WATER QUALITY

WATER QUALITY

Hydrologic cycle
 WATER QUALITY
Physical
characteristics
Characteristic of water that respond to the
senses of sight, taste or smell.

Color
- Due to organic particles e.g. leaves, metal or
industrial wastes

Taste and odor

Suspended solids
- Inorganic particles e.g. clay, silt
Organic particles e.g. plant fibres, bacterial cells

Turbidity

Temperature
- Effect the rate of biological activities and solubility of
gases in water.
 Solids

Dissolved Colloidal Suspended or non

filterable

algae
bacteria
Suspended
virus solid
Size of particle, m

10 -5 10 -3 1 100

10 -8 10 -5 10 -3 10 -1
Size of particle, mm
 WATER QUALITY
Chemical characteristics
Characteristic of water that respond to the
solvent capabilities of water.

pH : measures the strength of H+ ions in water.

Pure water, H + and OH- = 10 –7 mol / liter

 WATER QUALITY
Alkalinity
- The ability of water to absorb acids (H+
ions)
- Common constituents of alkalinity:
HC03– (bicarbonate), CO32– (carbonate)
and OH – (hydroxide)
- Natural source: rock e.g. limestone
- Important for fish and aquatic life. Protect
against pH changes due to acid rain, and other
acid wastes.
 WATER QUALITY
Dissolved solids
Refer to substances which is in solution. Cannot be
removed by filtration or sedimentation. e.g. Ca 2+ ,
Mg 2+ , Cl - etc.

Water
containing
Dissolved iron
solids
 WATER QUALITY
Hardness
•The concentration of metallic cation
such as calcium and magnesium in
water.
• Ca and Mg react with anion in water
to form a solid precipitate. May clog
pipes.
Ca 2+ + 2 HCO3- -------► Ca CO3 (s)
+ CO2 + H2O
• In boilers, hard water form scale on
the plates ; increasing fuel
consumption.
• Increase soap consumption
(interfere with cleaning), stain
clothing, dishes.
 C02+ H20 H2C03

Ca C03 (s) + H2CO3 -> Ca(HCO3)2

 WATER QUALITY

Lead
Metal Arsenic
Non toxic: sodium, iron, manganese, zinc
Toxic : arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury

Dissolved gases
Oxygen, nitrogen, methane,
carbon dioxide

Cadmium
 WATER QUALITY

Nutrient
Nitrogen and Phosphorus

Organic nitrogen -----► ammonia nitrogen

(Nitrosomonas ) (Nitrobacter)
-----► Nitrite -------► Nitrate

Oxidation of nitrogen compound is called

Nitrification
 Time ----------►
Forms of nitrogen compounds in wastewater under aerobic conditions.
Source: Sawyer and McCarty (1978).
 WATER QUALITY

Organics
Major element --- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Minor element ---- Nitrogen, phosphorus
• Sources
– Natural or synthetic organics e.g. plant
fibers, animal tissues, food waste
• Effects
– Color, taste and odor problems, microbial
decomposition of organics requires oxygen.
 WATER QUALITY
Biodegradable organics
(Organics which can be utilized for food by
microorganisms)
– Carbohydrates (C,H,O), protein
(C,H,O,N,S), fat (C,H,O)
Fat molecule
Non biodegradable organics
(Organics which are resistant to biological
degradation)

- Cellulose from woody plants

- Molecules with strong bond e.g. DDT
- Organics which are toxic to organisms
e.g. pesticides
DDT molecule
 WATER QUALITY

• Biological Oxidation of organics

In the presence of oxygen, aerobic oxidation
takes place. Part of the organic matter being
synthesized to form new microorganisms and the
remainder being converted to relatively stable
end products.

Organic matter New cells

Bacteria
O2
CO2, H2O, NO3-, SO42- , PO43-
 WATER QUALITY

In the absence of oxygen, anaerobic oxidation

will produce new cells and unstable products
such as organic acids etc. which further will be
converted to new cells and stable products such
as CH4, CO2 etc.

New cells
Organic matter
Bacteria New cells

CO2, H2O,
Alcohol & Acids H2S, NH3,
CH4
Sludge digester employing anaerobic oxidation
 WATER QUALITY
Biological characteristics
- refer to biological community of water

Virus
Bacteria – single cell
microorganism

Protozoa Fungi
 WATER QUALITY
Algae Rotifer

Helminth / parasitic worm

Macrophyte Fish
Crustacean
(aquatic plants)
Figure 3-9 Aquatic food chain. Energy and material pass from
green plants formed by photosynthesis through small animals and
immature insects that graze on algae to second-and third-order
consumers, which are fishes.

