Etruscan civilization

Etruscan civilization (/trskn/) is the modern name

given to a civilization of ancient Italy in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio. The ancient Romans called its creators the
Tusci or Etrusci.[1] Their Roman name is the origin of
the terms Tuscany, which refers to their heartland, and
Etruria, which can refer to their wider region.
In Attic Greek, the Etruscans were known as (Tyrrhnoi), earlier Tyrsenoi, from which the Romans derived the names Tyrrhni (Etruscans), Tyrrhnia (Etruria), and Mare Tyrrhnum (Tyrrhenian Sea),[2]
prompting some to associate them with the Teresh (Sea
Peoples). The word may also be related to the Hittite Taruisa.[3] The Etruscans called themselves Rasenna,
which was syncopated to Rasna or Rana.[4]
As distinguished by its unique language, this civilization
endured from the time of the earliest Etruscan inscrip- Etruscan pendant with swastika symbols, Bolsena, Italy, 700-650
tions (c. 700 BC)[5] until its assimilation into the Roman BC. Louvre Museum
Republic in the late 4th century BC.[5] At its maximum
extent, during the foundational period of Rome and the
Roman kingdom, it ourished in three confederacies of
cities: of Etruria, of the Po valley with the eastern Alps,
and of Latium and Campania.[6]
Culture that is identiably Etruscan developed in Italy after about 800 BC approximately over the range of the
preceding Iron Age Villanovan culture. The latter gave
way in the 7th century to a culture that was inuenced
by Hellenic, Magna Graecian, and Phoenician contacts.
After 500 BC, the political destiny of Italy passed out of
Etruscan hands.[7] The latest mitochondrial DNA study
(2013) shows that Etruscans appear to fall very close to
a Neolithic population from Central Europe and to other
Tuscan populations.[8]

1
1.1

Legend and history

Etruscan riders, Silver panel 540-520BC, Castel San Marino,

near Perugia

Origin and history

,
), and although both Strabo and Herodotus
[1.94] are in agreement that the migration was led
by Tyrrhenus/Tyrsenos son of Atys, king of Lydia,
Strabo [5.2] (citing Anticlides) species that it was
the Pelasgians of Lemnos and Imbros that followed
Tyrrhenus/Tyrsenos to Italy. The Lemnian Pelasgian
link was further manifested by the discovery of the
Lemnos Stele, whose inscriptions were written in a
language which shows strong structural resemblances to

Main articles: Etruscan origins and Etruscan history

The origins of the Etruscans are mostly lost in
prehistory, although Greek historians as early as
the 5th century BCE, repeatedly associated the
Tyrrhenians (Tyrrhnoi/, Tyrsnoi/)
as Pelasgians. Thucydides [4.109], Herodotus [6.137]
and Strabo [5.2] (citing Anticlides) all denote Lemnos
to be settled by Pelasgians who Thucydides identies as "belonging to the Tyrsenoi" (
1

2
the language of the Tyrrhenians (Etruscans).[9] Dionysius
of Halicarnassus [1.17-19] records a Pelasgian migration
from Thessaly to the Italian Peninsula noting that "...the
Pelasgi made themselves masters of some of the lands
belonging to the Umbri" and Herodotus [1.94] describes
how the Tyrsenoi migrated from Lydia to the lands of
the Umbrians (). Strabo [6.2] as well as
the Homeric Hymn to Dionysus [7.7-8] make notable
mention of the Tyrrhenians as pirates.[10] Pliny the Elder
put the Etruscans in the context of the Raetic people to
the north and wrote in his Natural History (79 CE):[11]

LEGEND AND HISTORY

bled cattle of the Near East. The other Italian breeds were
linked to northern Europe.[14]

