure that
flux density is kept low. Flux density increases slowly in the air compared to magnetic
materials. Therefore, chances of magnetic saturation to happen is lessened by gapping
the transformer core. By doing this, a large part of the energy will be stored in the air
gap[3, 7, 9]. At the end of every switching cycle, magnetic flux must return to its initial
value to avoid flux increment[7]. This means that the most suitable mode to design a
transformer for a Flyback converter is the discontinuous current mode. In this mode,
all of the stored energy will be transferred first to the secondary side before the start
of a new cycle[7]. Therefore, during the start of the new cycle, the magnetic flux in
the transformer core has returned to zero. Other than that, the inductance should not
be too low as it will cause current to rise faster.
15
2.3
Rectifier
= 0 sin() = 2
(2.11)
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.0
Introduction
17
3.1
The design and parameters calculation were made according to the theory
studied. This chapter comprises of design of Flyback converter, design of pulse width
modulation generation circuit, and rectifier circuit.
3.1.1
Flyback Converter
Before the calculations were started, properties of the output for this project,
which is the High Brightness Light Emitting Diode (HB LED) was studied. This is
important because everything was designed respected to the output. The HB LED used
is from model LWH3000 and the number of HB LEDs used is six. These HB LEDs
were put in three parallel paths. In each path, two HB LEDs and one current limiting
resistor were arranged and put in series. The configuration is shown in Figure 3.2. A
current limiting resistor is put to ensure that the current in each path is equal. The
current limiting resistor can also help avoid overcurrent at those LEDs.
18
Other than the specifications of HB LED, to initiate the design process, other
parameters such switching frequency, input voltage, secondary side voltage and
current, the duty cycle of PWM that can produce such secondary voltage, coupling
inductance winding ratio, and output voltage ripple were identified. We also ought to
identify the mode whether it is continuous or discontinuous. In this project,
discontinuous mode was selected. The formula for an ideal Flyback converters
secondary or output voltage is from equation (2.4)[5, 6]:
= (
1
)( )
1 2
Input voltage
18V
Duty cycle
0.3 to 0.4
7.7V to 12V
15mA to 67.5mA
Output power
11.5mW to 81mW
1 : 2 Transformer ratio
1:1
0.05V
19
1
(
)
2 (max)
1
(max) = 18 + (12) = 30
1
Current limiting resistor value was calculated to ensure that the current
produced is suitable for the HB LED. Voltage drop at diode, at the secondary side
were considered. Forward current of HB LED, from equation (2.6) is:
Trial and error were done by varying the resistor value to get the right
combination of for the duty cycle of 0.3 and 0.4. Forward current of HB LED,
must be within the operating region of HB LED. The operating region can be seen
from the characteristic graph in Figure 3.3. Diode voltage drop, , 1.1V was taken
from the datasheet of model 1N4002 diode[11]. After trial and error, the current
20
limiting resistor that is suitable for the circuit is 200. Proves of calculations are as
follows:
12 1.1 2(3.2)
= 22.5
200
The calculated currents are the current that flow in each parallel path. As
mentioned before, LEDs are arranged in three parallel paths. Therefore, the maximum
total current in the secondary side is 3* . The maximum total current in the secondary
side would be 67.5mA.
3.1.1.3 Transformer
The transformer must be designed properly to make sure the circuit operates as
desired. Calculations in designing a transformer are divided into three parts, which are
air gap length calculation, winding turns calculation, and winding copper diameter
calculation.
Before calculations stated above were done, the inductance of the transformer
was calculated first. The inductance of the transformer will determine the current
ripple at the output of the circuit. The bigger the inductance, the lower the current
21
ripple. To calculate the minimum inductance, the formula used is from equation
(2.7)[7]:
1 =
1 =
( )2
2.5
(18 8)2
2.5 20 81
1 5
1
1
=
2
2
2 2
2 = ( ) 1
1
2
1
= 1, therefore:
2 = 1 = 5
The transformer was designed to achieve inductance calculated above. The equation
to calculate air gap length and number of turns is:
2 = (
+
)
0 0
22
Where:
Inductance
lc
Length of core
lg
Air permeability
Ac
Ag
Length of core, core relative permeability, core surface area, and air gap
surface area were obtained from datasheet of ETD34 3C90 transformer core[12].