A body of water hosting large numbers of species with well

balanced numbers of individuals are considered to be a healthy
stream
 WATER QUALITY
Pathogen
• Organisms which cause disease or
infection.
• Detection of pathogen in water is
difficult, uneconomical, impractical in
routine water analysis.
• Water is tested using organism that is an
indicator of fecal contamination.
• Nonpathogenic microorganisms which
inhabit the intestines in large number
and are always present in feces together Escherichia Coli
with any pathogen may be used as
indicators of fecal contamination.
• Pathogen indicator organisms
Coliform bacteria
e.g. Escherichia Coli &
Fecal streptococci
Fecal streptococci
E. coli cultured in Petri dishes
 WATER QUALITY

Disease related to poor water supply and sanitation

• Water washed disease

- Disease due to inadequate supplies of water for
personal hygiene e.g. skin disease, eye disease.

• Water borne disease

- Disease due to ingestion of water contaminated by
pathogen or washing hands, food in contaminated water
e.g. cholera, diarrhea etc.

• Water based/related disease

- Water provides the habitat for intermediate host
organisms e.g. mosquitoes, worm, etc.
 WATER QUALITY
SOME BACTERIA OF SIGNIFICANCE IN THE ENVIRONMENT

Group of bacteria Genus Environmental significance

Salmonella Cause typhoid fever
Pathogenic bacteria
Mycobacterium Cause tuberculosis

Indicator bacteria Escherichia Fecal pollution

Enterobacter
Streptococcus
Decay bacteria Pseudomonas Degrade organics Pseudomonas
Flavobacterium Degrade proteins
Micrococcus Produce fatty acids from organics in
anaerobic digester
Nitrifying bacteria Nitrobacter
Nitrosomonas Oxidize inorganic nitrogenous compounds

Micrococcus Flavobacterium Nitrobacter Nitrosomonas

 WATER QUALITY
TABLE 8-5 TYPICAL BACTERIAL COUNTS IN WATER
Coliform bacteria

Source Bacteria per 100 mL per 100 mL

Tap water 10 0 -1
Clean, natural water 1033 102
Polluted water 1066-108 103-105
Raw sewage 108 105

Maximum allowable coliforms per 100 mL

Water use Total Fecal

Drinking water 1 0
Raw water supply 5000 500
Recreational 1000 100
Treated wastewater ------ 200
 WATER QUALITY
Calculated Virus-Coliform Ratios For Sewage And
Polluted Surface Water

Virus Coliform Virus/coliform

Virus/coliform ratio

Sewage 500 /100 44 x 10 4 1:92000

ml /100 ml
Polluted surface
water 1 /100 ml 5 x 10 4 /100 1:50000
ml
WATER QUALITY PARAMETER
Water quality parameter
– A set of measurable factor that define water quality and its behavior
e.g. color, pH, turbidity, SS, TDS, BOD, COD etc.

BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand)

– The amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria while oxidizing
organic matter under aerobic condition.
–- It is an indicator of organic pollution

BOD test
• A sample is placed in a BOD bottle and the initial DO level
(DO0 ) is determined using DO meter.
• Then, the bottle is kept in an incubator (controlled environment
e.g. temperature is held constant) for a pre selected period of
time.
• The bottle is taken out from the incubator and the final DO
level (DO f ) is measured.
• The BOD of a sample is
BOD = DO 0 – DO f
 BOD test

BOD bottle

DO meter Incubator
 BOD test
e.g.

DO 0 = 8.00 mg/L
DO 3 = 6.22 mg/L

BOD3 , o
30 C = DO 0 – DO f

= 8.00 – 6.22
= 1.78 mg/L
WATER QUALITY PARAMETER
If dilution is carried out, then
BOD = (DO 0 - DO f) x dilution times
Or
BOD = (DO 0 – Dof)
P
where P = dilution factor

P = Volume of sample
Total volume

= Volume of sample
Volume sample + volume of dilution water
 Vs
P=
Vs + V DW
V (dilution water)
V Total

V (sample)
Result from a BOD test with P = 0.1 and T = 30oC

t DO0 DO, BOD t = (DO0 - DO t)/P BODt

(mg/L)

1 8.2 7.1 (8.2 - 7.1 )/ 0.1 11

2 8.2 6.1 (8.2 - 6.1) / 0.1 21

3 8.2 5.2 (8.2 - 5.2) / 0.1 30

4 8.2 4.6 (8.2 - 4.6) / 0.1 36

5 8.1 4.1 (8.2-4.1) / 0.1 41

6 8.2 3.8 (8.2-3.8) / 0.1 44

 BOD curve versus time
BOD u

BOD t

t time

Organic matter remaining versus time

L0 L0 = initial concentration of organics

Lt Lt = concentration of organics remaining

at time t

t time
WATER QUALITY PARAMETER
The rate of oxidation of organic matter at
any time is proportional to the amount of
organic matter available.