The latter hypothesis gives credence to the main hypotheses, which state that the Etruscans are indigenous, probably stemming from the Villanovan culture or from the
Near East.[15] Etruscan expansion was focused both to the
north beyond the Apennines and into Campania. Some
small towns in the 6th century BC disappeared during
this time, ostensibly consumed by greater, more powerful
neighbours. However, it is certain that the political structure of the Etruscan culture was similar to, albeit more
aristocratic than, Magna Graecia in the south. The minAdjoining these the (Alpine) Noricans are the
ing and commerce of metal, especially copper and iron,
Raeti and Vindelici. All
led to an enrichment of the Etruscans and to the expansion of their inuence in the Italian peninsula and the
are divided into a number of states. The Raeti
western Mediterranean sea. Here their interests collided
are believed to be people
with those of the Greeks, especially in the 6th century
of Tuscan race driven out by the Gauls, their
BC, when Phoceans of Italy founded colonies along the
leader was named Raetus.
coast of Sardinia, Spain and Corsica. This led the Etruscans to ally themselves with the Carthaginians, whose
Historians have no literature and no original texts of re- interests also collided with the Greeks.[16][17]
ligion or philosophy; therefore, much of what is known
about this civilization is derived from grave goods and Around 540 BC, the Battle of Alalia led to a new distomb ndings.[12] A mitochondrial DNA study of 2013 tribution of power in the western Mediterranean Sea.
has suggested that the Etruscans were probably an in- Though the battle had no clear winner, Carthage mandigenous population. The study extracted and typed aged to expand its sphere of inuence at the expense of
the hypervariable region of mitochondrial DNA of four- the Greeks, and Etruria saw itself relegated to the northteen individuals buried in two Etruscan necropoles, an- ern Tyrrhenian Sea with full ownership of Corsica. From
alyzing them along with other Etruscan and Medieval the rst half of the 5th century BC, the new international
samples, and 4,910 contemporary individuals from the political situation meant the beginning of the Etruscan
Mediterranean basin. Comparing ancient (30 Etruscans, decline after losing their southern provinces. In 480 BC,
27 Medieval individuals) and modern DNA sequences Etrurias ally Carthage was defeated by a coalition of
(370 Tuscans), has suggested that the Etruscans can be Magna Graecia cities led by Syracuse. A few years later,
considered ancestral. By further considering two Anato- in 474, Syracuses tyrant Hiero defeated the Etruscans at
lian samples (35 and 123 individuals) it could estimate the Battle of Cumae. Etrurias inuence over the cities of
that the genetic links between Tuscany and Anatolia date Latium and Campania weakened, and it was taken over
back to at least 5,000 years ago, strongly suggesting that by Romans and Samnites. In the 4th century, Etruria saw
the Etruscan culture developed locally, and not as an im- a Gallic invasion end its inuence over the Po valley and
mediate consequence of immigration from the Eastern the Adriatic coast. Meanwhile, Rome had started annexMediterranean shores. Among ancient populations, an- ing Etruscan cities. This led to the loss of the Northern
Etruria was conquered by Rome in
cient Etruscans are found to be closest to a Neolithic pop- Etruscan provinces. [16][17]
[8][13]
the
3rd
century
BC.
ulation from Central Europe.
An mtDNA study of 2007 conrmed that the Etruscans
were not related substantially to the Upper Paleolithic
hunter-gatherer populations of Europe and also that they
showed no similarities to populations in the Near East.
Another earlier DNA study performed in Italy, however,
partly gave credence to the theory of Herodotus, as the results showed that 11 minor mitochondrial DNA lineages
extracted from dierent Etruscan remains occur nowhere
else in Europe and are shared only with Near Eastern
Anatolian people.[14] Another source of genetic data on
Etruscan origins has been developed by Marco Pellecchia
and Paolo Ajmone-Marsan at the Catholic University of
the Sacred Heart in Piacenza. Tuscany has four ancient
breeds of cattle. Analyzing the mitochondrial DNA of
these and seven other breeds of Italian cattle, AjmoneMarsan found that the Tuscan breeds genetically resem-

1.1.1 Etruscan League

According to legend, there was a period between 600
BCE and 500 BCE in which an alliance was formed
between twelve Etruscan settlements, known today as
the Etruscan League, Etruscan Federation, or Dodecapoli (in Greek ). The Etruscan League
of twelve cities was founded by two Lydian noblemen:
Tarchon and his brother Tyrrhenus. Tarchon lent his
name to the city of Tarchna, or Tarquinnii, as it was
known by the Romans. Tyrrhenus gave his name to the
Tyrrhenians the alternative name for the Etruscans. Although there is no total consensus on which cities were in
the league, the following list may be close to the mark:
Arretium, Caisra, Clevsin, Curtun, Perusna, Pupluna,

1.2

Heritage, founding and Populus Romanus

Veii, Tarchna, Vetluna, Volterra, Velzna, and Velch.

