and returns the results in hard copy formats.

As the
computers grew, it became inefficient for all users
to walk to the computer room, submit their job and
return to get the results. Consequently, computer
based terminals were built and were placed in user
work spaces within a building.
This approach
allowed users to submit their job from each office.
As organizations, grew and the need for the
computer grew it became necessary to share the
computer with other users in different buildings.
The solution was to utilize the widely used
telephone system to transport these traffic. Even
though the telephone system was designed for
voice traffic, various techniques were employed to
send data through the telephone system. This
became known as remote time sharing and is still a
prevalent form of data communications.

CHP: 1 INTRODUCTION
Data Communication:
Data communication is a vital part of the
information society because it provides the
infrastructure
allowing
the
computers
to
communicate with one another. An airline data
communication system uses data communications
to link reservation offices to the computer. The
space flight use data communications systems to
send data to and from the rockets and command
centers
on
Earth.
The
purpose
of
data
communication system is transport of user data
between and among user machines.
Evolution of Data Communication:
It came to existence shortly after the
computer were widely used in the organizations.
The 1970s and 1980s saw a merger of the fields of
computer science and data communications that
profoundly changed the technology, products, and
companies of the now-combined computercommunications
industry.
Although
the
consequences of this revolutionary merger are still
being worked out, it is safe to say that the
revolution has occurred, and any investigation of
the field of data communications must be made
within this new context. In order to obtain the
services of the computer user's simply walk to the
room where the computer is located and submitted
a request for the computer to perform a service.
This request was called a job. The computer
accepted the users job, performed its operations,

Analog and Digital Communication:

Analog data take on continuous values in
some intervals. For example voice and video are
continuously
varying
patterns
of
intensity.
Similarly, digital data can be text or character
strings. Character form cannot be easily stored or
transmitted by data processing and communication
system. Hence, such systems are designed for
binary data.
In a communication system, data are
propagated from one point to another by means of
electromagnetic signals.
An analog signal is a
continuously varying electromagnetic wave that
may be propagated over a variety of media.
A
digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses that
1

may be transmitted over a wired medium. For

example, a constant +ve voltage level may
represent binary zero and a constant negative
voltage level may represent binary 1. Analog
transmission is a means of transmitting analog
signals without regard to their content. The signals
may represent analog data (eg. voice) or digital
data( eg. binary data that pass through a modem).
The analog signal will become weaker after a
certain distance. Amplifiers are used to boost the
energy in the signal. However, due to amplifiers
the signal become more distorted in long distance
transmission.
Digital transmission is concerned with a
content of the signal. To achieve, signal at greater
distances, repeaters are used. A repeater receives
the digital signal, recovers the pattern of 1s and0s
and retransmits a new signal. Thus attenuation is
overcome.
Digital transmission is more preferred due to
following reasons:
1. Digital Technology:
2. Data Integrity
3. Capacity Utilization
4. Security and Privacy
5. Integration

The
fundamental
purpose
of
a
communications system is the exchange of data
between two parties. Figure presents one particular
example, which is the communication between a
workstation and a server over a public telephone
network. Another example is the exchange of voice
signals between two telephones over the same
network. The key elements of the model are:
Source: This device generates the data to be
transmitted; examples are telephones and personal
computers.
Transmitter:
Usually, the data generated by a
source system are not transmitted directly in the
form in which they were generated. Rather, a
transmitter transforms and encodes the information
in such a way as to produce electromagnetic signals
that can be transmitted across some sort of
transmission system. For example, a modem takes
a digital bit stream from an attached device such as
a personal computer and transforms that bit stream
into an analog signal that can be handled by the
telephone network.
Transmission System:
This can be a single
transmission line or a complex network connecting
source and destination.

Communication Model:
SOURCE>>TRANSMITTER>>TRANSMISSION
SYSTEM>>RECIEVER>>DESTINATION

Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the

transmission system and converts it into a form
that can be handled by the destination device. For
example, a modem will accept an analog signal
2

coming from a network or transmission line and

convert it into a digital bit stream.
Destination:
receiver.

Digital data transmission can occur in two basic

modes: serial or parallel. Data within a computer
system
is
transmitted
via
parallel
mode
on buses with the width of the parallel bus
matched to the word size of the computer system.
Data between computer systems is usually
transmitted in bit serial mode. Consequently, it is
necessary to make a parallel-to-serial conversion at
a computer interface when sending data from a
computer system into a network and a serial-toparallel conversion at a computer interface when
receiving information from a network. The type of
transmission mode used may also depend upon
distance and required data rate.

Takes the incoming data from the

Advantages
and
Communication:

Disadvantages

of

Digital

Advantages:
- It increases immunity to channel noise and
external interference.
- Privacy is preserved by using data encryption.
- Data from voice, video and data sources may be
merged and transmitted over a common digital
transmission system.
- Flexible operation of the system.
- Easy to error detection and correction by the use
of coding.
- Long distance communication is possible due to
the use of separator where noise doesn't
accumulate.
- Relatively inexpensive digital circuit may be used.

Parallel Transmission: In parallel transmission,

multiple bits (usually 8 bits or a byte/character) are
sent simultaneously on different channels (wires,
frequency channels) within the same cable, or radio
path, and synchronized to a clock. Parallel devices
have a wider data bus than serial devices and can
therefore transfer data in words of one or more
bytes at a time. As a result, there is a speedup in
parallel
transmission
bit
rate
over
serial
transmission bit rate. However, this speedup is a
tradeoff versus cost since multiple wires cost more
than a single wire, and as a parallel cable gets
longer, the synchronization timing between multiple
channels becomes more sensitive to distance. The
timing for parallel transmission is provided by a
constant clocking signal sent over a separate wire
within the parallel cable; thus parallel transmission
is considered synchronous.

Disadvantages:
- Generally, more bandwidth is required than that of
analog communication system.
- Synchronization is required.
- High complexity due to use of analog to digital
and digital to analog.

CHP: 2 DATA TRANSMISSION

Serial and Parallel Transmission

Serial Transmission: In serial transmission, bits

are sent sequentially on the same channel (wire)
which reduces costs for wire but also slows the
speed of transmission. Also, for serial transmission,
some overhead time is needed since bits must be
assembled and sent as a unit and then
disassembled at the receiver. Serial transmission
can be either synchronous or asynchronous. In
synchronous transmission, groups of bits are
combined into frames and frames are sent
continuously with or without data to be transmitted.
In asynchronous transmission, groups of bits are
sent as independent units with start/stop flags and
no data link synchronization, to allow for arbitrary
size gaps between frames. However, start/stop bits
maintain physical bit level synchronization once
detected.

Synchronous
and
Communication:

is receiving and coordinate and retime its clock to

match the incoming signal.
Sending data encoded into your signal requires that
the sender and receiver are both using the same
encoding/decoding method, and know where to look
in the signal to find data. Asynchronous systems do
not send separate information to indicate the
encoding or clocking information. The receiver must
decide the clocking of the signal on it's own. This
means that the receiver must decide where to look
in the signal stream to find ones and zeroes, and
decide for itself where each individual bit stops and
starts. This information is not in the data in
the signal sent from transmitting unit.
When the receiver of a signal carrying
information has to derive how that signal is
organized without consulting the transmitting
device, it is called asynchronous communication. In
short, the two ends do not always negotiate or work
out
the
connection
parameters
before
communicating. Asynchronous communication is
more efficient when there is low loss and low error
rates over the transmission medium because data
is not retransmitted and no time is spent setting
negotiating the connection parameters at the
beginning of transmission. Asynchronous systems
just transmit and let the far end station figure it out.
Asynchronous is sometimes called "best effort"
transmission because one side simply transmits,
and the other does it's best to receive.

