Wastewater

Sources
• Domestic or sanitary
wastewater - liquid
discharge from residences,
commercial area and
institution.

• Industry – industrial
effluent / wastewater

• Infiltration – groundwater
entering sewers through
illegal connections. faulty
joints, cracked or broken
sewer pipes and manholes.

• Storm water – rain

 Wastewater Collection

Sewage
Liquid wastes containing animal or
vegetable matter in suspension or
in solution and may also include
liquid containing chemicals.
Sewer
A pipe or conduit which carries
sewage.
Sewerage system
A system incorporating sewers and
all other structures, devices,
equipment intended for the
collection, transportation,
pumping, treatment and disposal
of sewage including a treatment
plant.
Types of sewer

Separate sewer
A sewer which
carries either storm
water alone or
sanitary sewage
alone.
- Sanitary sewer:
carries sanitary
wastewater
- Storm water
sewer: carries only
storm water

Combined sewer
Sanitary sewage
and storm water are
carried by a single
pipe.
Design of sewerage system in Malaysia
• Guidelines for developers: Volume I – V
(Sewerage Services Department, Ministry of
Housing & Local Government
• Code of Practice for Design and Installation
of Sewerage Systems (MS: 1228:1991)

Sewer
1. Flow rate (Q)
Domestic
Assumption: 80 – 90% of water usage or
225 liter/person/day (average flow for
design purpose).
Light Industry
- 20 m3 per hectare per day
Infiltration
- 50 liter per mm.diameter per km of
sewer per day
Surface runoff / storm water
- Use Rational method: Q = c i A
2. Flow: gravity

3. Velocity and pipe size : determined

using Colebrook – White, Manning or
Hazen-Williams equation.
Minimum size/diameter: 200 / 225 mm

4. Material: Asbestos-cement, reinforced

concrete, PVC, vitrified clay, cast iron..

5. Velocity: min: 0.8 m/s

max: 4.0 m/s
Manholes
Openings of either circular or rectangular in
shape constructed on the alignment of a
sewer line to enable person to enter the
sewer for inspection and cleaning.

Manholes location
- Every change in direction, gradient or size
of sewer.
- All intersections and junctions.
- At a distance of < 100 m (for sewer equal
to greater than 200 mm in dia.) and 150 m
(for sewer equal to greater than 450 mm in
dia.)
 Figure A.3 : Standard Shallow Precast Concrete Manhole ( Ground
level to top of benching < 2.5 metres)

Standard Manhole C.I Or

D.I Frame And Cover To
DGSS specification Fill With 1 : 3 Cement Mortar Mix
including Figures A.1 / A.2

PrePrecast concrete
Cover Slab

CCast Insitu Concrete

Surround 150 min
Thickness)
Concrete
Benching

Concrete Base

1. All precast manhole component joints shall be filled with 1:3 cement mortar
mix.

2. All dimensions are in millimetres

 Wastewater analysis

Typical parameter
SS, BOD, COD, ammonia nitrogen

Strength of sewage

ü Concentration of pollutants
(mg/L pollutants
e.g. 400 mg/L BOD, 250 mg/L SS
etc.)

ü BOD loading (Organic loading)

= Flow rate x BOD concentration

= kg BOD per day
 Q = 5 x 106 L/day
BOD = 300 mg/L
50000
people

river
e.g.

BOD = 300 mg/L

Wastewater flow rate = 5 x 106 liter/day
BOD loading = (300 mg/ L) x (5 x 10 6 L/d)
= 1500 kg/day
BOD loading per capita
(BOD contributed by one person)

= BOD loading/ Population

= gram BOD per person per day

e.g.

BOD loading = 1500 kg/day from 50000

people.

BOD loading per capita = 1500 kg/day / 50000

= 30 g/day

(For design purposes: organic loading from

domestic sewage is based upon

1. BOD (5 days at 20 0 C): 55 g per person

per day
2. SS : 68 g per person per day.
Population equivalent
The strength of wastewater can be related to
the number of person that would be required
to contribute an equivalent quantity of
wastewater.
e.g.
From domestic sources (residential), the
strength of wastewater from one person is
equal to one. (P.E. = 1) or one house, P.E =
5.0.