Some modern authors include Rusellae. The league was
mostly an economic and religious league, or a loose confederation, similar to the Greek states. During the later
imperial times, when Etruria was just one of many regions controlled by Rome, the number of cities in the
league increased by three. This is noted on many later
grave stones from the 2nd century onwards. According to
Livy, the twelve city-states met once a year at the Fanum
Voltumnae at Volsinii, where a leader was chosen to represent the league.[18]
There were two other Etruscan leagues: that of
Campania, the main city of which was Capua, and the
Po Valley city-states in the North, which included Spina
and Adria.

1.2

Heritage, founding and Populus Romanus

Main article: Founding of Rome

Those who subscribe to an Italic foundation of Rome

Etruscan walled town, Civita di Bagnoregio.

3
Etruscan inuence on Roman culture that is, cultural
objects which were adopted by Rome from neighbouring
Etruria. The prevailing view is that Rome was founded by
Italics who later merged with Etruscans. In this interpretation, Etruscan cultural objects are considered inuences
rather than part of a heritage.[19] Rome was probably a
small settlement until the arrival of the Etruscans, who
constructed the rst elements of its urban infrastructure
such as the drainage system.[20][21]
The main criterion for deciding whether an object originated at Rome and traveled by inuence to the Etruscans,
or descended to the Romans from the Etruscans, is date.
Many, if not most, of the Etruscan cities were older than
Rome. If one nds that a given feature was there rst,
it cannot have originated at Rome. A second criterion is
the opinion of the ancient sources. These would indicate
that certain institutions and customs came directly from
the Etruscans. Rome is located on the edge of what was
Etruscan territory. When Etruscan settlements turned up
south of the border, it was presumed that the Etruscans
spread there after the foundation of Rome, but the settlements are now known to have preceded Rome.
Etruscan settlements were frequently built on hills the
steeper the better and surrounded by thick walls. According to Roman mythology, when Romulus and Remus
founded Rome, they did so on the Palatine Hill according
to Etruscan ritual; that is, they began with a pomerium or
sacred ditch. Then, they proceeded to the walls. Romulus
was required to kill Remus when the latter jumped over
the wall, breaking its magic spell (see also under Pons
Sublicius). The name of Rome is attested in Etruscan in
the form Ruma- meaning 'Roman', a form which mirrors other attested ethnonyms in that language with the
same sux -: Velzna- '(someone) from Volsinii' and
Sveama- '(someone) from Sovana'. This in itself, however, is not enough to prove Etruscan origin conclusively.
If Tiberius is from efarie, then Ruma would have been
placed on the Thefar (Tiber) river. A heavily discussed
topic among scholars is who was the founding population
of Rome. In 390 BC the city of Rome was attacked by
the Gauls, and as a result may have lost many though not
all of its earlier records. Certainly, the history of Rome
before that date is not as secure as it later becomes, but
enough material remains to give a good picture of the development of the city and its institutions.

Later history relates that some Etruscans lived in the

Tuscus vicus, the Etruscan quarter, and that there was
an Etruscan line of kings (albeit ones descended from a
Greek, Demaratus of Corinth) that succeeded kings of
Latin and Sabine origin. Etruscophile historians would
argue that this, together with evidence for institutions, religious elements and other cultural elements, proves that
Rome was founded by Italics. The true picture is rather
The Capitoline Wolf, long considered an Etruscan bronze, feed- more complicated, not least because the Etruscan cities
were separate entities which never came together to form
ing the twins Romulus and Remus.
a single Etruscan state. Furthermore, there were strong
followed by an Etruscan invasion, typically speak of an Latin and Italic elements to Roman culture, and later Ro-