Asynchronous

Asynchronous
communication
utilizes
a
transmitter, a receiver and a wire without
coordination about the timing of individual bits.
There is no coordination between the two end
points on just how long the transmitter leaves
the signal at a certain level to represent a
single digital bit. Each device uses a clock to
measure out the 'length' of a bit. The transmitting
device simply transmits. The receiving device has
to look at the incoming signal and figure out what it
4

EXAMPLES:
Asynchronous communication is used on RS232 based serial devices such as on an IBMcompatible computer's COM
1,
2,
3,
4
ports. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) also uses
this means of communication. Your PS2 ports on
your computer also use serial communication. This
is the method is also used to communicate with an
external modem. Asynchronous communication is
also
used
for
things
like
your computer's
keyboard and mouse.

process takes longer on low error-rate lines, but is

highly efficient in systems where the transmission
medium itself (an electric wire, radio signal or laser
beam) is not particularly reliable.

Transmission Channel:
- In telecommunications and computer networking,
a communication channel, or channel, refers either
to a physical transmission medium such as a wire,
or to a logical connection over a multiplexed
medium such as a radio channel.
- A channel is used to convey an information signal,
for example a digital bit stream, from one or several
senders (or transmitters) to one or several
receivers. A channel has a certain capacity for
transmitting information, often measured by its
bandwidth in Hz or its data rate in bits per second
- In information theory, a channel refers to a
theoretical channel model with certain error
characteristics.
- In this more general view, a storage device is also
a kind of channel, which can be sent to (written)
and received from (read).

Think of asynchronous as a faster means of

connecting, but less reliable.
SYNCHRONOUS
Synchronous
systems
negotiate
the
communication parameters at the data link layer
before communication begins. Basic synchronous
systems will synchronize both clocks before
transmission begins, and reset their numeric
counters for errors etc. More advanced systems
may negotiate things like error correction and
compression. It is possible to have both sides try to
synchronize the connection at the same time.
Usually, there is a process to decide which end
should be in control. Both sides can go through a
lengthy negotiation cycle where they exchange
communications
parameters
and
status
information. Once a connection is established, the
transmitter sends out asignal, and the receiver
sends back data regarding that transmission, and
what it received. This connection negotiation

RS 232C:
- RS-232C is a long-established standard ("C" is the
current version) that describes the physical
interface and protocol for relatively low-speed serial
data communication between computers and
related devices.
5

- It was defined by an industry trade group, the

Electronic Industries Association (EIA), originally for
teletypewriter devices.

- An interface standard may include operational

characteristics
and
acceptable
levels
of
performance.
- In the military community, interface standards
permit command and control functions to be
performed using communication and computer
systems.

- RS-232C is the interface that your computer uses

to talk to and exchange data with your modem and
other serial devices.
- Somewhere in your PC, typically on a Universal
Asynchronous - Receiver/Transmitter (UART) chip on
your motherboard, the data from your computer is
transmitted to an internal or external modem (or
other serial device) from its Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE) interface.
- Since data in your computer flows along parallel
circuits and serial devices can handle only one bit
at a time, the UART chip converts the groups of bits
in parallel to a serial stream of bits.
- As your PC's DTE agent, it also communicates with
the modem or other serial device, which, in
accordance with the RS-232C standard, has a
complementary
interface
called
the
Data
Communications Equipment (DCE) interface.

CHP: 3 SIGNALS AND SYSTEM

Signal:

Interface Standards:

- function of independent variables which carry

certain information.
- may be function of time, temperature, pressure,
distance
- can be voltage or current in electrical sense.

- In telecommunications, an interface standard is a

standard that describes one or more functional
characteristics (such as code conversion, line
assignments, or protocol compliance) or physical
characteristics (such as electrical, mechanical, or
optical characteristics) necessary to allow the
exchange of information between two or more
(usually different) systems or pieces of equipment.

Types of Signals:
1. Continuous and Discrete
2. Deterministic and non-Deterministic
6

3. Periodic and aperiodic

4. Even and Odd signal
5. Energy and Power signal

2. Linear and Non-linear:

- linear if it satisfies principle of superposition
- sum of weighted i/p is same as the sum of
weighted o/p

Energy and Power Signals:

3. Time variant and invariant system:

- Time invariant if the i/p o/p relationship doesnt
vary with time
- Shift Invariance

- Energy signal has finite energy and zero average

power.
0 < E < inf and P = 0
- almost all practical non- periodic signal
- time limited
- rectangular pulse
- E = intg frm - inf to inf | x(t) |2 dt for continuous
- E = sum frm n = -inf to inf | x(n) |2 dn for discrete

4. Static and Dynamic:

- static or memory less if the o/p at any time
depends only on the value of i/p at same time.
- static if its impulse response h(n) is 0 for n != 0
x(n) = del(n) and y(n) = h(n)

- Power signal has finite average power and infinite

energy
- 0 < P < inf and E = inf
- almost all practical periodic signal
- can exist over infinte time
- eg. Periodic signal: Pulse Train

5. Stable and unstable:

- stable if it produces bounded o/p from every
bounded i/p

System:

Stability of LTI system:

- is a combination of elements, components which

perform some task.
- is a set of element which produces o/p in response
to i/p
- Mathematically, y(n) = f[ x(n) ]

- Consider an input x(n) i.e. is bounded in magnitude |

x(n)| < m for allvaluse of n.
- The o/p of the discrete time LTI system is found by
convolution sum and is given by,
- magnitude of y(n) is given by
- substituting the values of |x(n-k)| <m for all values of
k and n,
- From above equation, we can conclude that if the
impulse response h(n) is absolutely summable, then the
o/p of the discrete time LTI system is bounded in

Discrete System Classification:

1. Causal and Non-Causal:
- o/p depends on the present and past value
7

Elementary signals:

magnitude and therefore the system is called Bounded

Input Bounded Output (BIBO) stable.
- A sufficient and necessary condition of stability of a
discrete LTI system is expressed as
S = sum k = - to |h(k)| <

1. Exponential signal:
- x(t) = Aebt
- Growing exponential and Decaying exponential
2. Sinusoidal signal:

Channel Capacity Theorem:

3. Unit step function:

- u(t) = 1 for t >= 0
0 for otherwise

- This gives the relationship between the channel

bandwidth and signal to noise ratio and the limitation
that they impose on communication.
- Let B be the channel bandwidth and SNR be the
recived signal to Noise Ratio.
- Then, the channel capacity theorem states that,
B = log2(1+SNR) bit/sec
C is defined as the maximum rate at which information
may be transmitted without error through the channel.

4. Unit Impulse Function:

- del(t) = 1 for t = 0
0 otherwise
5. Unit Ramp function:
- r(t) = 0 for t < 0
t for t > 0
6. Sinc Function:
- Sinc(t) = 1 for t = 0
sint/t for t != 0

Nyquist Sampling Theorem:

- Nyquist Sampling theorem states that if x(t) is band
limited with no components at frequencies greater than
fm Hz then it is completely specified by samples, taken
at the uniform rate fx>2fm Hz
- The minimum sampling rate or minimum sampling
frequency, fs=2fm for complete specification of the
continuous time signal is referred as Nyquist Rate or
Nyquist Frequency.
- Sampling of a continuous analog signal is the first step
of transmission of analog signal over digital
communication system.
- The sampling theorem states that analog signal can be
reproduced from an appropriate set of its sample taken
at some fixed point interval of time.

