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CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

X-Rays
Introduction :
Rontgen in 1895 discovered the X-Rays when he was studying the phenomenon of
discharge of electricity through rarefied gases.
While experimenting with cathode tube he found that when a beam of fast moving
electrons strike a solid target, and invisible, high penitrating radiation are produced.
Because of their unknown radiation nature Rohtgen called these radiation as X-rays.
X-rays are electromagnetic radiation / waves of very short wavelength. ( = 1
100)

Production of X-rays :
The X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons strike a target of suitable
material. When fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped by target, a small part of
kinetic energy get converted into X-rays.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

Modern Cooling Tube :


HT

Cooing
mechani
M
T
F

W
X-ray

Fig : Cooling Tube

Construction :
a)

It consist of highly evaculated glass bulb containing cathode and anticathode


or anode.

b)

Cathode consist of tungsten by passing and electric current to get thermionic


emission of electrons.

c)

The filament is surrounded by metal cup M at negative potential to the


filament. Hence electrons emitted from the filament are collimated into fine
pencil of electronic beam.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

d)

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

Here electrons are accelarated towards anode (target) by very high


potential difference (around few kv) between cathode & anode.

e)

The target T consist of copper black in which a place of tungsten is

fitted.

(eg. Tungsten W, Molybdenum Mo)


Requirement of Target It should have
a)

High atomic weight :


To reduced hard X-rays .

b)

High melting point :


So that it should not melted due to the bombardment of fast moving
electrons which cause lot of heat generation .

c)

High thermal Conductivity :


To carry away generated heat.

i.

Because when fast moving e-s strikes the target, around 99% of energy is
converted into heat and only 1% which gets converted into X-rays .

ii.

The target is placed at 45 with the path of e- beam .

iii.

The target is cooled by flowing cooled water into hollow tuve attached with
the target.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

For industrial purpose, the parameters of X-rays which needs to be controlled


are

I)

I)

Intensity

II)

hardness.

Intensity :
It is proportional to the number to e-s striking the target and it can be
controlled by varing filament current.

II)

Hardness :

a)

It is a quality of X-rays which represent the penitrating power, depends upon


the potential different between the cathod and target.

b)

Higher is the acceleration voltage, igher is the speed of striking


and consequently more penitrating X-rays are produced and

electrons

termed as hard X-

rays (Short wavelength)


c)

Lower is the acceleration Voltage, lower is the speed of striking


and lower penitrating X-rays are produced with
wavelength , these X-rays termed as soft X-rays.

electrons

comparatively long

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

X-Ray Spectra
I.

Characteristic or Line Spectra :

Inci.

a)

Few fast moving electrons having velocity about one tenth of the velocity of
the light may penitrate the surface atoms of the target
the highly bound electrons even from the inner-

material and knock out

most shells (like K, L shell,

ect.) of the atom.


b)

Now, vacancies so crated may be filled by the e- from higher shell.

c)

Thus electronic transitions take place.

d)

The energy difference is radiated in the form of X-rays of very small but
definite wavelength.

e)

The wavelength depends on the target material.

f)

The spectra consist of sharp lines and is the character or target material,
Hence the spectra known as characteristic or Line X-rays spectra.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

g)

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

If incident electron knock out electron from k shell and the vacancy is filled
by the e- from L-shell, the spectral line representing this transition

is called k

line
[EL EK = h1] =
h)

Instead of L-shell is vacancy is filled by e-from M-sh then it would have been
k line
[EL EK = h2] and

Hence 2 > 1

i)

k line X rays are more energi


--- [
]
and short wavelength

X-ray and spectra of different elements are found to similar to each


all are having K.. L, M series but it was observed by mo that

other,

frequency of lines

for every series from the element of higher atomic number is greater than that
produced by an element of lower atomic
j)

number.

According o Mostly,
Frequency emitted by spectral line an characteristic X-ray spectrum is
function of atomic number. ( b)

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

Fig.

Intensity

frequency of spectral line


atomic number
b screening constant.
Wavelength
[Fig :Spectrum of characteristic X-rays]
k)

In case of characteristic X-ray spectrum, spectrum is observed in terms of


sharp peaks.

l)

The peak depends upon, energy levels of atom and energy level pattern is
characteristic of the particular type of element to which the given

atom

belongs to
m)

It means that peak depends of the target material used, and is


of the energy f incident electron i.e. independent of the

independent

operating potential .

II.