2 SOCIETY

mans proudly celebrated these multiple, 'multicultural'

inuences on the city.
Under Romulus and Numa, the people were said to have
been divided into thirty curiae and three tribes. Few
words of Etruscan entered the Latin language, but the
names of at least two of the tribes Ramnes and Luceres
seem to be Etruscan. The last kings may have borne
the Etruscan title lucumo, while the regalia were traditionally considered of Etruscan origin: the golden crown,
the sceptre, the toga palmata (a special robe), the sella
curulis (curule chair), and above all the primary symbol
of state power: the fasces. The latter was a bundle of
whipping rods surrounding a double-bladed axe, carried
by the kings lictors. An example of the fasces are the remains of bronze rods and the axe from a tomb in Etruscan
Vetulonia. This allowed archaeologists to identify the depiction of a fasces on the grave stele of Avele Feluske,
who is shown as a warrior wielding the fasces. The most
telling Etruscan feature is the word populus, which appears as an Etruscan deity, Fuuns. Populus seems to
mean the people assembled in a military body, rather than
the general populace.

Society

Main article: Etruscan society

Etruscan mother and child, 500-450 BC.

2.1

Government

Main article: Etruscan governance

The historical Etruscans had achieved a state system of
society, with remnants of the chiefdom and tribal forms.
In this they were dierent from the surrounding Italics,
who had chiefs and tribes. Rome was in a sense the rst
Italic state, but it began as an Etruscan one. It is believed
that the Etruscan government style changed from total
monarchy to oligarchic republic (as the Roman Republic) in the 6th century BC although it is important to note
this did not happen to all the city-states.
The Etruscan state government was essentially a
theocracy. The government was viewed as being a
central authority, ruling over all tribal and clan organizations. It retained the power of life and death; in fact,
the gorgon, an ancient symbol of that power, appears as
a motif in Etruscan decoration. The adherents to this
state power were united by a common religion. Political
unity in Etruscan society was the city-state, which was
probably the referent of methlum, district. Etruscan
texts name quite a number of magistrates, without much
of a hint as to their function: the camthi, the parnich, the
purth, the tamera, the macstrev, and so on. The people
were the mech. The chief ruler of a methlum was perhaps
a zilach.

2.2 Family
Main article: Etruscan society: Rise of the family
The princely tombs were not of individuals. The in-

Etruscan couple (Louvre, Room 18)

scription evidence shows that families were interred there

over long periods, marking the growth of the aristocratic
family as a xed institution, parallel to the gens at Rome
and perhaps even its model. There is no sign of such a
hereditary aristocracy in the preceding Villanovan culture. The Etruscans could have used any model of the

5
eastern Mediterranean. That the growth of this class is
related to the new acquisition of wealth through trade is
unquestioned. The wealthiest cities were located near the
coast. At the centre of the society was the married couple, tusurthir. The Etruscans were a monogamous society
that emphasized pairing.
Similarly, the behaviour of some wealthy women is not
uniquely Etruscan. The apparent promiscuous revelry has
a spiritual explanation. Swaddling and Bonfante (among
others) explain that depictions of the nude embrace, or
symplegma, had the power to ward o evil, as did baring the breast, which was adopted by western civilization
as an apotropaic device, appearing nally on the gureheads of sailing ships as a nude female upper torso. It
is also possible that Greek and Roman attitudes to the
Etruscans were based on a misunderstanding of the place
of women within their society. In both Greece and Republican Rome, respectable women were conned to the
house and mixed-sex socialising did not occur. Thus, the
freedom of women within Etruscan society could have
been misunderstood as implying their sexual availability.
It is worth noting that a number of Etruscan tombs carry
funerary inscriptions in the form X son of (father) and
(mother)", indicating the importance of the mothers side
of the family.