CHP:
5
OVERVIEW
OF
DATA
COMMUNICATION NETWORKING
Types of Network:
1. LOCAL AREA NETWORK
- A local area network (LAN) supplies networking
capability to a group of computers in close
proximity to each other such as in an office
building, a school, or a home.
8

- A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files,

printers, games or other applications.
- A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to
the Internet or other WAN.
Most local area networks are built with relatively
inexpensive hardware such as Ethernet cables,
network adapters, and hubs. Wireless LAN and
other more advanced LAN hardware options also
exist.
- Specialized operating system software may be
used to configure a local area network.
- For example, most flavors of Microsoft Windows
provide a software package called Internet
Connection Sharing (ICS) that supports controlled
access to LAN resources.

- A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is one of a

number of types of networks.
- A MAN is a relatively new class of network, it
serves a role similar to an ISP, but for corporate
users with large LANs. There are three important
features which discriminate MANs from LANs or
WANS:
A. The network size falls intermediate between
LANs and WANs. A MAN typically covers an area of
between 5 and 50 km diameter. Many MANs cover
an area the size of a city.
B. A MAN (like a WAN) is not generally owned by a
single organization. The MAN, its communications
links and equipment are generally owned by either
a consortium of users or by a single network
provider who sells the service to the users. This
level of service provided to each user must
therefore be negotiated with the MAN operator, and
some performance guarantees are normally
specified.
C. A MAN often acts as a high speed network to
allow sharing of regional resources (similar to a
large LAN). It is also frequently used to provide a
shared connection to other networks using a link to
a WAN.

2. WIDE AREA NETWORK

- A WAN spans a large geographic area, such as a
state, province or country. WANs often connect
multiple smaller networks, such as local area
networks (LANs) or metro area networks (MANs).
- The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.
Some segments of the Internet, like VPN-based
extranets, are also WANs in themselves.
- Finally, many WANs are corporate or research
networks that utilize leased lines.
- WANs generally utilize different and much more
expensive networking equipment than do LANs. Key
technologies often found in WANs include SONET,
Frame Relay, and ATM.

Network Topologies:
1. Bus Topology:

3. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

9

- In this type of network topology, all the nodes of a

network are connected to a common transmission
medium having two endpoints.
- All the data that travels over the network is
transmitted through a common transmission
medium known as the bus or the backbone of the
network.
- When the transmission medium has exactly two
endpoints, the network topology is known by the
name, linear bus topology'. - In case the
transmission medium, also called as the network
backbone, has more than two endpoints, the
network is said to have a distributed bus topology.
- Bus topology is easy to handle and implement and
is best suited for small networks.
- But the downside of this topology is that the
limited cable length limits the number of stations,
thus limiting the performance to a less number of
nodes.

- The data flow along two directions in the two rings

formed thereby.
- The ring topology does not require a central server
to manage connectivity between the nodes and
facilitates an orderly network operation.
- But, the failure of a single station in the network
can render the entire network inoperable.
- Changes and moves in the stations forming the
network affect the network operation.
3. Mesh Topology:
- In a full mesh network, each network node is
connected to every other node in the network.
- Due to this arrangement of nodes, it becomes
possible for a simultaneous transmission of signals
from one node to several other nodes.
- In a partially connected mesh network, only some
of the network nodes are connected to more than
one node.
- This is beneficial over a fully connected mesh in
terms of redundancy caused by the point-to-point
links between all the nodes.
- The nodes of a mesh network require possessing
some kind of routing logic so that the signals and
the data traveling over the network take the
shortest path during each of the transmissions.

2. Ring Topology:
- In a ring topology, every node in the network is
connected to two other nodes and the first and the
last nodes are connected to each other.
- The data that are transmitted over the network
pass through each of the nodes in the ring until
they reach the destination node.
- In a ring network, the data and the signals that
pass over the network travel in a single direction.
- The dual ring topology varies in having two
connections between each of the network nodes.

4. Star Topology:
- In this type of network topology, each node of the
network is connected to a central node, which is
known as a hub.
10

- The data that is transmitted between the network

nodes passes across the central hub.
- A distributed star is formed by the interconnection
of two or more individual star networks.
- The centralized nature of a star network provides
a certain amount of simplicity while also achieving
isolation of each device in the network.
- However, the disadvantage of a star topology is
that the network transmission is largely dependent
on the central hub. - The failure of the central hub
results in total network inoperability.

Protocol Architecture:
- is the layered structure of hardware and software
that supports the exchange of data between
systems and supports applications such a as
electronic mail and file transfer.
- The key features of protocol are":
> syntax: concerns the format of the data blocks
> semantics: Includes control information for
coordination and error handling
>Timing: Includes speed matching and sequencing

5. Tree Topology:

OSI :

- It is also known as a hierarchical topology and has

a central root node that is connected to one or
more nodes of a lower hierarchy.
- In a symmetrical hierarchy, each node in the
network has a specific fixed number of nodes
connected to those at a lower level.

- OSI stands for Open System Interconnection.

- The communications concern are partitioned into
hierarchical set of layers.
- Each layer performs a related subset of the
functions with another system.

>>> Apart from these basic types of network

topologies, there are hybrid network topologies,
which are composed of a combination of two or
more basic topologies.
- These network mappings aim at harnessing the
advantages of each of the basic topologies used in
them.
- Network topologies are the physical arrangements
of network nodes and wires. What is interesting is
that the inanimate nodes and wires turn 'live' for
the transmission of information!

1. Physical Layer:
- A physical layers covers the physical interface
between devices and the rules by which bits passed
from one to another.
- It relates to the physical properties of the interface
to a transmission medium.
- For example, connector that joins one or more
circuits.
- Electrical part of physical layer relates to the
representation of bits.
11

- Functional parts of physical layer specifies the

function performed by individual circuits between a
system and the transmission medium.
- Similarly, procedural part of physical layer species
the sequence of events by which bit streams are
exchanged across the physical medium.

- It provides the mechanism for controlling the

dialog between application in and systems.
6. Presentation Layer:
- It defines the format of the date to be exchanged
between applications.
- It defines the syntax used between application
and provides for the selection and subsequent
modification of the presentation used.

2. Data Link Layer:

- Data link layer attempts to make the physical link
reliable and provides the means to activate,
maintain, and deactivate the link.
- It provides for the reliable transfer of information
across physical link.
It
sends
blocks
with
the
necessary
synchronization, error control and flow control.

7. Application Layer:
- Application Layer provides a means for application
programs to access the OSI environment.
- It contains management functions and general
purpose applications such as file transfer, electronic
mail and terminal access to remote computers.

3. Network Layer:

Frame Relay:

- A computer system engage in the dialog with the

network to specify the destination address and to
request network facilities.

- More efficient transmission scheme than X.25

- call control signaling is carried on separate logical
connection from user data.
- Intermediate nodes need not to maintain state
tables or process messages relating to call control
- Multiplexing and switching of logical connections
takes place at layer 2 instead of layer 3, eliminating
one entire layer of processing.
- There is no hop-by hop flow control and error
control. End to end flow control and error control
are the responsibility of a higher layer, if they are
employed at all.

4. Transport Layer:
- It provides the mechanism for the exchange of
data between and system.
- The connection oriented transport service ensures
that data are delivered error free, in sequence with
no loss or duplication.
5.Session Layer:
12

- Frame relay used access speed up to 2Mbps Frame

relay service at even higher data rates are now
available

Physical Layer) in the seven-layer OSI reference

model.
- It provides multiplexing mechanisms that make it
possible for several network protocols (IP, IPX) to
coexist within a multipoint network and to be
transported over the same network media, and can
also provide flow control mechanisms.
- The LLC sub-layer acts as an interface between
the Media Access Control (MAC) sub layer and the
network layer.
- As the Ether type in an Ethernet II framing
formatted frame is used to multiplex different
protocols on top of the Ethernet MAC header it can
be seen as LLC identifier.
- The LLC sub layer is primarily concerned with:
> Multiplexing protocols transmitted over the MAC
layer (when transmitting) and decoding them (when
receiving).
> Providing flow and error control

- Frame Relay is designed to provide efficient

transmission than X.25.
- The X.25 approach results in considerable
overhead at each hop through the network.
- The data link control protocol involves the
exchange of a data frame and acknowledgement
frame.
- At each intermediate node, state tables must be
maintained for each virtual circuit to deal with cost
management and flow/error, control aspects of X.25
protocol.
- All these overhead may be justified when there is
significant probability of error in any of the links in
the network.
- Today's network employee reliable digital
transmission technology over high quality reliable
digital transmission technology over high quality
reliable transmission links such as optical fiber.
- In this environment, the overhead of X.25 is not
only unnecessary but degrades the effective
utilization of the available high data rates.
- Frame Relay is designed to eliminate much of the
overhead that X.25 imposes on end user systems.

