Apparatus :

Transformer
DC Power Supply
Spot Galvanometer
Ammeter
Three Resistor Boxes
Two Switches
Reversing Key

Introduction :
When a material is placed in writhing a magnetic field, the magnetic force of the
materials electrons will be affected. This affect is known as Faradays law of magnetic
induction. However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of an external
magnetic field. This reaction is dependent of a number of factors such as the atomic and
molecular structure and molecular structure of the material, and the net magnetic field
associated with the atoms. The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three origins.
These are the electron orbital motion, the change in orbital motion caused by an external
magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.
In most atoms electrons occur in pairs. Each electrons in a pair spins in the opposite
direction. So when the electrons are pair together, there opposite spins caused there magnetic
field to cancel each other. Therefore no magnetic field exists. Alternately, materials with
some unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic field and will react more to an external
field. Most materials can be classified as ferromagnetic, diamagnetic or paramagnetic.

Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does not
retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Diamagnetic materials are
solid with all paired electrons and therefore not permanent magnetic moments per atom.

Paramagnetic materials are slightly attached by magnetic field and material does not retain
the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due
to the presence of some unpaired electrons.

Ferromagnetic materials exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic field and are able to retain
their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed. Ferromagnetic materials
have some unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net magnetic moment. They get there

strong magnetic properties due to the presence of magnetic domain. Iron, nickel and cobalt
are examples of ferromagnetic materials.

Magnetic field strength (H)

A magnetic field strength of I ampere/meter is produced at the center of a single circular
conductor diameter of 1 m carrying a steady current of 1 A.

Magnetic flux ()
The total number of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic flux. The strength
of the flux is determined by the number of magnetic domains that are aligned within a
material. The total flux is simply the flux density applied over an area. Flux carries the unit of
a Weber (Wb), which is simply a Tesla-square meter.

Magnetic flux density (B)

The number of magnetic lines of fource cutting through a plane of a given area at a right
angle is known as the magnetic flux density B. the flux density or magnetic induction has the
Tesla as its unit. Tesla is equal to Wb m-2.

Magnetization (M)
The magnetization is the measure of the extent to which an object is magnetized. It is a
measure of the magnetic dipole moment per unite volume of the object. The unite of the
magnetization is Am-1.
Quantity
Field
Flux Density
Flux
Magnetization

Symbol
H
B

The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic properties

SI Unit
A/m
Tesla
Weber
A/m

As the current I I figure 1 increases from Zero, the magnetization M will increase
from zero up to a certain value at which all the domains in the iron are perfectly aligned. Any
feather increases in i will have no effect on the value of M , and the iron is said to be
saturated. A curve of the total field B vs. the applied field H, as H increases from zero is
called a magnetization curve. A typical magnetization curve for iron is given in figure 2.
Suppose we reach some arbitrary points (H 0 ,B0) on the magnetization cure shown
(dotted) in figure 3.if we then decreases H to zero (by decreasing the current in the external
coil),the iron will remain partly magnetized and there will be a residual field B R, by
reversing the current, we can decreases B to zero at a value of H known as the coercive
force, Hc As H is made more negative, the iron magnetizes in the reverse directions and it
will arrive at the point (-H0,-B0) when the reverse current is equal in magnitude to the initial
to the initial forward current. A curve of B Vs H for a complete cycle of increasing and
decreasing current is known as hysteresis curve. Various hysteresis curves are possible for a
given specimen of iron, depending at which point on the magnetization curve the hysteresis
curve is started.

Basic relations of magnetic Hysteresis theory

Retentivity A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a magnetic
material. In other words it is materials ability to reatain a certain amount of residual
magnetic field when the magnetizing fore is removed after achieving saturation.( The value
of B at point BR on the hysteresis curve.)

Coercive forceThe amount of reverse magnetic field which must applied to a megnatic material to make the
magnetic flux return to zero .(the value of H at point -Hc on the hysteresis curve.)