P.E. from sources such as industries (which

is not residential), can be calculated by

P.E. = BOD loading (industry)

per capita BOD loading (domestic)
 Table B.1: Recommended Population Equivalents

I Type of Premise/Establishment Population Equivalent (Recommended)

Residential 5 per house

Commercial: 3 per 100m2 gross area

(includes offices, shopping complex,
entertainment/recreational centres, restaurants, cafeteria,
theatres)
Schools/Educational Institutions:
- Day schools/institutions 0.2 per student
- Fully residential 1 per student
- Partial residential 0.2 per non-residential student
1 per student residential

Hospitals 4 per bed

Hotels (with dining and laundry facilities) 4 per room

Factories (excluding process water) 0.3 per staff

Market (wet type) 3 per stall

Market (dry type) 1 per stall

Petrol Kiosks/Service Stations 15 per toilet

Bus terminal 4 per bus bay

Taxi terminal 4 per taxi bay

Mosque 0.2 per person

Church/Temple 0.2 per person

Stadium 0.2 per person

Swimming Pool/Sport Complex 0.5 per person

Public Toilet 15 per toilet

Airport 0.2 per passenger bay 0.3 per employee

Laundry 10 per machine

Prison 1 per person

Golf Course 20 per hole

Sewer design
(Refer to Guidelines for Developers:
Volume III: Sewer Networks and pump
stations)
Design procedure

1. Determine Q peak.
2. Select pipe size:
e.g pipe diameter = 225 mm (minimum
allowable size)
3. Calculate A (pipe area)
4. Assume S , ks and n. Calculate v.(The
velocity of the pipe when flowing full,
v full)
5. From v = Q/A, calculate Q full (design
flow that the pipe can carry)
6. Compare Q full (Q design) with Q peak
(actual flow in sewer) or v full (v design)
with v peak (actual velocity in sewer)
7. If Q full (design) > Q (peak), then the
diameter is satisfactory.
1. Determination of flow rate
Flow is based on peak flow, Qp

Qp = Average flow x Peak flow factor

Q average = P.E. x 225 liter/person/day

Peak flow factor = 4.7 (PE/1000) – 0.11

where
PE = population equivalent
e.g.
Calculate the peak flow generated from 2
houses. Assumption: 5 people/house.

PE = 5 people/house x 2 houses
= 10 people

Peak flow factor = 4.7 (PE /1000) – 0.11

= 7.8
Peak flow, Q p =Q average x peak flow
factor
= (225 x 10) x 7.8
= 17.55 x 10 3 L/day
= 2.03 x 10 –4 m3/s
10 houses 15 houses

MH3 MH4

MH1 MH2

MH 1b
20 houses

50 houses
MH 1a

Flow Computation
MH to MH Catchments Density Population Cumulative
unit unit On line PE

1a- 1b 50 5 250 250

1b-3 20 5 100 350

1-2 10 5 50 50
2-3 15 5 75 125
3-4 0 5 0 475
 MH3 MH4

MH1 MH2
MH 1b

MH 1a
Flow Computation
MH to Cumulative Cumulative average Peak Cumulative
MH PE flow, Q Ave Flow Peak Flow,
(m3/s) Factor Q peak
(m3/s)

1a- 1b 250 0.00065 5.47 0.00356

1b-3 350 0.00091 5.28 0.00481

1-2 50 0.00013 6.53 0.00085

2-3 125 0.00033 5.91 0.00192
3-4 475 0.00124 5.10 0.00631

Cumulative average flow = P.E x 225 L/person/day

Peak flow factor = 4.7 (PE /1000) – 0.11
Cumulative peak flow = Peak flow factor x Q average
Velocity of pipe is determined from
Colebrook-White equation.