- The Media Access Control (MAC) data

communication protocol sub-layer, also known as
the Medium Access Control, is a sub layer of the
Data Link Layer specified in the seven-layer OSI
model (layer 2).
- It provides addressing and channel access control
mechanisms that make it possible for several
terminals or network nodes to communicate within
a multi-point network, typically a local area network
(LAN) or metropolitan area network (MAN). - The
hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as
a Medium Access Controller.

LLC/MAC:
- The Logical Link Control (LLC) data communication
protocol layer is the upper sub-layer of the Data
Link Layer (which is itself layer 2, just above the
13

The MAC sub-layer acts as an interface between the

Logical Link Control (LLC) sub layer and the
network's physical layer. - The MAC layer emulates
a full-duplex logical communication channel in a
multi-point network. This channel may provide
unicast, multicast or broadcast communication
service.

- Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held

in the router's memory, is very important for
efficient routing.
- Most routing algorithms use only one network path
at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable
the use of multiple alternative paths.
- Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is
often contrasted with bridging in its assumption
that network addresses are structured and that
similar addresses imply proximity within the
network. - Because structured addresses allow a
single routing table entry to represent the route to a
group of devices, structured addressing (routing, in
the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured
addressing (bridging) in large networks, and has
become the dominant form of addressing on the
Internet, though bridging is still widely used within
localized environments.

Routing:
- Routing is the process of selecting paths in a
network along which to send network traffic.
- Routing is performed for many kinds of networks,
including the telephone network (Circuit switching) ,
electronic data networks (such as the Internet), and
transportation networks.
- This article is concerned primarily with routing in
electronic data networks using packet switching
technology.
- In packet switching networks, routing directs
packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed
packets from their source toward their ultimate
destination through intermediate nodes, typically
hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways,
firewalls, or switches. - General-purpose computers
can also forward packets and perform routing,
though they are not specialized hardware and may
suffer from limited performance. - The routing
process usually directs forwarding on the basis of
routing tables which maintain a record of the routes
to various network destinations.

IEE 802 Reference Model

- This architecture was developed by the IEEE 802
committee and has been adopted by all
organizations working on the specification of LAN
standards.
- It is generally referred to as IEEE 802 Reference
Model working from the bottom of the lowest layer
of IEEE 802 corresponds to the physical layer of the
OSI model and includes functions as encoding,
decoding of signals, preamble generation/removal
and bit transmission/reception.
1. Physical Layer:
14

- encoding and decoding of signals

- pre able generation/removal (for synchronization)
- bit transmission/reception

>Acknowledged Connectionless Services:

- It provides acknowledgement but no logical
connection is set up.

2.MAC(Medium Access Control)

Ethernet CSMA-CD:

- on transmission assemble data into a frame with

error detection and address fields
- On reception, dissemble frame and perform
address recognition and error detection
- Goren access to LAN transmission medium

- Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer

networking technologies for local area networks
(LANs).
- The name came from the physical concept of the
ether.
- It defines a number of wiring and signaling
standards for the Physical Layer of the OSI
networking model as well as a common addressing
format and Media Access Control at the Data Link
Layer.
- Ethernet is standardized as IEEE 802.3. - The
combination of the twisted pair versions of Ethernet
for connecting end systems to the network, along
with the fiber optic versions for site backbones, is
the most widespread wired LAN technology.

3.LLC(Logical Link Control)

- provide an interface to higher layers and perform
flow and error control
4. LLC Services:
- Three services are provided under LLC services:
> Unacknowledged Connectionless Service:
- It is a very simple service that does not involve
any of the flow and error control mechanisms.
- Delivery of data is not guaranteed.
- There will be some higher layer of software that
deals with reliability issues.

CSMA/CD:
- CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision
Detection) is the protocol used in Ethernet networks
to ensure that only one network node is
transmitting on the network wire at any one time.
- Carrier Sense means that every Ethernet device
listens to the Ethernet wire before it attempts to
transmit.

> Connection Mode services:

- A logical connection is set up between two users
exchanging data and flow and error control are
provided.
15

- If the Ethernet device senses that another device

is transmitting, it will wait to transmit.
- Multiple Access means that more than one
Ethernet device can be sensing (listening and
waiting to transmit) at a time.
- Collision Detection means that when multiple
Ethernet devices accidentally transmit at the same
time, they are able to detect this error.

- Ethernet switches greatly reduce the already

minor difficulties experienced with the CSMA/CD
protocol.

X.25:
- The X.25 protocol, adopted as a standard by the
Consultative Committee for International Telegraph
and Telephone (CCITT), is a commonly-used network
protocol.
- The X.25 protocol allows computers on different
public networks (such as CompuServe, Tymnet, or a
TCP/IP network) to communicate through an
intermediary computer at the network layer level. X.25's protocols correspond closely to the data-link
and physical-layer protocols defined in the Open
Systems - Interconnection (OSI) communication
model.

How Collisions Occur under CSMA/CD:

- Imagine a very simple Ethernet network with only
two nodes.
- Each node, independently, decides to send an
Ethernet frame to the other node.
- Both nodes listen to the Ethernet wire and sense
that no carrier is present.
- Both nodes transmit simultaneously, causing a
collision.
- Both nodes detect the collision and each node
waits a random amount of time before transmitting
again.
- Collisions are normal on an Ethernet network.
- A small amount of collisions are expected in the
protocol design.
- If too many nodes are transmitting on an Ethernet
network the number of collisions can rise to an
unacceptable level.
- This can reduce the amount of available
bandwidth on an Ethernet network because so
much bandwidth is lost in retransmission.

- Three levels:
> Physical Layer:
- physical interface between and attached
station(computer terminal and Packet Switching
mode.
> Link Level:
- provides reliable transfer of data across physical
link
- It is referred as Link Access protocol Balanced(LABP)
> Packet Level:
16

- provides virtual circuit service

- enables any subscriber to the network to setup
logical conditions

- Control plane provides call control and connection

control functions.
- Management plane performs coordination
between all the planes and layers management.

Following are the key features of X:25:

- call control packets, used for setting up and

CHP: 6 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

cleaning virtual circuits are carried on same channel

and same virtual circuit as data packets
- multiplexing of virtual circuits takes place at layer
3
- Both layer 2 and layer 3 include flow control and
error control mechanisms

Guided and Unguided Media:

- Guided media are those that provides physical
conduction from one device to another which
includes twisted pairs, co-axial cables and fiberoptic cables.
- Unguided Media transports electromagnetic waves
without using a physical conductor.
- This type of communication is often referred to as
wireless communication.