Continuous X-ray Spectrum :

a)

A few fast moving electrons penetrate deep into interior of the atoms of target
material and are attracted by the attractive forces of their nuclei.

b)

Due to these forces, the electrons get deflected from their original paths.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

c)

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

In this way, the electrons are de-accelerated i.e their velocity is reduced and
this gives rise is loss of energy.

d)

This loss of energy during retardation is given off in the form of


electromagnetic radiation i.e X-rays of continuous varing wavelength.

e)

The X-rays consist of continuous range of frequencies upto maximum


frequency or minimum wavelength

f)

Let the velocity e-change from v1 to v2 due to deflection


Loss of energy = h =

g)

1
2

mv12

1
2

mv22

--- (1)

The highest frequency of the emitted X-rays corresponding to the point where
electron is completely stopped i.e
1

v2 = 0

h)

mv 2 = hmax =

ch

--- (2)

min

When e is accelerated by a potential V, then kinetic energy is ,


1
2

mv 2 = eV

min =

min =

---(3)

ch
eV
3108 6.63 1034
1.6 1019 V
12400
V

--- (4)

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

eqn (4) shows that min

1
V

, and min =

THEORY

0, V = which is not

possible.
i)

Therefore continous X-ray spectrum, there always exist a non Zero

min .

50 kv

Intensity

40kv
30 kv

Wavelength
[ Fig : Continuous x-ray ]

j)

All curve start with non zero value of minimum wavelength called min .

k)

All the curves attain a peak and after that falls or gradually.

l)

Position of peak depends upon the applied voltage .

m)

As operation voltage is increased, peak shift towards shorter wavelength.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

Difference betn continuous & characteristic X-ray spectra. :


Continuous X-ray Spectrum

Characteristic Spectrum

i.

It is continuous spectrum

i.

It is a line spectrum

ii.

Smooth curve obtained

ii.

Certain sharp peak obtained.

iii.

Deaccelaration of electron

iii.

Transition of orbital electron is

responsible

from higher to lower orbit is


responsible.

iv.

Fig.

snap shot

Diffraction of X-Rays :
a)

Diffraction 10 defined as bending of ray around the corner obstacle


dimension are of the order of the wavelength of ray .(make this
simple)

whose

tatement

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

b)

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

As x-ray are electromagentic waves just as light waves, theymust exhibit


interference and diffraction.

c)

To study the difference of x-ray, grating with period of 2to 5 is

required.

d)

It is extremely difficult to prepare grating with such a small period of

e)

In 1913,Max Laue suggested that crystal might act as a natural three


diamensional grating such a small order ,because interplaner distance is
period and of the order of few angstroms unit .

f)

Hence ,when x-rays made incident upon crystals , we get an ordered,


regular diffraction pattern or once can say that Crystal act as three
dimensional reflection grating with X-rays

BRAGGS LAW :
A

P
R

Plane I
S

Plane II
Q
Plane III
Plane IV

order.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

a)

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

Let us considered a set at parallel lattice plane of crystal separated by


distance dapart.

b)

Suppose a narrow beam at X-rays of wavelength ' be incident upon

this

plane at an angle . As shown in figure (-is a glancing angle)


c)

The beam will be reflected in all direction by the atom of various atomic planes.

d)

Because the refractive index of matter of crystal is very nearly equal to unity ,
hence there is practically no bending of the rays entering or

leaving one crystal

.
e)

When a beam of monochromatic X-rays falls on a crystal , each atom


becomes a source of scattering radiations.

f)

Consider a ray AB reflected at atom A in the direction BC from plane I


another ray PQ reflected at another ray Q in the direction QR from

g)

and

plane II .

Now from atom B, draw two perpendiculars BS & BT on the incident ray
PQ & reflected ray QR respective .

h)

Path difference between two rays is (SQ +QT)

i)

The two reflected rays will be in phase or out of phase will depends

upon

path difference .
j)

When path difference (SQ +QT) is a multiple of whole wave length


then two rays will reinforce each other and produce intense spot .

SQ + QT = n

--- (1)

n,

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

From the fig ;

BSQ

sin =

&
SQ
BQ

SQ

SQ = d sin

SQ + QT = n

BTQ

sin =

QT
BQ

QT
d

QT = d sin

d sin + d sin = n

2d sin = n

--- (Where n = 1, 2, 3, ..)

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

BRAGGS SPECTROMETER :

X-rays

Crystal

S1 S2
Tum table

S3
S4

Ionization
chember
Fig. Braggs Spectrometer
a)

The schematic arrangement of Braggs spectrometer is shown in fig .

b)

A monochromatic X Ray beam obtained from X-Ray tube is made to

pass

through slit S1 &S2 which are made of up of lead.


c)

The beam made to fall on a crystal C (usually Nacl or KCL) mounted on a


centre of circular turn table of spectromater.

d)

The reflected X-rays are collected by ionisation chember ,the turn table is
rotated till we get sharp increase in the intensity .

e)

The sudden increase in the intensity of X- Ray suggested that Braggs


satisfied at given angle of incident beam .

law is

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

f)

XRAY & BRAGGS LAW

THEORY

The peak in ionisation current which represent the intensity occurs

more

than one as is varied because Braggs law states :


2d sin =n

--- (where n =1,2,3 .)

We have 1 , 2 ,3
g)

It the intensity (or ionasation current ) is plotted against glancing angel the we
get graph as shown in following fig .

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