Length of air gap of 0.5mm was selected for this project. After calculations, the
minimum number of turns is 50 turns for both sides of the winding. Winding copper
wire was wounded three times the calculated value to avoid magnetic saturation from
happening. So, the winding copper wire is wounded 150 times.
Winding copper wire size was selected by calculation. The diameter of the wire
must be big enough to carry the current that flows through it. After calculation, the
minimum diameter of winding copper wire needed is 0.24mm. Winding copper wire
of diameter 0.5mm was selected.
Output capacitor was put to filter voltage ripple on the secondary side. Hence
it must be designed with respect to the voltage ripple itself. The formula to calculate
the output capacitor is equation (2.9)[7]:
23
12 0.4
0.05 50
2000
3.1.2
In PWM, there are three main parameters that were considered when designing
the IC configuration which are frequency, signal amplitude, and duty cycle. SG3525
IC is turned on by supplying 12V to leg number 15 from the 12V voltage regulator,
7812 IC. Leg number 12 is connected to the ground[13].
24
3.1.2.1 Frequency
The external circuit at legs number 5, 6, and 7 determines the frequency of the
PWM. Figure 3.7 of semi log graph of timing resistor, vs charge time and dead
time resistor, vs discharge time below were taken from the datasheet of SG3525
IC[13]. To obtain a frequency of 50 kHz, the total time taken for charging time added
by the discharging time must be 20s. Therefore, the timing capacitance, selected
for this circuit is 10nF, whereas is 0 and is between 2k and 5k. For ,
potentiometer of 5k is used so that the period of exactly 20s can be obtained. As
we can see in the Figure 3.6 below, must be connected to leg number 6 and ground.
Discharge resistor, must be put between leg number 5 and number 7 while is
connected to leg number 5 and ground.
25
The duty cycle of PWM is controlled by the internal error amplifier of the IC.
Leg number 1 is the inverting input and leg number 2 is the non-inverting input. The
26
internal error amplifier compares the voltage at both legs. The duty cycle of PWM
signal will decrease if the voltage at the inverting input (leg 1) is higher than noninverting input (leg 2) and vice versa. In this project, leg number 1 is short circuited to
leg number 9. Whereas leg number 2 is connected to a voltage divider resistor. The
error amplifier acts as a voltage follower in this configuration. A potentiometer is used
as the voltage divider resistor.
3.1.3
Rectifier
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier is used in this project to convert the AC supply to
DC to power up the whole circuit. Power source from socket have a voltage of
230 , and is too high for the circuit. 230 of supply yields peak voltage, of
325V. Lower peak voltage is needed to supply IC 7818 in Figure 3.8. Therefore, a
230V:23V transformer is placed between socket power supply and bridge rectifier.
The output peak voltage of the transformer would be 32.5V. The circuit configuration
is as shown in Figure 3.8 below. Co is placed parallel to the rectifier output to filter the
output voltage ripple.
27
3.2
Simulation
Simulation was done using Pspice software. This software is simple and
convenient for electrical or electronic circuit simulation.
3.2.1
Procedures
Figure 3.9 shows the circuit that was simulated in this project. In simulation,
LEDs were represented by diodes. Diodes were used instead of resistors because
diodes have the same characteristic to LED. However, diodes forward voltage is lower
than that of HB LEDs. D1N4002 diode in Pspice has a forward voltage of 0.8V while
forward voltage one HB LED varies from 2.8V to 3.2V. For duty cycle of 0.3 where
the forward voltage of one HB LED should be 2.8V, seven diodes were placed in series
to represent two HB LEDs. Total forward voltage of two HB LEDs with a forward
voltage of 2.8V is 5.6V while total forward voltage of seven diodes with forward
voltage of 0.8V is also 5.6V.
28
For duty cycle of 0.4, the forward voltage of one HB LED is 3.2V. Total
forward voltage of two HB LEDs and eight diodes are equal which is 6.4V. Therefore,
two HB LEDs with a forward voltage of 3.2V were represented by eight diodes of
forward voltage 0.8V.