ATM:
- Asynchronous Transfer Mode
- It is a streamlined packet transfer interface.
- ATM makes use of a fixed size packets called cells.
- The use of fixed size and fixed formats results an
efficient scheme for transmission over high speed
networks.
- data rate range from 25.6 Mbps to 622.08 Mbps
- Physical layer specifies transmission medium and
signal encoding scheme
- ATM layer defines transmission of data in fixed
size cells and defines the use of logical connection.
- ATM adaptation layer maps higher layer
information into ATM cells to be transported over an
ATM network.
- User plane provides user information into ATM
cells to be transported over an ATM network
- user plane provides user information transfer(eg.
flow control, error control)

Transmission Media:
- Transmission medium is the physical path between
transmitter and in a data transmission system. Transmission media can be classified or unguided.
- In both cases, communication is in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
- With guided media, the waves are guided along a
solid medium, such as copper twisted pair, copper
coaxial cable, and optical fiber.
- The atmosphere and outer space are examples of
unguided media that provide a means of
transmitting
17

Electromagnetic signals but do not guide them; this

form of transmission is usually referred to as
wireless transmission.
- The characteristics and quality of a data
transmission are determined both by the
characteristics
of
the
medium
and
the
characteristics of the signal.
- In the case of guided media, the medium itself is
more important in determining the limitations of
transmission.
- For unguided media, the bandwidth of the signal
produced by the transmitting antenna is more
important than the medium in determining
transmission characteristics.
- One key property of signals transmitted by
antenna is directionality.
In general, signals at lower frequencies are
omnidirectional; that is, the signal propagates
in all directions from the antenna.
- At higher frequencies, it is possible to focus
the signal into a directional beam.
- In considering the design of data transmission
systems, a key concern, generally, is data rate and
distance: the greater the data rate and distance,
the better.
- A number of design factors relating to the
transmission medium and to the signal determine
the data rate and distance:

>>Transmission impairments:
Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the
distance.
- For guided media, twisted pair generally suffer
more impairment than coaxial cable, which in turn
suffers more than optical fiber.
>>Interference:
Interference from competing signals in
overlapping frequency bands can distort or wipe out
a signal. Interference is of particular concern for
unguided media, but it is also a problem with
guided media.
- For guided media, interference can be caused by
emanations from nearby cables.
- For example, twisted pair are often bundled
together, and conduits often carry multiple cables. Interference can also be experienced from unguided
transmissions.
- Proper shielding of a guided medium can minimize
this problem.
>> Number of receivers:
- A guided medium can be used to construct a
point-to point link or a shared link with multiple
attachments.
- In the latter case, each attachment introduces
some attenuation and distortion on the line, limiting
distance and/or data rate.

>>Bandwidth:
- All other factors remaining constant, the greater
the bandwidth of a signal, the higher the data rate
that can be achieved.

Wired Pairs:
18

- Wires are described by their size.

- Higher gauge number indicates thinner wire size.
- The smaller the diameter of the wire, the greater
is resistance to the propagation of a signal.
- Increased resistance results in a decreased bit rate
across the communication path.
- At higher transmission frequencies, the signal
tends to travel on the outside surface of the wire.
- A small wire provides less total surface for the
radiating signal, resulting in increased signal loss.
- The local subscriber loops ( of the telephone
system) and usually to 22-26 gauge wire.
- Trunk and toll lines typically employ 19-gauge
wires.
- Several Hundred of these wires are packaged into
one cables.
- The wires are paired and twisted around each
other
to
decrease
certain
electromagnetic
problems.

- The line that connects subscribers to the central

telephone office is most commonly unshielded
twisted pair cables.
- Local area networks such as 10 Base-T and 100
Base-T also use twisted pair cables.

Micro-waves:
- Microwave is a directed line of sight(LOS) radio
transmission.
- It is used for wide band communication systems
and is quite common in the telephone system.
- Television transmission also utilizes microwave
transmission because microwave transmission is
above the 1 GHz and provides the capacity required
for video transmission.
- The high bandwidth gives small wavelength and
the smaller the wavelength, the smaller one can
design the microwave antenna.
- The antenna size has significant implications for
distributed processing systems.
- The transmitting towers are spaced 20-30 m
apart.
- Transmitted radio bean is focused to the receiving
antenna.

- The most common twisted pair cable used in

communications is referred to as unshielded twisted
pair(UTP) cable.
- STP cable(shielded Twisted Pair) has a metal foil or
braided-mesh covering each pair of insulated
conductors.
- Although metal casing improves the quality of
cable by preventing the penetration of noise or
cross-talk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

COAXIAL Cables:
- Co-axial cables carries signals of higher frequency
ranges than twisted pair cable.
- Instead of having two wires, co-axial cable has a
central core conductor of solid or standard

>>Applications:
- Twisted pair cables are used in telephone lines to
provide voice and data channels.
19

wire(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating

sheath which in turn is encased in an outer
conductor of metal foil or combination of two.
- The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a
shield against noise and as a second conductor.
- The whole cable is protected by a plastic cover.

- Optical fibres use reflection to guide light through

a channel.
- A glass or plastic core is surrounded by cladding of
less dense glass or plastic.
- The difference in density of the two materials
must be such that a beam of light moving through
the core is reflected off the cladding instead of
being reflected into it.

Applications:
- The use of co-axial cable is diverse but nowadays
it is shrinking due to fibre optic cable.
- Co-axial cables are used in analog telephone
networks and cable Tv networks.

Propagation Modes:
a. Multimode step index:
- in multimode step-index fiber, the density of the
core remains constant from the center of the edges,
- A beam of light moves through these constant
densities in a straight line until it reaches the
interface of the core and the cladding.
- As the interface, there is an abrupt change to a
lower density that alters the angle of the beam
motion.
- The term step index refers to the suddenness of
this change.

Fiber optic Cables:

- A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and
transmits signals in the form of lights.
- Lights travels in a straight line as long as it is
moving through a single uniform substance.
- If a ray of light travelling through one substance
suddenly enters another(more or less dense the ray
changes direction).

b. Multimode graded index:

- A second type of fiber called multimode graded
index fiber is one with varying densities.
- Density is highest at center of the core and
decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.

- As the above figure, if the angle of incidence is

less than the critical angle, the ray diffracts and
move to closer to the surface.
- If angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle,
the light bends along the interface and refraction
occurs.
- If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the
ray reflects and travels again in the denser
substances.

c. Single mode:
- Single mode uses step index fiber and a highly
focused source of light that limits beams to a small
range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
20

- The single mode fiber is manufactured with a

much smaller diameter that that of multimode fiber.

communication
system
we
often
use the
atmosphere for transmission of channel.
- Here, interference and propagation condition are
strongly dependent upon the frequency.

Applications:
- Optical fiber cable is found in backbone networks
because of its wide bandwidth and is cost effective.
- cable TV companies use a combination of optical
fibers and co-axial cable, thus creating a hybrid
network.

Types of Electromagnetic waves:

a. Ground Wave Propagation:
- Dominant mode of propagation for frequency
below 2 mHz.
- Electromagnetic
waves are guided by the
conducting surface of the earth, along which they
are propagated.
- Diffraction of the wave causes it to propagate
where this propagation mode is used in AM
broadcasting.
- For efficient radiation, the antenna needs to be
longer than 1/10 th of the wave length.

Advantages:
-

Higher bandwidth
Less signal attenuation
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Light weight
Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:

b. Sky Wave Propagation:

- Installation/maintenance
- Unidirectional
- Cost

- Dominant mode of propagation for frequencies in

between 2 to 30 Mhz.
- Long distance coverage is obtained by the
reflecting the wave at the ionosphere and at the
earth boundaries.
- This is caused due to reflection.

Electromagnetic waves:
- The electromagnetic waves used e propagation
characteristics of wireless channels are highly
dependent on frequency.
- Since, electromagnetic waves doesn't need any
medium to transmit the signal specially in wireless

c. Line of sight(LOS)
propagation:
21

or

Space

Wave

- Dominant mode of propagation for frequencies

above 30 Mhz.
- Here, electromagnetic wave propagates in a
straight line.
- Very little reflection by the ionosphere,
- This is used for satellite communication.
- Its maximum range is limited to line of sight due
to nature of propagation.

