Multi-Junction Solar Cell - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

8/11/2015
MultijunctionsolarcellWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Multijunctionsolarcell
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Multijunction(MJ)solarcellsaresolarcellswith
multiplepnjunctionsmadeofdifferentsemiconductor
materials.Eachmaterial'spnjunctionwillproduce
electriccurrentinresponsetodifferentwavelengthsof
light.Theuseofmultiplesemiconductingmaterials
allowstheabsorbanceofabroaderrangeof
wavelengths,improvingthecell'ssunlighttoelectrical
energyconversionefficiency.
Traditionalsinglejunctioncellshaveamaximum
theoreticalefficiencyof34%.Theoretically,aninfinite
numberofjunctionswouldhavealimitingefficiencyof
86.8%underhighlyconcentratedsunlight.[2]
BlacklighttestofDawn
'
striplejunctiongallium
arsenidesolarcells[1]
Currently,thebestlabexamplesoftraditional
crystallinesiliconsolarcellshaveefficienciesbetween20%and25%,[3]whilelabexamplesofmulti
junctioncellshavedemonstratedperformanceover43%.[4][5]Commercialexamplesoftandem,twolayer,
cellsarewidelyavailableat30%underonesunillumination,[6]andimprovetoaround40%under
concentratedsunlight.However,thisefficiencyisgainedatthecostofincreasedcomplexityand
manufacturingprice.Todate,theirhigherpriceandhigherpricetoperformanceratiohavelimitedtheiruse
tospecialroles,notablyinaerospacewheretheirhighpowertoweightratioisdesirable.Interrestrial
applications,thesesolarcellsareemerginginconcentratorphotovoltaics(CPV),withagrowingnumberof
installationsaroundtheworld.[7]
Tandemfabricationtechniqueshavebeenusedtoimprovetheperformanceofexistingdesigns.In
particular,thetechniquecanbeappliedtolowercostthinfilmsolarcellsusingamorphoussilicon,as
opposedtoconventionalcrystallinesilicon,toproduceacellwithabout10%efficiencythatislightweight
andflexible.Thisapproachhasbeenusedbyseveralcommercialvendors,[8]buttheseproductsare
currentlylimitedtocertainnicheroles,likeroofingmaterials.
Contents
1Description
1.1Basicsofsolarcells
1.2Lossmechanisms
1.3Multijunctioncells
1.3.1MaterialChoice
1.4Structuralelements
1.4.1Metalliccontacts
1.4.2Antireflectivecoating
1.4.3Tunneljunctions
1.4.4Windowlayerandbacksurfacefield
1.5JVcharacteristic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multijunction_solar_cell#Comparison_with_other_technologies
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1.5JVcharacteristic
1.6TheoreticalLimitingEfficiency
2Materials
2.1Galliumarsenidesubstrate
2.2Germaniumsubstrate
2.3Indiumphosphidesubstrate
2.4Indiumgalliumnitridesubstrate
3Performanceimprovements
3.1Structure
3.2Spectralvariations
3.3Useoflightconcentrators
4Fabrication
5Comparisonwithothertechnologies
6Applications
7References
8Furtherreading
9Seealso
Description
Basicsofsolarcells
Traditionalphotovoltaiccellsarecommonlycomposedofdopedsiliconwithmetalliccontactsdepositedon
thetopandbottom.Thedopingisnormallyappliedtoathinlayeronthetopofthecell,producingapn
junctionwithaparticularbandgapenergy,Eg.
Photonsthathitthetopofthesolarcellareeitherreflectedortransmittedintothecell.Transmittedphotons
havethepotentialtogivetheirenergyhtoanelectronifhEg,generatinganelectronholepair.[10]In
thedepletionregion,thedriftelectricfieldEdriftacceleratesbothelectronsandholestowardstheir
respectivendopedandpdopedregions(upanddown,respectively).TheresultingcurrentIgiscalledthe
generatedphotocurrent.Inthequasineutralregion,thescatteringelectricfieldEscattacceleratesholes
(electrons)towardsthepdoped(ndoped)region,whichgivesascatteringphotocurrentIpscatt(Inscatt).
Consequently,duetotheaccumulationofcharges,apotentialVandaphotocurrentIphappear.The
expressionforthisphotocurrentisobtainedbyaddinggenerationandscatteringphotocurrents:Iph=Ig+
Inscatt+Ipscatt.