2.3

Military

Main article: Etruscan military history

See also: Padanian Etruria
The Etruscans, like the contemporary cultures of Ancient
Greece and Ancient Rome, had a signicant military tradition. In addition to marking the rank and power of certain individuals in Etruscan culture, warfare was a considerable economic advantage to Etruscan civilization. Like
many ancient societies, the Etruscans conducted campaigns during summer months, raiding neighboring areas, attempting to gain territory and combating piracy as a
means of acquiring valuable resources, such as land, prestige, goods, and slaves. It is also likely that individuals
taken in battle would be ransomed back to their families
and clans at high cost. Prisoners could also potentially be
sacriced on tombs as an honor to fallen leaders of Etruscan society, not unlike the sacrices made by Achilles
for Patrocles.[22][23][24]

2.4

Etruscan warrior, found near Viterbo, Italy, dated c. 500 BC.

marking the farthest extent of Etruscan civilization. They

were gradually assimilated rst by Italics in the south,
then by Celts in the north and nally in Etruria itself by
the growing Roman Republic.[22]
That many Roman cities were formerly Etruscan was
well known to all the Roman authors. Some cities were
founded by Etruscans in prehistoric times, and bore entirely Etruscan names. Others were colonized by Etruscans who Etruscanized the name, usually Italic.[23]

Cities

Main article: Etruscan cities

The range of Etruscan civilization is marked by its cities.
They were entirely assimilated by Italic, Celtic, or Roman ethnic groups, but the names survive from inscriptions and their ruins are of aesthetic and historic interest in most of the cities of central Italy. Etruscan cities
ourished over most of Italy during the Roman Iron Age,

3 Culture

3.1

3 CULTURE

Religion

Main article: Etruscan mythology

3D view, facing west, of the Etruscan Hypogeum of the Volumnis, Perugia, Italy, cut from a laser scan.

3.2 Architecture

Chimera of Arezzo

The architecture of the ancient Etruscans adapted the external Greek architecture for their own purposes, which
were so dierent from Greek buildings as to create a new
architectural style. The two styles are often considered
one body of classical architecture. The Etruscans absorbed Greek inuence, apparent in many aspects closely
related to architecture. The Etruscans had much inuence over Roman architecture.[27]
Etruscan architecture made lasting contributions to the
architecture of Italy, which were adopted by the Romans
and through them became standard to Western civilization. Rome itself is a repository of Etruscan architectural
features.

Inscription of Tinia on the Chimeras leg

The Etruscan system of belief was an immanent
polytheism; that is, all visible phenomena were considered to be a manifestation of divine power and that power
was subdivided into deities that acted continually on the
world of man and could be dissuaded or persuaded in
favour of human aairs. How to understand the will of
deities and how to behave had been revealed to the Etruscans by two initiators, Tages, a childlike gure born
from tilled land and immediately gifted with prescience,
and Vegoia, a female gure. Their teachings were kept
in a series of sacred books. Three layers of deities are evident in the extensive Etruscan art motifs. One appears to
be divinities of an indigenous nature: Catha and Usil, the
sun; Tivr, the moon; Selvans, a civil god; Turan, the goddess of love; Laran, the god of war; Leinth, the goddess
of death; Maris; Thalna; Turms; and the ever-popular
Fuuns, whose name is related in some unknown way to
the city of Populonia and the populus Romanus. Perhaps
he was the god of the people.[25][26]

3.3 Art, music and literature

Main article: Etruscan art
Etruscan art was the form of gurative art produced by

5th century BCE fresco of dancers and musicians, tomb of the

leopards, Monterozzi necropolis, Tarquinia, Italy

the Etruscan civilization in northern Italy between the 9th

and 2nd centuries BC. Particularly strong in this tradition were gurative sculpture in terracotta (particularly
life-size on sarcophagi or temples) and cast bronze, wallpainting and metalworking (especially engraved bronze
mirrors). There was also a tradition of Etruscan vase
painting. Etruscan art was strongly connected to religion;
the afterlife was of major importance in Etruscan art.[28]

Ruling over this pantheon of lesser deities were higher

ones that seem to reect the Indo-European system:
Tin or Tinia, the sky, Uni his wife (Juno), and Cel,
the earth goddess. In addition, some Greek and Roman gods were taken into the Etruscan system: Aritimi
(Artemis), Menrva (Minerva), Pacha (Dionysus). The
Greek heroes taken from Homer also appear extensively
in art motifs.[25][26]
The Etruscan musical instruments seen in frescoes and

7
bas-reliefs are dierent types of pipes, such as the
plagiaulos (the pipes of Pan or Syrinx), the alabaster pipe
and the famous double pipes, accompanied on percussion instruments such as the tintinnabulum, tympanum
and crotales, and later by stringed instruments like the
lyre and kithara. With the exception of the Liber Linteus, the only written records of Etruscan origin that remain are inscriptions, mainly funerary. The language is
written in the Etruscan alphabet, a script related to the
early Euboean Greek alphabet.[29] Etruscan literature is
evidenced only in references by later Roman authors.

