JAMES A.

CRAIG

Formation
Migration
Accumulation

ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM
To be considered are these 3 stages:
Formation of Petroleum
Migration of Petroleum
Accumulation of Petroleum

Formation of Petroleum
There are 2 theories concerning the
formation of petroleum:
The Inorganic theory
The Organic theory

Inorganic Theory
Berthelot (1860) & Dmitri Mendeleev (1902):
Iron carbide in the earths mantle would react with
percolating water to form methane.
FeC2 + 2H2O CH4 + FeO2
This theory is called Deep-Seated Terrestrial
Hypothesis.

Sokoloff (1890):
Hydrocarbons precipitated as rain from the
original nebular matter from which solar system
was formed.
The hydrocarbons were the ejected from earths
interior onto surface rocks.
This theory is called Extraterrestrial Hypothesis

Problems with Inorganic Theories :

No field evidence that inorganic processes have
occurred in nature.
Commercial accumulations are restricted to
mainly sedimentary basins.
Accumulations are absent from igneous and
metamorphic rocks.

Organic Theory
Early marine life forms living on earth were
primarily plankton (rich in hydrogen & carbon)
Over 95% of living matter in the ocean is
plankton.

As these plankton died, their remains were

captured by the process of erosion and
sedimentation.

Successive layers of organic-rich mud & silt

covered preceding layers of organic-rich
sediments & overtime created layers on the
sea floor rich in the fossil remains of previous
life.

Thermal maturation processes (decay, heat,

pressure) slowly converted the organic
matter into oil & gas over periods of millions
of geologic years.
Conversion of the organic material is called
Catagenesis.
It usually occurs under anaerobic conditions.

Clay & silt are carried together with the dead

organic remains & deposited under deltaic,
lacustrine & marine conditions to form
Source rocks.
Black-coloured, organically-rich shales
deposited in a non-oxidizing, quiet marine
environment are considered the best source
rocks.

Shales

Shale rock =
99% clay
mineral + 1%
organic material.
Kerogen
Insoluble
High molecular
weight
Polymeric
compound

Thermal alteration of kerogen forms crude oil

by increasing the carbon contents.
At shallow depths (< 3,000 ft), bacteria
actions on organic materials form Biogenic
Gas (natural gas).
At great depths (high temperature &
overburden), Thermogenic Gas is formed.
Later stages of thermogenesis will form wet
gas and condensate.

Hydrocarbon maturation

Supports for organic hypothesis:

Carbon & hydrogen are the primary constituents
of organic material, both plant & animal.
Nitrogen & Porphyrins are found in organic
matter & in many petroleum.
Porphyrins are chlorophyll derivatives in plants &
blood derivatives in animals.

Migration of Petroleum
Produced hydrocarbons migrates upward
from the deeper, hotter parts of the basin
through permeable strata into suitable
structures.
There are 2 stages of migration:
Primary Migration Kerogen transformation
causes micro-fracturing of the impermeable &
low porosity source rock, allowing hydrocarbons
to move into more permeable strata.

Secondary Migration The generated fluids

move more freely along bedding planes and
faults into a suitable reservoir structure.

Migration can occur over several tens of

kilometers in lateral directions.

Accumulation of Petroleum
Accumulation & storage occur when the
migrating fluids encounter an impermeable
shale or dense layer of rock.
This is called a Trap.
After accumulation, the fluids tend to stratify
according to their relative densities:
Gas
Oil
Water

If the migrating fluids do not encounter a

trap, they tend to flow to the surface or
deposited on the ocean floor.
Examples are:
Seepages
Escaping natural gas
Bituminous lakes

Reservoirs are composed of either:

Clastic formation sandstone reservoirs made
from silicates (quartz, SiO2).
Carbonate formation carbonate reservoirs
made from detritus (coral or shell fragments).

Reservoirs must be:

Porous
Permeable
Trapped.

Types of Traps
Anticlinal Traps
Result of ductile
crustal
deformations.

HCWC

Fault Traps
Result of brittle
crustal
deformations.

HCWC

Stratigraphic
Traps
Impermeable
strata seal the
reservoir.

HCWC

Salt Dome Traps

Combination Traps
Fault bound anticlinal structures, i.e.
combination of anticlinal & fault traps. Many
global reservoirs have this type.