3.2.2
Preliminary Results
Figure 3.10 below shows the output voltage when duty cycle is set to 0.3. When
duty cycle is set to 0.3, the output voltage at steady state is 7.0V.
8.0V
(45.083m,6.9992)
6.0V
4.0V
2.0V
0V
0s
5ms
10ms
15ms
20ms
25ms
30ms
35ms
40ms
45ms
50ms
V(C1:2)
Time
Figure 3.11 shows the output voltage when duty cycle is set to 0.4. When duty
cycle is set to 0.4, the output voltage at steady state is 10.9V.
29
12.0V
8.0V
4.0V
0V
0s
5ms
10ms
15ms
20ms
25ms
30ms
35ms
40ms
45ms
50ms
V(C1:2)
Time
3.3
Circuit Building
3.3.1
The first part built and tested was Pulse Width Modulation. SG3525 is used to
generate PWM signal. The configuration of PWM part of this project hardware is
shown in Figure 3.5. The circuit built on protoboard is shown in Figure 3.12.
30
3.3.2
Gate Driver
31
The gate driver input leg is connected to the output leg of SG3525 with the
mediation of a resistor . Calculation of is as follows:
5.1 1
= 410 400
10
3.3.3
The process of building Flyback converter is discussed here. This includes the
process of building the transformer.
32
3.3.3.1 Transformer
Then, the center leg of the transformer was filed using a file. The purpose of
the filing is to make an air gap in the core of the transformer. As stated earlier in chapter
33
3.1.1.3, the air gap length decided is 0.5mm long. Therefore, the center leg is filed up
until the gap reaches 0.5mm. The value of inductance in each side of the transformer
was measured using an LCR meter. The measurement was made to make sure the
values of inductance are close enough to calculated values.
3.3.4
Rectifier
Rectifier is the last part to be built and analyzed before the full circuit is
finalized. Rectifier circuit was built according to schematic circuit in Figure 3.8. The
already built Flyback converter was then connected to the output rectifier and tested.
The result was successful.
34
3.4
Hardware Implementation
The finalized circuit was then implemented on a Printed Circuit Board (PCB).
PCB layout was sketched using Eagle CAD software. The procedure of using Eagle
CAD is:
Figure 3.17 shows the designed PCB layout with components. Those
components can be made invisible at view section on Board windows.
35
The complete layout was printed on a photo paper and laminated on a blank
copper board until all of the carbon printed on the photo paper sticks to the copper
board. Only then, the copper board was etched by using acid. Components, ICs,
jumpers, and connectors were then soldered according to design.
Figure 3.138: Complete LED light Dimmer using Flyback converter PCB
CHAPTER 4
4.0
Introduction
4.1
Complete Circuit
The full circuit of High Brightness LED dimmer using Flyback converter is
shown in Figure 4.1.
37
38
4.2
4.3
The waveform of gate driver was measured across legs number 6 and 7 of the
gate driver IC, Optocoupler HCPL 3180. Figure 4.3 shows the output waveform of the
gate driver.
39
The amplitude of the PWM signal is amplified and smoothed out by the gate
driver. As shown in Figure 4.3 above, the amplitude of the PWM signal is amplified
to 11.4V. The value is suitable to turn ON the MOSFET in the Flyback converter. The
signal is smoother compared to the PWM signal generated while frequency and the
duty cycle is retained from the PWM signal.
4.4
Transformer
40
The value is acceptable, even though it did not reach the targeted value which
is 5mH. The value can be reached if the center leg of the transformer is filed exactly
to the length that we calculated earlier, 0.5mm.
The voltage across primary side was observed. The figure shows the voltage
waveform that was measured across the primary winding of the transformer. The
vertical axis was scaled at 10V per grid line. Notice that voltage spikes exist at the
edge of the voltage waveform. The phenomenon is caused by leakage inductance of
the transformer. This is a normal occurrence in a transformer especially in Flyback
converter. The problem can be solved by implementing an RCD-clamp across the
primary winding[15].
41
4.5
Output Voltage
Output voltage waveform was measured across the output. The attributes to be
looked into for output voltage are the magnitude and voltage ripple. Hardware output
voltages were then compared to calculated values and simulation. Figures shown
below are the output waveform when the duty cycle is set to 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4.