PermeabilityPermeability is a material property thet describe the case with which a magnetic flux is
established in a material.it is the ration of the flux density to the magnetic force and ,
therefore present by the following equation:
=B/H
it is clear that the equation describe the slope of the curve at any point on the hysteresis
curve. The permeability value given in papers and reference meterials is usually the
maximum permeability or the maximum relative permeability. The maximum permeability is
the point where the slope of the B-H curve unmagnified materials is the greatest. This point
often take as the point where a straight line from the origin is tangent to the B-H curve.
The relative permeability is found by taking the ration of the materials permeability to the
permeability in free space
(relative )=

(material )
( air )

Theory and Diagrams :

if we wind a coil of N turns on an iron ring and passes a current I through the coil, then the
value of H in the iron can be found from Ampheres law

H dl=

, giving

H=
l
Where l is the length of the iron ring, the value of H is proportional to I and N but does not
depend on the state of magnetization of the iron.
If is the flux produced by given current in the ring, and there are n windings in the
secondary coil, then quantity of the charge set in the motion in the secondary when this flux
created or destroyed is n /R , R being the total resident of the secondary coil.
R=R gal + R sec .coli + r
When this charge is passes through a spot galvanometer, we have
n
=Kd
R
When, K is the galvanometer constant and d is the galvanometer deflection in mm . But

B=
A
Where A is the area of the cross section of the ring. There fore
KR
B=
d
nA
The power dissipated in the transformer at the given frequency is,
W = p . dt
The power used in the primery , p = vi, where v = N A (dB/dt) and I = H l/N
There fore

W = Al H . dB
Volume of the iron core V = A l

and

H . dB

is the area enclosed by the hysteresis

curve.
Therefore , power = (Area of curve) (Volume of iron)

Procedure :
1) The spot Galvanometer was placed 1meter far from the scale and it was adjusted to
zero.
2) The apparatus was fixed as shown in the figure 4.
3) S1 opened and S2 closed; primary current was varied using R2 resistor, measured the
input current i (in A) and the galvanometer deflection d with decreasing the primary
resistance. After every current increases the coil must be de magnetized.
4) S1 and S2 was closed and adjusted R1 till the supply current become saturation value.
5) r was adjusted to obtain the maximum deflection of the light spot on scale.
6) The input current and the galvanometer deflection d was measured. (+) sign was used
to measure both current and deflection.
7) Then the current was reversed by using the reversible key and got the deflection
corresponding to reverse maximum current.
8) Again returned to the positive saturation current and S2 was opened, that reduces i to
zero. Once again the spot galvanometer deflection was measured.
9) The input current was reduced from its previous value by using the R2 and spot
galvanometer deflection was measured corresponding to the input current.
10) This was repeated until input current reach its reverse maximum value and measured
input current and corresponding galvanometer deflection in mm and it was recorded
in a table.
11) Secondary coil resistance and resistance of the galvanometer was measured.

Calculations :
Cross sectional area of the iron core is
A=with Hight

3 10 25 10 m

0.75 10 m

Length of the iron core is

l=2 r

101 103
2

0.3173 m

Round off value for Graph 01

Deviation( 10 -2 m)

Current
(A)

B (Tesla)
1010

H (A/m)

0.4
0.5
4.6
6.8
10.3
11.2
13.6
13.9
15.6
15.5
17.0
17.0
18.0
18.2
19.0
18.9
19.9
19.6
20.3
20.0

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0

0.20
0.25
2.26
3.34
5.05
5.50
6.67
6.82
7.65
7.61
8.34
8.34
8.83
8.93
9.32
9.27
9.76
9.62
9.96
9.81

105
210
315
420
525
630
735
840
945
1049
1154
1259
1364
1469
1574
1679
1784
1889
1994
2099

Gradient of the Graph

( 9.802.80 ) 1 010 T
( 1300150 ) A m1

6.09 1 0 T A . m
Round off value for Graph 02

Curren
d1+ d2+ d1- d2t
10
10
10
10
-2

-2

-2

-2

(A)

1.32
0.90
0.73
0.59
0.51
0.43
0.39
0.34
0.31
0.28
0.24
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00

0.6
1.2
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3.1
3.2
3.6
3.9
3.9

21.9
19.4
17.9
15.9
14.6
12.9
10.7
8.9
6.4
5.6
4.0
3.1
2.1
1.5
0.8
0.2

0.5
0.8
1.4
1.5
1.8
1.8
2.0
2.4
2.4
2.6
2.6
2.9
3.2
3.3
3.8
3.9

22.6
19.9
12.0
16.0
14.5
12.7
10.7
9.0
6.4
5.4
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.4
0.5
0.0