TheJVcharacteristics(Jiscurrentdensity,i.e.currentperunitarea)ofasolarcellunderilluminationare
obtainedbyshiftingtheJVcharacteristicsofadiodeinthedarkdownwardbyIph.Sincesolarcellsare
designedtosupplypowerandnotabsorbit,thepowerP=VIphmustbenegative.Hence,theoperating
point(Vm,Jm)islocatedintheregionwhereV>0andIph<0,andchosentomaximizetheabsolutevalueof
thepower|P|.[11]
Lossmechanisms
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Thetheoreticalperformanceofasolarcellwasfirst
studiedindepthinthe1960s,andistodayknownas
theShockleyQueisserlimit.Thelimitdescribes
severallossmechanismsthatareinherenttoany
solarcelldesign.
Thefirstarethelossesduetoblackbodyradiation,a
lossmechanismthataffectsanymaterialobject
aboveabsolutezero.Inthecaseofsolarcellsat
standardtemperatureandpressure,thisloss
accountsforabout7%ofthepower.Thesecondis
aneffectknownas"recombination",wherethe
electronscreatedbythephotoelectriceffectmeet
theelectronholesleftbehindbyprevious
excitations.Insilicon,thisaccountsforanother
10%ofthepower.
However,thedominantlossmechanismisthe
inabilityofasolarcelltoextractallofthepowerin
thephoton,andtheassociatedproblemthatit
cannotextractanypoweratallfromcertain
photons.Thisisduetothefactthattheelectrons
musthaveenoughenergytoovercomethebandgap
ofthematerial.
FigureA.Banddiagramillustrationofthephotovoltaic
effect.Photonsgivetheirenergytoelectronsinthe
depletionorquasineutralregions.Thesemovefrom
conductionbandtovalenceband.Dependingonthe
location,electronsandholesareacceleratedbyEdrift,
whichgivesgenerationphotocurrent,orbyEscatt,which
givesscatteringphotocurrent. [9]
Ifthephotonhaslessenergythanthebandgap,itis
notcollectedatall.Thisisamajorconsiderationfor
conventionalsolarcells,whicharenotsensitivetomostofthe
infraredspectrum,althoughthatrepresentsalmosthalfofthepower
comingfromthesun.Conversely,photonswithmoreenergythan
thebandgap,saybluelight,initiallyejectanelectrontoastatehigh
abovethebandgap,butthisextraenergyislostthroughcollisionsin
aprocessknownas"relaxation".Thislostenergyturnsintoheatin
thecell,whichhasthesideeffectoffurtherincreasingblackbody
losses.[12]
Combiningallofthesefactors,themaximumefficiencyforasingle
bandgapmaterial,likeconventionalsiliconcells,isabout34%.That
is,66%oftheenergyinthesunlighthittingthecellwillbelost.
Practicalconcernsfurtherreducethis,notablyreflectionoffthe
frontsurfaceorthemetalterminals,withmodernhighqualitycells
atabout22%.
Lower,alsocallednarrower,bandgapmaterialswillconvertlonger
wavelength,lowerenergyphotons.Higher,orwiderbandgap
materialswillconvertshorterwavelength,higherenergylight.An
TheShockleyQueisserlimitforthe
efficiencyofasinglejunctionsolar
cell.Itisessentiallyimpossiblefora
singlejunctionsolarcell,under
unconcentratedsunlight,tohavemore
than~34%efficiency.Amulti
junctioncell,however,canexceed
thatlimit.
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analysisoftheAM1.5spectrum,showsthebestbalanceisreachedatabout1.1eV,inthenearinfrared,
whichhappenstobeveryclosetothenaturalbandgapinsiliconandanumberofotheruseful
semiconductors.
Multijunctioncells
Cellsmadefrommultiplematerialshavemultiplebandgaps.So,itwillrespondtomultiplelight
wavelengthsandsomeoftheenergythatwouldotherwisebelosttorelaxationasdescribedabove,canbe
capturedandconverted.