Satellite Communications:
- Satellite communications are comprised of 2 main
components:
The Satellite
- The satellite itself is also known as the space
segment, and is composed of three separate units,
namely the fuel system, the satellite and telemetry
controls, and the transponder.
- The transponder includes the receiving antenna to
pick-up signals from the ground station, a broad
band receiver, an input multiplexer, and a
frequency converter which is used to reroute the
received signals through a high powered amplifier
for downlink.
- The primary role of a satellite is to reflect
electronic signals.
- In the case of a telecom satellite, the primary task
is to receive signals from a ground station and send
them down to another ground station located a
considerable distance away from the first.
- This relay action can be two-way, as in the case of
a long distance phone call.
- Another use of the satellite is when, as is the case
with television broadcasts, the ground station's
uplink is then down linked over a wide region, so
that it may be received by many different
customers possessing compatible equipment.
- Still another use for satellites is observation,
wherein the satellite is equipped with cameras or

Disadvantages:
- For communication between two each stations,
the signal path has to be above the horizon
otherwise they will block the LOS path.
- Thus antennas need to be placed on tall towers so
that receiver antenna can see the transmitting
antenna.

Radio waves and Microwaves:

1. 3 KHz to 1 GHz
- 1 GHz to 300 GHz
2. for the most part are omnidirectional
- unidirectional
3. Omnidirectional antennas are generally used
- line of sight propagation, unidirectional antennas
are used
4.AM,FM radio
- cellular phones, satellite networks
22

various sensors, and it merely downlinks any

information it picks up from its vantage point.

- High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage

of each base station transmitter to a small
geographic area called a cell so that the same radio
channels may be reused by another base station
located some distance away.
- A sophisticated switching technique called a
handoff enables a call to proceed uninterrupted
when the user moves from one cell to another.

The Ground Station:

- This is the earth segment.
- The ground station's job is two-fold. In the case of
an uplink, or transmitting station, terrestrial data in
the form of baseband signals, is passed through a
baseband processor, an up converter, a high
powered amplifier, and through a parabolic dish
antenna up to an orbiting satellite.
- In the case of a downlink, or receiving station,
works in the reverse fashion as the uplink,
ultimately
converting signals received through the parabolic
antenna to base band signal.

- The basic structure of cellular system is as below:

- The basic cellular system consists mobile stations,
base stations and a mobile switching center(MSC).
- The mobile switching center is sometimes called a
mobile telephone switching office (MTSO), since it is
responsible for connecting all mobiles to the PSTN
via central office(CO).
- Each user communicates via radio from a cellular
telephone set to the cell site base station.
- This base station is connected via telephone lines
or microwave link to the mobile switching center.
- The MSC connects the user to the called party if
the called party is land based, the connection is via
the central office (CO) is the terrestrial telephone
network.
- If the called party is mobile, the connection is
made to the cellular site that covers the area in
which the third party is located, using an available
radio channel in the cell associated with the called
party.
- If more channels are needed, the existing cell
sizes are decreased, and additional small cells are

Cellular Telephony System:

- A cellular telephone system provides a wireless
connection
to
the
terrestrial
telephone
network( PSTN: Public switch Telephone Network)
for any user location within the radio range of the
system.
- Cellular systems accommodate a large number of
users over a large geographic area, within a limited
frequency spectrum.
- Cellular radio system provide high quality service
that is often comparable to that of the landline
telephone systems.
23

inserted, so that existing channels can be reused

more efficiently.
- The critical consideration is to design the cells for
acceptable levels of a Co channel interference.
- As the mobile user travels from one cell to
another, the MSC automatically switches the user to
an available channel in the new cell and the
telephone continues un-interrupted.

Synchronous and asynchronous transmission

Given the problems that arise with a parallel-type
connection, serial connections are normally used.
However, since a single wire transports the
information, the problem is how to synchronies the
transmitter and receiver, in other words, the
receiver can not necessarily distinguish the
characters (or more generally the bit sequences)
because the bits are sent one after the other. There
are two types of transmission that address this
problem:

- The cellular concept has following advantages:

> large subscriber capacity
> Efficient use of the radio spectrum
> Service to hand held portables, as well as
vehicles.
> High Quality telephone and data service to the
mobile user at relatively low cost.

An asynchronous connection, in which each

character is sent at irregular intervals in time (for
example a user sending characters entered at the
keyboard in real time). So, for example, imagine
that a single bit is transmitted during a long period
of silence... the receiver will not be able to know if
this is 00010000, 10000000 or 00000100...
To remedy this problem, each character is preceded
by some information indicating the start of
character transmission (the transmission start
information is called a START bit) and ends by
sending end-of-transmission information (called
STOP bit, there may even be several STOP bits).
In a synchronous connection, the transmitter and
receiver are paced by the same clock. The receiver
continuously receives (even when no bits are
transmitted) the information at the same rate the
transmitter send it. This is why the transmitter and
receiver are paced at the same speed. In addition,

Transmission Modes:
Parallel Transmission:
- Parallel Transmission is a method of data
transmission in which the bits of a data character
are transmitted simultaneously over a number of
channels/ports.
- In parallel transmission, coded information are
transmitted
via
a
system
with
multiple
ports/channels. - The port 1 is used to transport the
first MSB (Most Significant Bit) and the second port
carries the second MSBs, so on and so forth.
Serial Transmission:
24

supplementary information is inserted to guarantee

that there are no errors during transmission.
During synchronous transmission, the bits are sent
successively with no separation between each
character,
so
it
is
necessary
to
insert
synchronization elements; this is called characterlevel synchronization.

- A binary 1 is transformed into binary 0 and vice

versa.
1. Attenuation:
- strength of a signal falls off with distance over any
transmission medium.
- Hence, a received signal must have sufficient
strength so that the electronic circuitry in the
receiver can detect the signal.
- The signal must maintain a level sufficiently
higher than noise to be received without error.
- Attenuation is an increasing concern of frequency.
- Hence, amplifiers must be used that amplify high
frequencies more than lower frequencies.

The
main
disadvantage
of
synchronous
transmission is recognizing the data at the receiver,
as there may be differences between the
transmitter and receiver clocks. That is why each
data transmission must be sustained long enough
for the receiver to distinguish it. As a result, the
transmission speed can not be very high in a
synchronous link

2. Delay Distortion:
- occurs because of the velocity of propagation of a
signal through guided medium varies with
frequency.
- For a band limited signal, the velocity tends to be
highest near the central frequency and falls off
towards the two edges of the band.
- Thus, various frequency components of a signal
will arrive at the receiver at different times resulting
in phase shifts between the different frequencies.
- Intersymbol Interference occurs due to delay
distortion

Transmission Impairments:
- The signal received may differ from that is
transmitted
due
to
various
transmission
impairments.
- for analog signals, these impairments can degrade
the signal quality
- for digital, bit errors may be introduced.

3. Noise:

25

- unwanted man made or natural random signal

that adds to the received signal and degrades the
performances.
- Such type of unwanted random signal is noise.

DATA LINK CONTROL

> Thermal noise:

- due to the thermal agitation of electrons in the
conductor.

- Flow control is a technique for assuring that a

transmitting entity does not overwhelm a receiving
entity with data. The receiving entity typically
allocates a data buffer of some maximum length for
a transfer.
- When data are received, the receiver
must do a certain amount of processing before
passing the data to the higher-level software.
- In the absence of flow control, the receiver's buffer
may fill up and overflow
while it is processing old data.

Flow control:

> Shot Noise:

- due to the flow of current at the junction of semi
conductor.
> Burst Noise:
-due to the sudden high amplitude making the
signal change its value such as lightning, electrical
ignition system.