Colebrook – White

v = -2 2gDS log ks + 2.51 n

3.7 D D 2gDS
where
S = hydraulic gradient (m/m)
D = Internal pipe diameter (m)
ks = roughness coefficient (m)
n = kinematic viscosity of water (m2/sec)

Table 2.1a Normal Pipe Roughness for

Gravity Sewer
Pipe Material Roughness, ks (mm)

New Old
Vitrified Clay 0.06 1.5
Concrete 0.15 3.0
Plastic 0.06 0.6
 Pipe Computation
MH to Dia. Length Gradient Full Full Peak Average
MH (mm) (m) pipe pipe flow flow
velocity flow, velocity Velocity
v full Q full v peak v average
(m/s) (m3/s) (m/s) (m/s)

1a- 1b 225 40 1:200 0.8101 0.03223 0.0896 0.0164

1b-3 225 30 1:200 0.8101 0.03223 0.1208 0.0229

1-2 225 40 1:200 0.8101 0.03223 0.02139 0.00327

2-3 225 50 1:200 0.8101 0.03223 0.04835 0.0082

3-4 225 40 1:200 0.8101 0.03223 0.15863 0.0311

v full = -2 2 g D S log ks + 2.51 n

3.7 D D 2gDS

(assumption: k s = 1.5 mm, n = 1.002 x 10 -6 m2/s)

Q full = v full x A (pipe)
v peak = Q peak / A
 40 m 50 m MH3 40 m MH4

MH1 MH2 30 m

MH 1b
40 m
MH 1a
Manhole & Level Computation
MH to Fall Ground level Invert Level Depth
MH (m) (m) of Pipe (m))
(m)

1a 3.12 1.62 1.50

1a- 1b 0.20 3.11 1.42 1.69

1b-3 0.15 3.09 1.27 1.82

1 3.00 1.50 1.50

1-2 0.20 3.00 1.30 1.70
2-3 0.25 3.09 1.04 2.05
3-4 0.20 3.10 0.84 2.26
 Manhole Plot Profile
MH 1a, MH 1b, MH3

40 m 30 m

MH1a MH1b MH3

(3.12 m ) (3.11 m) (3.09 m)
Ground
level

1.5 m
1.69 m
(min: 1.2 m)
1.82 m

Invert
level 1.62 m 1.62 – 0.2 m 1.42 – 0.15 m
= 1.42 m = 1.27 m
0

0.2 m fall
0.15 m fall
Figure A.6 : Standard External Drop Junction
 Wastewater treatment

Objective
ü Reduce the spread of communicable
diseases caused by pathogenic
organisms
ü Prevent pollution of surface and ground
water

Types of treatment

1. Primary treatment (Physical treatment)

- Screen
- Grit chamber Preliminary treatment
- Sedimentation

Reduces 30 – 40 % BOD, 60 –70 % SS

2. Secondary treatment
(Biological treatment)
Microorganisms use the organics in
wastewater as a food supply and convert
them into biological cells or biomass, gases
and water either by aerobic or anaerobic
processes.

3. Advanced (tertiary ) treatment

Further treatment is required to improve the
quality of effluent.
e.g. to remove additional SS, dissolved
organics, nitrogen compound etc. using
filtration, chemical oxidation, flocculation etc.
 Primary / Physical treatment
Raw
sewage

Screen Grit chamber

Sedimentation
Preliminary treatment
tank

Secondary /
Discharge Biological treatment
to river

Sedimentation 1. Oxidation pond

tank 2. Trickling filter
3. Rotating biological contactor
4. Aerated lagoon
5. Activated sludge system
Advanced / Tertiary treatment

Discharge to
river
 Septic tank

ü Small, watertight, rectangular chamber.

Constructed below ground level. Sewage is
detained for 1-2 days.
ü Suitable for treatment of the wastes of single
households, institutions and small communities.
Population equivalent < 150
ü Treatment process is a combination of
sedimentation and anerobic decomposition
ü The solids settle to the bottom where they are
digested anaerobically. The tank must be
desludged at regular intervals, usually once
every 2 – 5 years.
ü Effluent from septic tank requires further
treatment before disposal.
ü Disposal system depends on the nature of the
soil.
Treatment of effluent from septic tank

1. Subsurface irrigation system

Infiltration of wastewater into the soil through
drains embedded in a filtering media.
Design of a septic tank
Free board

"1 h tank
h
"2

"1 = Volume of wastewater during the detention

time, t
= Qt

"2 = volume of sludge (accumulated until

desludging)
= rate of sludge accumulation x population x
desludging frequency

"total = "1 + " 2 = A s x h

where
rate of sludge accumulation = 0.04 m3 per person
per year.
desludging frequency = once every 2 -5 year
detention time, t = 24 - 48 hour
depth of water, h = 1.2 to 1.8 m
length: width =2-3:1
free board = 0.3 m
h tank = depth of water + free board
 Biological treatment unit