dL = - k L
dt
L = concentration of organic matter
remaining
t = time (day)
k = reaction constant (/day)
Integrating (from time, t = 0 to t = t)
Lt t

 
L0
dL =
L
- k dt

Lt L0 10 -kt (log 10)

=

Lt = L0 e –k1 t (log e)

Relation between k and k1

k1 = 2.3 k
 Oxygen demand is equivalent to organics oxidized

BOD t = L 0 –L t

= L 0 – L 0 10 – k t
BOD t = L 0 ( 1 -10 – k t) (log 10)
or BOD t = L 0 (1 - e – k1t) (log e)

When t -----►  L t= 0
Therefore,
BOD t —► BOD u = L 0
The value of k determines the speed of BOD reaction.
k is obtained by using Thomas Method

1/3
t
BOD t

A B = slope

k = 2.61 B/A (log 10)

time, t (days)
 k is affected by temperature and can be
approximated by Van't Hoff- Arrhenius model
( T-20o C)
k T = k 20 oC x 

where
k T = reaction constant at temperature T, per day
k20 oC = reaction constant at 20 oC
 = temperature coefficient 1.047
L0 is also affected by temperature

L0 T = L0 20o C (1 + 0.02 (T-20 oC))

L 0T = ultimate oxygen demand at temperature T

L 0 20o C = ultimate oxygen demand at 20 oC
 Typical values of k1 and BODu for various waters

Water type
k1 (base e) /day BOD u (mg/L)

Tap water <0.1 0-1

Surface waters 0.1 - 0.23 1-30

Weak municipal wastewater 0.35 150

Strong municipal wastewater 0.40 250

Treated effluent 0.12 - 0.23 10-30

 Time, days
Figure 3-16 Hypothetical biochemical oxygen demand reaction showing the
carbonaceous and nitrification demand curves.
WATER QUALITY PARAMETER
SOLIDS
Total Solids
Material left in a dish after evaporation of a sample of
water or wastewater and subsequent drying in an oven at
103-105 °C
Fixed solids
Solids remain in the drying dish after burning dry solids
at 550 ± 50°C
Volatile solids
Solids which are lost during burning at 550oC 50 oC.
Water vapor Dry solids Volatile solids

Drying at 103o C Igniting at 550o C Fixed solids

 WATER QUALITY
Suspended solids
Non filterable residue that is retained on a filter
paper/glass fiber disk after filtration of sample.
vss
Igniting at 550 C
Drying at 103 C

Suspended solids FSS

Dissolved solids
Solids that pass through filter paper/glass fiber disk.
TDS = Total solids(TS) - total suspended solids (TSS)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

The amount of oxygen required for chemical oxidation

of organic matter to carbon dioxide and water using
oxidizing agent such as potassium permanganate or
potassium dichromate.

Organics + Cr2O 72- + H +

heat CO2 + H2O + 2 Cr 3 +
Ag +
Result is obtained quickly (within 3 hrs)

No information on the proportion of the waste that

can be oxidized by bacteria or the rate of bio-
oxidation.
COD > BOD
COD test kit
Water quality criteria
Safe concentration limit of pollutants for a particular
beneficial use of water. Criteria is derived from
scientific information based on effects on man,
animals, aquatic life etc.

Water quality standards

Derived from consideration of water quality criteria,
technological feasibilities and economic
consideration. Set by a governmental agency and
represent a statutory requirement.
 DESIRABLE LEVEL OF RAW WATER QUALITY CRITERIA

PARAMETERS ACCEPTABLE VALUE (mg/1)

Coliform organism less than 5000

Turbidity (NTU) 1000

Colour (HAZEN) 300
pH 5.5 - 9.0
Total dissolved solid 1500
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 6.0
Ammonia NH 4 0.5
Anionic Detergent MBAS 1.0
Arsenic (As) 0.05
Cadmium (Cd) 0.01
Chloride 100
Chromium (Cr) 0.05
Copper (Cu) 1.5
Cyanide (Cn) 0.05
Fluoride 1.5
Hardness as CaC03 500
Iron 1.0
Lead (Pb) 0.1
Manganese (Mn) 0.2
Magnesium & Sodium Sulphate 1000
Mercury (Hg) 0.001
Nitrate N0 3 25
Phenol 0.002
Selenium (Se) 0.01
Silver (Ag) 0.05
Sulphate 400
Total Nitrogen N (NO 3) 1.0
Zinc (Zn) 1.5
 Table 3 Drinking Water Quality Standard and Frequency of Monitoring
Parameters Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
Standard Frequency To Be Monitored
Treatment Service Well/ Spring Source of
Plant Distribution Reference
Outlet Reservoir Outlet
System
Microbiological:
Total coliform MPN Method: W M 2Y WH02
Should not exceed 10 MPN/100
ml. 10 Should not be detectable
in 2 consecutive samples
throughout a year. 95% of
samples should not detect
coliform in 100 ml.
Membrane filter method:
Arithmetic mean of all monthly
samples is 3 colonies/'100 ml
Not more than 4 colonies/100 ml
in 2 consecutive samples.
Faecal coliform Absent in 100 ml sample W W 2Y
M
Faecal streptococci Absent WN WN WN British
WN
Clostridium Absent WN WN WN
Perfringes WN
Viruses Absent WN WN WN WH02
WN
Protozoa Absent WN WN WN NZ
Helminths Absent WN WN WN NZ
WN
WN
Table 3 Drinking Water Quality Standard and Frequency of Monitoring