Stop-and-Wait Flow Control:

> Intermodulation Noise:

- due to non linearitys in the transmitter, receiver
and interviewing transmission media.

- The simplest form of flow control, known as stopand-wait flow control, works as
follows.
- A source entity transmits a frame. After reception,
the destination entity
indicates its willingness to accept another frame by
sending back an acknowledgment to the frame just
received. - The source must wait until it receives
the acknowledgment before sending the next
frame.
- The destination can thus stop the flow of data by
simply withholding acknowledgment.
- This procedure works fine and,

> Cross talk Noise:

- due to coupling of nearby line.
> Flicker Noise:
- low frequency Noise
> Transit time Noise:
- High frequency Noise

26

indeed, can hardly be improved upon when a

message is sent in a few large frames.
- However, it is often the case that a source will
break up a large block of data into smaller blocks
and transmit the data in many frames.
- This is done for the following
reasons:
> The buffer size of the receiver may be limited.
> The longer the transmission, the more likely that
there will be an error, necessitating retransmission
of the entire frame. With smaller frames, errors are
detected sooner, and a smaller amount of data
needs to be retransmitted.
> On a shared medium, such as a LAN, it is usually
desirable not to permit one
station to occupy the medium for an extended
period, as this causes long
delays at the other sending stations.

- The essence of the problem described so far is

that only one frame at a time can be in transit.
- In situations where the bit length of the link is
greater than the frame
length (a > I), serious inefficiencies result.
- Efficiency can be greatly improved by
allowing multiple frames to be in transit at the
same time.

Error Control:
Error control refers to mechanisms to detect and
correct errors that occur in the transmission of
frames.
- The model that we will use, which covers the
typical case.
- As before, data are sent as a sequence of frames;
frames arrive in the same order in which they are
sent; and each transmitted frame suffers an
arbitrary and variable amount of delay before
reception. In addition, we admit the possibility of
two types of errors:

Sliding Window Flow control:

- Allows multiple frames to be in transit
- Receiver sends acknowledgement with sequence
number of anticipated frame
- Sender maintains list of sequence number of
anticipated frame
- Sender maintains list of sequence numbers it can
send, receiver maintains list of sequence numbers it
can receive.
- ACk (acknowledgement) supplemented with RNR
(receiver not ready)

> Lost frame.

- A frame fails to arrive at the other side.
- For example, a noise burst may damage a frame
to the extent that the receiver is not aware that a
frame has been transmitted.
> Damaged frame: A recognizable frame does
arrive, but some of the bits are in error (have been
altered during transmission).
27

- The most common techniques for error control are

based on some or all of the
following ingredients:

- Stop-and-wait ARQ is based on the stop-and-wait

flow-control technique
- The source station transmits a single frame and
then must await an acknowledgment (ACK).
- No other data frames can be sent
until the destination station's reply arrives at the
source station.
- Two sorts of errors could occur. First, the frame
that arrives at the destination
could be damaged; the receiver detects this by
using the error detection technique referred to
earlier and simply discards the frame.
- To account for this possibility, the
source station is equipped with a timer. - After a
frame is transmitted, the source station waits for an
acknowledgment.
- If no acknowledgment is received by the time the
timer expires, then the same frame is sent again.
- Note that this method requires
that the transmitter maintain a copy of a
transmitted frame until an acknowledgment
is received for that frame.
- The second sort of error is a damaged
acknowledgment.

> Error detection. As discussed in the preceding

section.
> Positive acknowledgment. The destination
returns a positive acknowledgment to successfully
received, error-free frames.
> a Retransmission after timeout. The source
retransmits a frame that has not
been acknowledged after a predetermined amount
of time.
>
Negative
acknowledgment
and
retransmission. The destination returns a
negative acknowledgment to frames in which an
error is detected.
- The source retransmits such frames.
Collectively, these mechanisms are all referred to
as automatic repeat request
(ARQ); the effect of ARQ is to turn an unreliable
data link into a reliable one.
- Three versions of ARQ have been standardized:
> Stop-and-wait ARQ
> Go-back-N ARQ
> Selective-reject ARQ

Go back N ARQ
- The form of error control based on sliding-window
flow control that is most commonly used is called
go-back-N ARQ.
- In go-back-N ARQ, a station may send a series of
frames sequentially numbered

Stop or Wait ARQ:

28

modulo some maximum value.

- The number of unacknowledged frames
outstanding is determined by window size, using
the sliding-window flow control
technique.
- While no errors occur, the destination will
acknowledge (RR = receive ready)
incoming frames as usual.
- If the destination station detects an error in a
frame, it sends a negative acknowledgment (REJ =
reject) for that frame.
- The destination station will discard that frame and
all future incoming frames until the frame in error is
correctly received.
- Thus, the source station, when it receives an REJ,
must retransmit the frame in error plus all
succeeding frames that were transmitted in the
interim.

MULTIPLEXING AND SWITCHING

Switching:
1. Circuit Switching:
- Real time data transmission is provided by the
direct connection
- Dial up delay can be eliminated by using leased
lines
- Blockage can occur in which case busy signal is
returned to sender
- Transmissions are point to point
- Once connection is established, any subsequent
overload of the switch is invisible to the connected
components
2. Message Switching:
- Connection is not a direct physical interface as in
circuit switching
29

- Data connections use variable slots if TDM is

employed
- Messages are stored onto disk, tape before
transmission, real time processing is usually not
feasible
- messages can be broadcast to all nodes in the
network or subset of nodes
- priorities are allowed in the message traffic

FDM(Frequency
Multiplexing):

Division

- FDM is possible when the useful bandwidth of the

transmission medium exceeds the required
bandwidth of signals to be transmitted.
- A number of signals can be carried
simultaneously if each signal is modulated onto a
different carrier frequency
and the carrier frequencies are sufficiently
separated that the bandwidths of the signals do not
overlap.
- Six signal sources are fed into a multiplexer, which
modulates each signal onto a different frequency
(fi, . . . , f6).
- Each modulated signal requires a certain
bandwidth centered around its carrier frequency,
referred to as a channel.
- To prevent interference, the
channels are separated by guard bands, which are
unused portions of the spectrum.

3. Packet Switching:
- combination of circuit and message switching
- packet contains user and control data
- provides stastical multiplexing
- provides fast response to all users
- provides high availability of the network to all
users.

Multiplexing:

- There are n inputs to a multiplexer. The

multiplexer is connected by a single data link to a
demultiplexer.
- The link is able to carry n separate channels of
data.
- The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from
the n input lines and transmits over a higher
capacity data link.
- The demultiplexer accepts the multiplexed data
stream, separates (demultiplexer) the data
according to channel, and delivers them to the
appropriate output lines.

Synchronous TDM:
- Synchronous time-division multiplexing is possible
when the achievable data rate
(sometimes, unfortunately, called bandwidth) of the
medium exceeds the data rate of digital signals to
be transmitted. - Multiple digital signals (or analog
signals carrying digital data) can be carried on a
single transmission path by interleaving portions of
each signal in time.
30

- The interleaving can be at the bit level or in blocks

of bytes or larger quantities.
- For example, the multiplexer has six inputs which
might each be, say, 9.6 kbps. - A single line with a
capacity of at least 57.6 kbps (plus overhead
capacity) could accommodate all six sources.

> Usually a console or switchboard for a human

operator
- In some situations, alternatives to a PBX include
centrex service (in which a pool of lines are rented
at the phone company's central office), key
telephone systems, and, for very small enterprises,
primary rate Integrated Services Digital Network.