42
Output voltage ripple is low for all duty cycle, which means output capacitor
is large enough to filter the ripples. However, the output voltage magnitude is different
from calculated and simulation. This is mainly because the I-V characteristic curve of
LED which is not linear and different from the I-V characteristic curve of resistors.
When LEDs are ON, the voltage across them automatically becomes equal to required
forward voltage to turn them ON, which in this project is between 2.5V to 3.5V,
according to datasheet[11].
43
Output Voltage( )
Theory
Simulation
Hardware
0.1
1.4
0.2
4.5
4.2
6.5
0.3
7.7
0.4
12
10.9
14
Table 3 shows the output voltage of the hardware. When the duty cycle is 0.1,
the output voltage is 5V. As stated above, the minimum output voltage of the hardware
will be the minimum voltage required to turn ON the LED. Two LEDs are placed is
series in every parallel path in the output, therefore the required voltage is 5V. That
explains why the output voltage is 5V at duty cycle 0.1. At duty cycle 0.2 and 0.3, the
output voltage ranged around the forward voltage of the LEDs, but at duty cycle 0.4,
the output voltage becomes extremely higher than the LEDs forward voltage. At this
point, much of the voltage drops at the current limiting resistor.
4.6
LED Brightness
The HB LED brightness was observed when the hardware operates at duty
cycle 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4. The hardware was proven successful to dim the brightness
of LEDs. The brightness of light emitted by the hardware increases with the increase
of duty cycle.
44
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
5.1
Conclusion
There were some difficulties faced during the process of completing this
project. The first one is to learn the knowledge about electromagnetism.
Electromagnetism is a very complicated subject on its own. If we understand it well,
then the rest of the Flyback converter fundamental can be easily understood. The
second difficulty was to find the right components to be used. Components must be
chosen according to ratings and other specifications.
46
High brightness LED behavior must be studied first before designing the circuit
because everything that we build will be respected to the output. By completing this
project, it is proven that Flyback converter is a suitable topology in implementing a
hardware of a HB LED light dimmer.
5.2
Recommendation
The first problem that seems to affect the performance of the hardware is the
voltage spikes produced across the primary winding of the Flyback converter
transformer. The problem leads to the rapid rise of temperature at MOSFET because
the voltage spikes sometimes exceed the rating of the MOSFET. One way to solve this
is by adding an RCD clamp across the primary winding. The capacitor placed in an
RCD clamp will absorb the voltage spike and the power will be dissipated by the RCD
clamp resistor. RCD clamp helps not only to absorb voltage spikes but also reduces
switching losses at MOSFET.
47
of the capacitor. The resistor must be high enough so that it will not interrupt the
hardware performance when it operates as a current will look to flow through a path
which has the least load.
48
REFERENCE
1.
Tan, D., Soraa to raise orders of LED modules, in The Star. 2013: Georgetown.
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Arias, M., A. Vazquez, and J. Sebastian, An Overview of the AC-DC and DCDC Converters for LED Lighting Applications. 2012.
3.
Picard, J., Under the Hood of Flyback SMPS Designs, in 2010-2011 Power
Supply Design Seminar. 2011, Texas Instruments.
4.
Ghani, I.A., P.I. Khalid, and S.H. Ruslan, Electronic Circuits Teaching Module.
2011: Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
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Sen, P.C., Principles of Electric Machines and Power Electronics. 1997: John
Wiley & Sons.
10.
11.
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13.
14.
49
15.
Hren, A., J. Korelic, and M. Milanovic, RC-RCD Clamp Circuit for Ringing
Losses Reduction in a Flyback Converter. 2006.
16.
Kasim, J., C. Omar, A.H. Ahmad, Modul Pengajaran Sistem Elektronik, 2009,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
17.
18.
19.
20.
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APPENDIX A
51
52
53
APPENDIX B
54
55
56
57
58
APPENDIX C
59
60
61
62
APPENDIX D
63
APPENDIX E
64
65
APPENDIX F
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
APPENDIX G
73
74
75
76
77
78
APPENDIX H
79
APPENDIX I