3.4

Language and etymology

Main article: Etruscan language

Knowledge of the Etruscan language is still far from

Pittau has proposed the meaning of 'Shaved' or 'Beardless, backing the opinion of ancient gurines collector
and author Paolo Campidori.[30] The etymology of Tusci
is based on a beneciary phrase in the third Iguvine tablet,
which is a major source for the Umbrian language.[31] The
phrase is turskum ... nomen, the Tuscan name, from
which a root *Tursci can be reconstructed.[32] A metathesis and a word-initial epenthesis produce E-trus-ci.[33] A
common hypothesis is that *Turs- along with Latin turris, tower, come from Greek , tower.[34] The
Tusci were therefore the people who build towers[34] or
the tower builders.[35] This venerable etymology is at
least as old as Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who said And
there is no reason that the Greeks should not have called
them by this name, both from their living in towers and
from the name of one of their rulers.[36]
Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante (Bonfante, 2002) speculate that Etruscan houses seemed like towers to the simple Latins. It is true that the Etruscans preferred to build
hill towns on high precipices enhanced by walls. On the
other hand, if the Tyrrhenian name came from an incursion of Sea Peoples or later migrants, then it might well
be related to the name of Troy, the city of towers in that
case.

4 References
[1] According to Flix Gaots Dictionnaire Illustr Latin
Franais, the term Tusci was used by the major authors
of the Roman Republic: Livy, Cicero, Horace, and others. Cognate words developed, including Tuscia and Tusculanensis. Tusci was clearly the principal term used to
designate things Etruscan; Etrusci and Etrria were used
less often, mainly by Cicero and Horace, and they lack
cognates. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the English use of Etruscan dates from 1706.
[2] Gaots.
[3] Sandars, N.K. (1987). The Sea Peoples: Warriors of
the ancient Mediterranean, Revised Edition. London:
Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27387-1.

Cippus Perusinus. 3rd-2nd century BCE, Sabn Marco near

Perugia

complete. The Etruscans are believed to have spoken a

non-Indo-European language; the majority consensus is
that Etruscan is related only to other members of what is
called the Tyrsenian language family, which in itself is an
isolate family, that is, unrelated directly to other known
language groups. Since Rix (1998), it is widely accepted
that the Tyrsenian family groups Raetic and Lemnian are
related to Etruscan.
No etymology exists for Rasna, the Etruscans name for
themselves, although Italian historic linguist Massimo

[4] Rasenna comes from Dionysius of Halicarnassus I.30.3.

The syncopated form, Rasna, is inscriptional and is inected. The topic is covered in Pallottino, p. 133. Some
inscriptions, such as the cippus of Cortona, feature the
Rana (pronounced Rashna) alternative, as is described
in Gabor Z. Bodroghys site, The Palaeolinguistic Connection, under Origins.
[5] Helmut Rix, Etruscan, in The Ancient Languages of
Europe, ed. Roger D. Woodard (Cambridge University
Press, 2008), pp. 141-164.
[6] A good map of the Italian range and cities of the culture
at the beginning of its history can be found at , the mysteriousetruscans.com site. The topic of the League of
Etruria is covered in Freeman, pp. 562565. The league
in northern Italy is mentioned in Livy, Book V, Section
33. The passage identies the Raetii as a remnant of the