B1
10

B2

10

12.0
11.7
11.5
11.5
11.4
11.3
11.2
11.1
11.0
11.0
10.9
10.7
10.7
10.5
10.4
10.4

10

10

1.2
2.2
2.7
3.7
4.2
5.0
5.9
6.7
7.9
8.2
9.0
9.2
9.7
9.8
10.0
10.3

B3
10

10

B4
1010

-12.0 -0.9 1385

-11.9 -2.1 945
-11.6 -5.7 766
-11.5 -3.7 619
-11.4 -4.3 535
-11.4 -5.2 451
-11.3 -6.0 409
-11.1 -6.7 357
-11.1 -7.9 325
-11.0 -8.3 294
-11.0 -9.0 252
-10.8 -9.4 210
-10.7 -9.7 157
-10.6 -10.0 105
-10.4 -10.2
52
-10.4 -10.4
0

Area of the Graph is

= 141 1 2501010 = 3.51010 T A.m-1

Power

= (Area of the curve)(Volume of iron)

= 3.51010 2.379710-5
= 8.3289105 W

Conclusion :
6.09 1 07 T A1 . m

Relative permeability of iron

Area of the hysteresis curve

Volume of iron core

2.379710-5 m3

Power

8.3289105 W

3.51010 TAm-1

Questions :

1. To check the power loss of a transformer, measure the voltage and

current at the input and output. Then multiply the voltage times the
current of each to find the watts. Subtract the output wattage from
the input. The difference equals the power dissipated.
Wire Resistance
The coils of a transformer, made from long pieces of wire, have
resistance which acts like any load on electrical current. The coils of
the wire heat up while the transformer operates, using some of its
power.
Induction Losses
The primary winding of a transformer induces current into the secondary winding
around a magnetic core. The core itself resists the induction process slightly, causing a
loss of power.

We use 50Hz frequency because our main current has 50Hz. And also when increase
the frequency it may make more power dissipation.

Discussion :
Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials have non-linear initial magnetisation curves. It is
on the dotted lines in figure, as the changing magnetisation with applied field is due to a
change in the magnetic domain structure. These materials also show hysteresis and the
magnetisation does not return to zero after the application of a magnetic field. Figure shows a
typical hysteresis loop; the two loops represent the same data, however, the red loop is the
polarisation and the blue loop the induction, both plotted against the applied field.

A typical hysteresis loop for a ferro- or ferri- magnetic material.

The first quadrant of the loop is the initial magnetisation curve (dotted line), which shows the
increase in polarisation and induction on the application of a field to an unmagnetised
sample. In the first quadrant the polarisation and applied field are both positive, that is they
are in the same direction.

The polarisation increases initially by the growth of favourably oriented domains, which will
be magnetised in the easy direction of the crystal. When the polarisation can increase no
further by the growth of domains, the direction of magnetisation of the domains then rotates
away from the easy axis to align with the field. When all of the domains have fully aligned
with the applied field saturation is reached and the polarisation can increase no further.

If the field is removed the polarisation returns along the solid red line to the y-axis (i.e. H=0),
and the domains will return to their easy direction of magnetisation, resulting in a decrease in
polarisation. In the figure, the line from the saturation point to the y-axis is horizontal, which
is representative of a well aligned material, where the domains are magnetised in the easy
direction of the crystal at the saturation point.
If the direction of applied field is reversed that mean in the negative direction, then the
polarisation will follow the red line into the second quadrant. The hysteresis means that the
polarisation lags behind the applied field and will not immediately switch direction into the
third quadrant .

After applying a high enough field saturation polarisation will be achieved in the negative
direction. If the applied field is then decreased and again applied in the positive direction then
the full hysteresis loop is plotted.
If the field is repeatedly switched from positive to negative directions and is of sufficient
magnitude then the polarisation and induction will cycle around the hysteresis loop in an anticlockwise direction. The area contained within the loop indicates the amount of energy
absorbed by the material during each cycle of the hysteresis loop.