1. Oxidation pond / Waste Stabilization

pond

Definition
Large shallow basin in which raw
sewage is treated by entirely natural
processes involving bacteria and
algae. Since rate of organic oxidation
is rather slow, long detention time is
required.
 Oxidation Pond layout

Anaerobic Maturation
Facultative
pond (Aerobic
pond
pond)

Anaerobic Facultative Maturation

pond pond pond
Depth (m) 2-4 1- 1.5 1 - 1.5

Detention time 2 -5 min: 5 3-7

(days)
BOD removal 60 % 85 - 90 %

Desludging (years) 3–5 10 – 15 Unnecessary

 A series of pond produces a better quality effluent
from a single pond of the same size.

Facultative Facultative
pond 1 pond 2 better
effluent

Facultative
pond
Facilities design

Parallel units: Divide flow into two or more

parallel streams.

Pond base: The bottom of pond should be

impermeable. Material such as polythene,
clay, bitumen and asphalt can be used.

Embankment: Embankment slope of 1 in 3.

Concrete slabs are placed at the top of water
level to prevent erosion.
Advantages
•Low cost and minimum maintenance.
•Removal of pathogen is high. e.g. effluent from
a series of three ponds usually contains < 5000
FC/100 ml.
•Can effectively treat a wide variety of domestic,
agricultural or industrial waste.

Disadvantages
•Require large areas
Design of facultative pond

ToC

Q
Li Le

Removal of BOD follows first order kinetics:

Le = Li
1 + k1 (T) t

t = "/Q

= AD/Q

A = Q (Li - Le)

D Le k1 (T)
where

Q = wastewater flow rate (m 3/day)

Li = influent BOD (mg/L)
Le = effluent BOD (mg/L)
k1 = rate constant for BOD removal (day-
1)

k1 (T) = k120 C x q T-20

k1 20C = 0.3 per day and q = 1.05
t = detention time
D = depth of pond

Surface loading,

l s = BOD loading / As

= 10 Li Q (kg/ha.day)
As

Maximum surface loading,

l s maximum = 20 T - 120 kg/ha.day

where T = temperature of pond

Check : l s < l s maximum

Design of maturation pond

Depth of maturation pond = depth of

facultative pond

Detention time : 3 - 7 days

" =Qt
=AD

A maturation = Q t / D
Removal of BOD in a single pond

Le = Li
( 1 + k 1(T) t1 )

Removal of BOD in a series of pond

Le = Li
(1 + k 1(T) t1 ) (1 + k 1(T) t2) (1 + k1(T)tn)

Li
Pond 1 Pond 2 Le
Removal of faecal bacteria in a single pond
Ne = Ni
1 + kb (T) t
where
Ni = number of FC/100 mL influent
Ne = number of FC/100 mL effluent
kb = rate constant for FC removal (1/day)
kb(T) = kb (20) x q T-20

kb (20) = 2.6 per day and q = 1.19

Removal of faecal bacteria in a series of pond

Ne = Ni
(1 + kb1 t1) (1 + kb2 t2)...(1 + kbn tn)
Check the suitability of design by
comparing the quality of BOD and FC
(faecal coliform) in the effluent with the
required effluent standards.

For example:

BOD e (or Le) < 25 mg/L

Faecal coliform (or Ne ) < 5000 FC/100
ml effluent

Li Le
Pond 1 Pond 2
Ni Ne
Trickling filter
Trickling filter consists of a bed of
coarse material / media such as
stones or plastic over which
wastewater is applied. The
wastewater is distributed over the
surface of the stones by rotating
arm.
 Filter media

Filter Size Surface Porosity Organic

media (mm) Area (%) loading
(m2/m3)
Stones 50 - 50 - 65 40 –50 low
100
Plastic 200 95 high
Microbial growth develop on the surface of the
filter media in the form of film.
The wastewater passes over the stationary
microbial population providing contact between
the micro organisms and the organics.
The filter media provides large amount of
surface area where the micro organisms cling
and grow in slime on the filter media as they
feed on the organic matter.
Loading on trickling filter

Hydraulic loading

= Q/A (m3/m2.day)

Organic loading per volume

= BOD x Q (kg/m3. day)

"
where

" = volume of filter media (m3)

 Recirculation
A portion of the effluent from trickling
filter is returned into the trickling filter.