12 cities beyond the Apennines". The Campanian Etruscans are mentioned (among many sources) by Polybius,
(II.17). The entire subject with complete ancient sources
in footnotes was worked up by George Dennis in his Introduction. In the LacusCurtius transcription, the references in Denniss footnotes link to the texts in English or
Latin; the reader may also nd the English of some of
them on WikiSource or other Internet sites. As the work
has already been done by Dennis and Thayer, the complete
work-up is not repeated here.
[7] M. Cary and H. H. Scullard, A History of Rome (3rd ed.,
1979), p. 28. ISBN 0-312-38395-9.
[8] Silvia Ghirotto, Francesca Tassi, Erica Fumagalli, Vincenza Colonna, Anna Sandionigi, Martina Lari, Stefania
Vai, Emmanuele Petiti, Giorgio Corti, Ermanno Rizzi,
Gianluca De Bellis, David Caramelli, Guido Barbujani (6
February 2013). Origins and Evolution of the Etruscans
mtDNA. PLOS One. Retrieved 2015-04-25.
[9] Robert D. Morritt, Stones that Speak (2010) p.272
[10] John Pairman Brown, Israel and Hellas, Vol.2 (2000)
p.211
[11] Etruscan Origins In A Prehistoric European Context Observations That Transcend Law and Politics. Retrieved
2013-05-30.
[12] Bonfante (2006): 9.
[13] Were the Etruscans after all native Italians?". For what
they were... we are - Prehistory, Anthropology and Genetics. 8 February 2013. Retrieved 2015-04-25.

EXTERNAL LINKS

[21] Hughes. Rome: A Cultural, Visual, and Personal History

(2012), p.24: Some Roman technical achievements began in Etruscan expertise. Though the Etruscans never
came up with an aqueduct, they were good at drainage,
and hence they were the ancestors of Romes monumental sewer systems.
[22] Mario Torelli. The Etruscans. Rizzoli International Publications.
[23] Trevor Dupey. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History. Rizzoli Harper Collins Publisher.
[24] Dora Jane Hamblin. The Etruscans. Time Life Books.
[25] De Grummond and Nancy Thomson (2006). Etruscan
Mythology, Sacred History and Legend: An Introduction.
University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology.
[26] Erika Simon. The religion of the Etruscans. Google Books.
ISBN 978-0-292-70687-3. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
[27] Axel Bothius, Roger Ling and Tom Rasmussen (1994).
Etruscan and early Roman architecture. Yale University
Press.
[28] Spivey, Nigel (1997). Etruscan Art. London: Thames and
Hudson.
[29] Etrusca. The Culture Traveler.com. Retrieved 2009-0422.
[30] Massimo Pittau, Rasenna

[14] Nicholas Wade (3 April 2007). Origins of the Etruscans:

Was Herodotus right?". The New York Times. Retrieved
2013-05-30.

[31] Paper entitled Cui Bono? The Beneciary Phrases of the

Third Iguvine Table by Michael Weiss and published online by Cornell University at .

[15] Achilli A, Olivieri A, Pala M et al. (April 2007).

Mitochondrial DNA variation of modern Tuscans supports the near eastern origin of Etruscans. Am. J. Hum.
Genet. 80 (4): 75968. doi:10.1086/512822. PMC
1852723. PMID 17357081.

[32] Carl Darling Buck (1904), A Grammar of Oscan and

Umbian, Boston: Gibb & Company, Introduction, available online at the forumromanum.org site.

[16] Larissa Bonfante. Etruscan life and afterlife. Google

Books. ISBN 978-0-8143-1813-3. Retrieved 2009-0422.
[17] John Franklin Hall. Etruscan Italy. Google Books. ISBN
978-0-8425-2334-9. Retrieved 2009-04-22.

[33] Eric Partridge (1983), Origins, New York: Greenwich

House, under tower.
[34] The Bonfantes (2003), p. 51.
[35] Partridge (1983)
[36] Book I, Section 30.

[18] The Etruscan League of 12. mysteriousetruscans.com. 2

April 2009. Retrieved 2015-04-25.
[19] Davis and Frankforter, Madison and Daniel (2004). The
Shakespeare Name Dictionary. Routleg. Retrieved
2011-09-14.
[20] Cunningham, Reich. Cultures and values: Survey of
the Humanities (2006), p.92: The later Romans own
grandiose picture of the early days of their city was intended to glamorize its origins, but only with the arrival
of the Etruscans did anything like an urban center begin
to develop.