Parameters Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

Standard Frequency To Be Monitored

Treat Service Well/ Source of

ment Distribu Spring Reference
Plant Reservoir -
Out tion Outlet
let System

Physical-Group 1

Turbidity 5 NTU a W W M 2Y WH02

Colour 15 TCU b W W M 2Y WH02

6.5-9.0 w W
PH M 2Y MAL
Not less than 0.2mg/l w
Free Residual
Chlorine Not less than 0.1 mg/l W 2Y WH02
Combined Residual M
Chlorine w WM 2Y 1
 Drinking Water Quality Standard and Frequency of Monitoring
Parameters Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
Frequency To Be Monitored
Standard Treatment Service Distribution Well/ Source of
Plant Reservoir System Spring Reference
Outlet Outlet
Inorganic-Group II
Total dissolved solids 1000 mg/1 M M Y/2 2Y WH02
CCE 0.5 mg/l M M Y/2 2Y WHOl
Chloride 250 mg/l M M Y/2 2Y WH02
Anionic Detergent l..0 mg'l M M Y/2 2Y WHOl/AUS
MBAS
Ammonia (as N) 0.5 mg/l M VI Y/2 2Y WHOl
Nitrate 10 mg/l M VI Y/2 2Y WH02
Iron 0.3 mg/l M VI Y/2 2Y WH02
Flouride 0.5-.09 mg/l M VI Y/2 2Y MAL
Hardness 500 mg/l M M Y/2 2Y WH02
Aluminium 0.2 mg/l M VI Y/2 2Y WH02
Manganese 0.1 mg/l M M Y/2 2Y WH02
Group 111
M.ercury 0.001 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Cadmium 0.005 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Selenium 0.01 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Arsenic 0.05 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Cyanide- 0.1 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Lead 0.05 mg I Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Chromium 0.05 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH.02
Silver 0.05 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y Canadian
Copper 1.0 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Magnesium 150 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WHOl
Zinc 5 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Sodium 200 mg/1 Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Sulphate 400 mgd Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Mineral Oil 0.3 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH03
Phenol 0.002 mg/t Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
Chloroform 0.03 mg/l Y/4 Y/2 Y 2Y WH02
 Drinking Water Quality Standard and Frequency of Monitoring

Parameters Column 1 Column 2 Column 3

Frequency To Be Monitored
Standard Treatment Service Distribution Well/ Source of
Plant Outlet Reservoir System Spring Reference
Outlet
Group IV
Biocides : Total 0.1 mg/1 Y/4 WN WN WN Canadian
Organochlorine pesticides:

Aidrin/dieldrin 0.00003 mg/1 Y/4 WN WN WN WH02

Chiordane 0.0003 mg/1 Y/4 WN WN WN WH02
DDT 0.001 mg/1 Y/4 WN WN WN WH02
Heptachlor & 0.0001 mg/1 Y/4 WN WN WN WH02
heptachior epoxide

Hexachloro- 0.00001 mg/1 Y/4 WN WN WN WH02

benzene

Lindane 0.003 mg/1 Y/4 WN WN WN WH02

Methoxychlor 0.03 mg/1 Y/4 WN WN WN WH02
Herbicides: 0.1 mg/1 Y/4 WN WN WN WH02
2.4-D

Group V - Radioactivity

Grosss-Alpha 0.1Bq/l Y WN WN WN WH02

Gross Beta l..0 Bq/l Y WN WN WN WH02
 W = Indicates parameters to be monitored at least once a week
M = Indicates parameters to be monitored at least once a month
Y/2 = Indicates parameters to be monitored at least once in 6 month
Y = Indicates parameters to be monitored at least once a year
2Y = Indicates parameters to be monitored at least once in 2 years
WN = Indicates parameters to be monitored when necessary
WHOl = Indicates WHO international Standards for Drinking Water 1963
WH02 = indicates WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality 1984
WH03 = indicates WHO international Standards for Drinking Water 1971
1 = indicates research papers
AUS = Indicates Australian Standards
a = Nephelometric turbidity unit
b = Time color unit

Note: Any toxic substances not listed here shall be

deemed as not allowable in drinking water

Source: Engineering Services Division/MO 1998