The ratio of the returned flow to the

incoming flow is called the
recirculation ratio (r).

Purposes of recirculation:
l Dilutes strong effluent
l Raises DO content
l Increases hydraulic loading which
helps to slough of the biological film
(biomass)

Q QT = Q + Qr

r = Qr/Q Qr
 Type Hydraulic Organic Depth Recirculation % BOD
loading loading (m) R = Qr/Q removal
(m3/m2. /volume
day) (kg/m3.
day)
Slow 1–4 0.08 1.5 - 0 74 - 80
rate 0.15 3.0
Medium 4 - 10 0.15 - 1.25 - 0- 1 80 - 85
0.5 2.5

High 10 - 40 > 0.5 1-2 1-3 80 - 85

Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC)

l Part of their surface area is immersed in

wastewater in a concrete tank.
l Consists of a series of closely spaced
discs (2 – 4 m in diameter, made of lightweight
plastic) mounted on a horizontal shaft and
rotated at a speed of 1 to 2 rpm.
l The biomass film attached to the media
surface is alternately in contact with
wastewater for adsorption of organic material
and with atmosphere for oxygen supply.
 Aerated lagoon

Air is introduced into the lagoon by

mechanical means (e.g. surface aerators)
or air diffusers.
The continuous air supply permits
aerated lagoon to have a smaller surface
area and be deeper than an oxidation
pond.

Surface aerators

Air diffusers
Activated sludge system

Microorganisms are kept in suspension

for 4 to 8 hours in an aeration tank by
mechanical mixers or diffused air.

The microorganisms concentration is

maintained by the continuous return of
the settled biological floc from a
secondary sedimentation tank to the
aeration tank.

The flocculent suspension which is settled

and returned to reseed the aeration tank
is called activated sludge.
Activated sludge system
Porous disk air diffuser system
Good colonization of activated sludge
flocs is vital for efficient operation.
Here Vorticella sp. is feeding off
dispersed bacteria in the water phase
effectively reducing pathogens,
turbidity and BOD associated with
small particulate organic debris.
Research into the role of protozoa in
activated sludge is a priority.
Sludge treatment

Sludge contains many

objectionable material e.g. metals,
pathogens, toxic organic etc.

Raw sludge from primary

sedimentation tanks, together with
biological sludge from secondary
sedimentation tank must be
concentrated and stabilized before
disposal on land.

The selection of treatment methods

depends on the method of ultimate
disposal or use.
Methods of treatment
• Thickening
- Separation as much water as possible
by gravity or flotation.

Gravity thickener
Sludge flotation tank
 Stabilization
•Converting the organic solids to more
inert forms so that they can be handled
or used as soil conditioners without
causing nuisance or health hazard.
•Digestion is achieved aerobically or
anaerobically.

Anaerobic sludge digester

Anaerobic sludge digester

Aerobic sludge digester

 Dewatering
Separation of water by subjecting
sludge to vacuum, pressure or drying.
e.g. using pressure filter or drying bed.

Pressure filter
Belt filter
Sludge treatment unit
(Belt filter)
Sludge drying bed
Sludge cake
Sludge disposal

Land treatment
Stabilized sludge can be applied to
agricultural land, forest land and
disturbed land such as old mine
sites for land reclamation.
Stabilized sludge being applied to
agricultural land
 Incineration
Dried sludge can be burnt in an incinerator
Incinerators in Japan
 Centralized sewerage treatment
A treatment plant which serve a large
number of population and treatment
typically consists of:
- Primary treatment
- Secondary treatment
- Sludge treatment
 Discharge of effluent to river
QW

QR CW

CR

Cm
Qm

Mass balance equation

Qm Cm = Q R C R + Qw Cw

where
Q R = River flow rate
C R = Concentration of pollutant in river
Qw = Wastewater flow rate
Cw = Concentration of pollutant in
wastewater
Qm = Mixed flow (Q R + Qw)
Cm = Concentration of pollutant in river
after mixing