Private Branch Exchange:

Switched 56/ Service:

- A PBX (private branch exchange) is a telephone

system within an enterprise that switches calls
between enterprise users on local lines while
allowing all users to share a certain number of
external phone lines.
- The main purpose of a PBX is to save the cost of
requiring a line for each user to the telephone
company's central office.
- The PBX is owned and operated by the enterprise
rather than the telephone company (which may be
a supplier or service provider, however).
- Private branch exchanges used analog technology
originally.
- Today, PBXs use digital technology (digital signals
are converted to analog for outside calls on the
local loop using plain old telephone service).
A PBX includes:
> Telephone trunk (multiple phone) lines that
terminate at the PBX
> A computer with memory that manages the
switching of the calls within the PBX and in and out
of it
> The network of lines within the PBX

- digital version of analog switched line

- data rates up to 56 Kbps
- both parties must subscribe
- subscribes do not need modem
- digital service unit (DSU) is needed to change the
rate to 56 Kbps and encode them in the format of
service providers.
- supports video conferencing, multimedia etc

DATA
ENCODING
MODULATION
31

AND

Definition
formats:

of

digital

signal encoding

Same as bipolar AMI, except that any string of

eight zeros is replaced by a string with two
code violations

HDB3:
- Same as bipolar AMI, except that any string of
four zeros is replaced by a string with one
code violation

Nonreturn-to-Zero-Level (NRZ-L):
0 = high level
1 = low level
Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI):
0 = no transition at beginning of interval (one bit
time)
1 = transition at beginning of interval

Encoding:
- In combining the processes of sampling and
quantizing, the specification of a continuous baseband signal becomes limited to a discrete set of
values but not in the form best suited for
transmission over a line or a radio path or optical
fiber.
- To exploit the advantages of sampling and
quantizing, we require the use of an encoding
process to translate the discrete set of sample
values to a more appropriate form of signal.
- Any plan for representing each member of this
discrete values as a particular arrangement of
discrete elements is called encoding.
- Suppose, in a binary code each code word consists
of n bits.
- Then using such a a code we may represent a
total of 2^n distinct numbers
L=2^n

Bipolar- AM1:
0 = no line signal
1 = positive or negative level, alternating for
successive ones
Pseudo ternary
0 = positive or negative level, alternating for
successive zeros
1 = no line signal
Manchester:
0 = transition from high to low in middle of interval
1 = transition from low to high in middle of interval
Differential Manchester:
Always a transition in middle of interval
0 = transition at beginning of interval
1 = no transition at beginning of interval

Amplitude shift Keying

BIZS:
32

- The most basic form of ASK involves the process

of switching the carrier on or off, in correspondence
to a sequence of digital pulses that constitute the
information signal.
- binary digit 1 represented by the presence of a
carrier and the binary digit 0 represented by the
absence of a carrier.
- Frequency remains fixed.
s(t) = Ac cos2fct for binary 1
0 for binary 0

s(t) = Ac cos2 fc t for symbol 1

Ac cos(2 fc t+ ) for symbol 0

Delta Modulation:
- Delta Modulation is 1 bit ( or two level) version of
DPCM.
- In delta Modulation the difference between the
original sample and its approximation is quantized
in one of the two possible levels + /\ or -/\ and each
level is converted in to 1 bit codeword.
- Thus, the delta modulation uses only one bit to
represent each sampled value.

Frequency Shift Keying:

- The basic form of FSK involves the process of
varying the frequency of a carrier wave by choosing
one of two frequencies in correspondence of digital
pulses that constitute the information signal.
- Two binary digits 0 and 1 are represented by two
frequencies around the carrier frequency.
- Amplitude remains fixed.

sampled i/p m(nTs)---> Sum---> 1 bit quantizer------> DM wave

sum
Mq(nTs-Ts)--------------Delay Ts < ------- Mq(nTs)

s(t) = Ac cos2f1t for 1

Ac cos2f2t for 0

Quantization Noise in DM:

Phase Shift Keying:

- Delta Modulation systems are subjected to two

types of quantizing error:
Slope over load distortion:

- The most basic form of PSK involves the process of

shifting the phase of a carrier wave in
correspondence to a sequence of digital pulses that
constitute the information signal.
- The two binary digits 0 and 1 are represented in
which the carrier phase for each symbol is differ by
180 frequency and Amplitude remains fixed.

- If the slope of the signal is so high then the stepsize may not be sufficient to follow the rate of
change of the signal.

33

- In this case, the condition is called slope overload

distortion and the resulting quantizing error is
called slope overload distortion or noise.
- Slope Overload distortion can be reduced by
filtering the signal to limit its maximum rate of
changes or by increasing the step noise.
- The condition for no-slope over distortion is:
del/Ts >= max(d(m(t)/dt)

AM and FM
1. Quality
AM >> low quality than FM and highly susceptible
to noise
FM >> High Quality (or good) because noise highly
effect the amplitude rather than frequency so FM
has high noise immunity than AM.

Granular Noise:

2. Bandwidth:
AM >> Bandwidth requirement for AM is less i.e.
BW Am = 2 * fm
FM >> Bandwidth requirement for FM is greater
than AM i.e BW Fm = 2(beta+1)

- When the slope of the signal is low that is signal is

almost constant w.r.t time and /\ step size is
relatively high, the approximation starts to swing
from - /\ to + /\ causing high noise level called the
granular noies.
- This noise can be minimized by reducing the step
size /\.

3. Propagation:
AM>> Ground Wave propagation
FM >> Ground Vertical Propagation

Pulse code Modulation:

4. SNR :

- PCM is an method of converting an analog signal

to digital signal.
- In this method, the analog message signal is
sampled (sampling) and the amplitude of a each
sampled signal is rounded off (quantizing) to the
nearest one of the finites set of discrete levels.
- This discrete signal is then converted into binary
digital signalor digital codeword (encoding)
- PCM is not modulation in conventional sense.
- The term modulation usually refers to the
variation of some characteristics of carrier waves
accordance with the information bearing signal.

AM >> Required high SNR

FM >> low SNR is sufficient for transmission
6. Distance:
AM>> used in long distance transmission
process amplification is easier
FM>> Low coverage area and LOS communication
is required
power amplification is difficult
34

- Each method impresses the digital data signal

onto the analog carrier signal.

Amplitude Modulation:
- Amplitude Modulation alter the carrier signal
amplitude in accordance with the modulating digital
bit stream.
- The frequency and phase of the carrier are held
constant and the amplitude is raised or lowered to
represent a 0 or 1.
- In its simplest form, the carrier signal can be
switched on or off to represent the binary state.
- AM modulation is not often used by itself due to
transmission power problems and sensitivity due to
distortion.
- However it is commonly used with phase
modulation to yield a method superior to either FM
or AM.

MODEMS
Modems:
- The digitally oriented computers and terminals
often communicate with one another through the
analog telephone facilities.
- Therefore the digital messages must be translated
into a form suitable for transmission across the
analog network.
-The term modem is derived from the process of
accepting digital bits and changing them into a
form suitable for analog transmission and receiving
the signal at other station and transforming it back
to original digital representation.
- i.e. first modulation and then demodulation
- Modems are derived from these two words.
- Modems are designed around the use of carrier
frequency.

Frequency Modulation:
- This method changes the frequency of the carrier
in accordance with the digital bit stream.
- The amplitude and phase are held constant.
- In its simplest form, a binary 1 is represented by a
certain frequency and a binary 0 by another.
Phase Modulation:

Digital Modulation Methods:

- Three basic modulation methods exists.
- Some modems use more than one of the methods.
35

- Phase modulation Modems interrupts the

continuous wave form and alter the phase of the
signal to represent a 1 0r 0.

- the common approach today is to compare the

phase of the cycle in a current time period to the
phase of in a previous time period.
- This approach is called differential phase shift
keying(DPSK)

36