5 External links
Etruscan weapons and warfare

5.1 Art
Etruscan Lion Plaque Pendant, article on a piece of
Etruscan art

5.2

5.2

Cities and sites

Cities and sites

(Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici

dell'Umbria) The Cai Cutu Etruscan tomb
An undisturbed late Etruscan family tomb, reused
between the 3rd and 1st century BC, reassembled
in the National Archeological Museum of Perugia
Etruscan Splendors from Volterra in Tuscany
Hypogeum of the Volumnis digital media archive
(creative commons-licensed photos, laser scans,
panoramas), data from a University of Ferrara/CyArk research partnership

10

6 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.1

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Etruscan civilization Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_civilization?oldid=669656445 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kpjas,

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Rogper~enwiki, Robbot, AlainV, ChrisO~enwiki, Ashdurbat, Puckly, Rholton, Spamhog, Levzur, Saforrest, Ruakh, SoLando, Wile E.
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GeneralPatton, Antandrus, Bumm13, Kuralyov, Arcturus, Jabecker423, Robin klein, Adashiel, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, YUL89YYZ,
Dbachmann, Mani1, TimBray, ESkog, Appleboy, MisterSheik, CanisRufus, Zscout370, El C, Bill Thayer, Circeus, Jolomo, JW1805,
Polylerus, HasharBot~enwiki, Jumbuck, Lyle~enwiki, Ryanmcdaniel, Walter Grlitz, Ricky81682, TZOTZIOY, Bart133, Dhartung, SidP,
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Rsrikanth05, Bullzeye, NawlinWiki, Muntuwandi, Curtis Clark, Wiki alf, Welsh, Rjensen, THB, Dputig07, Mlouns, Axismech, Blue
Danube, Botteville, Thegreyanomaly, Nlu, Igin, Codrinb, Petri Krohn, MaNeMeBasat, JoanneB, JLaTondre, Spliy, Selkem, Luk, Attilios, SmackBot, Haymaker, Sprocedato, Saimdusan, Od Mishehu, Kintetsubualo, Alsandro, Alex earlier account, Athinaios, Sebesta,
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JHunterJ, Principessa, Neddyseagoon, AdultSwim, Peyre, Hectorian, Alan.ca, Iridescent, Alessandro57, JoeBot, Shoeofdeath, Igoldste,
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Funnyfarmofdoom, Cydebot, Cahk, Arskoul, Jayen466, Julian Mendez, O cara~enwiki, Odie5533, Doug Weller, Jalen~enwiki, Gimmetrow, JamesAM, Gaijin42, Erminia~enwiki, Marek69, John254, Bobblehead, Ufwuct, Yettie0711, Oddeivind, Nick Number, Deipnosophista, HalfOfElement29, Monkey88, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Jj137, Kjdillon, Yalens, Sluzzelin, Fennessy, JAnDbot,
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Gpeterw, LinkFA-Bot, Giulit, Tide rolls, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Clodhna-2, AnakngAraw, Einstein dark energys, AnomieBOT,
Thuvan Dihn, Itapuah, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Quebec99, Xqbot, AudeBot, Isorhythmic, Armbrust, Omnipaedista,
Maria Sieglinda von Nudeldorf, Tigernose, Locobot, CassiasMunch, Mattis, A. di M., Haploidavey, Cunibertus, Levalley, Trust Is All You
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6.2

Images

File:Chimera_d'arezzo,_fi,_03.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Chimera_d%27arezzo%2C_fi%

2C_03.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko
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paint of Paolo Paschetto
File:Etruscan_civilization_map.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Etruscan_civilization_map.png
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Based on a map from The National Geographic Magazine Vol.173 No.6 June 1988. Original artist:
NormanEinstein
File:Etruscan_mother_and_child_500_to_450_BCE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Etruscan_
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6.3

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File:Etruscan_pendant_with_swastika_symbols_Bolsena_Italy_700_BCE_to_650_BCE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/

wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Etruscan_pendant_with_swastika_symbols_Bolsena_Italy_700_BCE_to_650_BCE.jpg License: CC BY-SA
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