Forinstance,ifonehadacellwithtwobandgapsinit,onetunedtoredlightandtheothertogreen,thenthe
extraenergyingreen,cyanandbluelightwouldbelostonlytothebandgapofthegreensensitivematerial,
whiletheenergyofthered,yellowandorangewouldbelostonlytothebandgapoftheredsensitive
material.Followinganalysissimilartothoseperformedforsinglebandgapdevices,itcanbedemonstrated
thattheperfectbandgapsforatwogapdeviceareat1.1eVand1.8eV.[13]
Conveniently,lightofaparticularwavelengthdoesnotinteractstronglywithmaterialsthatarenota
multipleofthatwavelength.Thismeansthatyoucanmakeamultijunctioncellbylayeringthedifferent
materialsontopofeachother,shortestwavelengthsonthe"top"andincreasingthroughthebodyofthe
cell.Asthephotonshavetopassthroughthecelltoreachtheproperlayertobeabsorbed,transparent
conductorsneedtobeusedtocollecttheelectronsbeinggeneratedateachlayer.
Producinga
tandemcellis
notaneasytask,
largelydueto
thethinnessof
thematerialsand
thedifficulties
extractingthe
currentbetween
thelayers.The
easysolutionis
tousetwo
mechanically
separatethin
filmsolarcells
FigureC.(a)ThestructureofanMJsolarcell.Therearesiximportanttypesoflayers:pn
andthenwire
junctions,backsurfacefield(BSF)layers,windowlayers,tunneljunctions,antireflective
themtogether
coatingandmetalliccontacts.(b)GraphofspectralirradianceEvs.wavelengthoverthe
separately
AM1.5solarspectrum,togetherwiththemaximumelectricityconversionefficiencyforevery
outsidethecell.
junctionasafunctionofthewavelength. [11]
Thistechniqueis
widelyusedby
amorphoussiliconsolarcells,UniSolar'sproductsusethreesuchlayerstoreachefficienciesaround9%.
Labexamplesusingmoreexoticthinfilmmaterialshavedemonstratedefficienciesover30%.[13]
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Themoredifficultsolutionisthe"monolithicallyintegrated"cell,wherethecellconsistsofanumberof
layersthataremechanicallyandelectricallyconnected.Thesecellsaremuchmoredifficulttoproduce
becausetheelectricalcharacteristicsofeachlayerhastobecarefullymatched.Inparticular,the
photocurrentgeneratedineachlayerneedstobematched,otherwiseelectronswillbeabsorbedbetween
layers.Thislimitstheirconstructiontocertainmaterials,bestmetbytheIIIVsemiconductors.[13]
MaterialChoice
Thechoiceofmaterialsforeachsubcellisdeterminedbytherequirementsforlatticematching,current
matching,andhighperformanceoptoelectronicproperties.
Foroptimalgrowthandresultingcrystalquality,thecrystallatticeconstantaofeachmaterialmustbe
closelymatched,resultinginlatticematcheddevices.Thisconstrainthasbeenrelaxedsomewhatin
recentlydevelopedmetamorphicsolarcellswhichcontainasmalldegreeoflatticemismatch.However,a
greaterdegreeofmismatchorothergrowthimperfectionscanleadtocrystaldefectscausingadegradation
inelectronicproperties.
Sinceeachsubcellisconnectedelectricallyinseries,thesamecurrentflowsthrougheachjunction.The
materialsareorderedwithdecreasingbandgaps,Eg,allowingsubbandgaplight(hc/<eEg)totransmitto
thelowersubcells.Therefore,suitablebandgapsmustbechosensuchthatthedesignspectrumwillbalance
thecurrentgenerationineachofthesubcells,achievingcurrentmatching.FigureC(b)plotsspectral
irradianceE(),whichisthesourcepowerdensityatagivenwavelength.Itisplottedtogetherwiththe
maximumconversionefficiencyforeveryjunctionasafunctionofthewavelength,whichisdirectlyrelated
tothenumberofphotonsavailableforconversionintophotocurrent.
Finally,thelayersmustbeelectricallyoptimalforhighperformance.Thisnecessitatesusageofmaterials
withstrongabsorptioncoefficients(),highminoritycarrierlifetimesminority,andhighmobilities.[14]
Thefavorablevaluesinthetablebelowjustifythechoiceofmaterialstypicallyusedformultijunction
solarcells:InGaPforthetopsubcell(Eg=1.81.9eV),InGaAsforthemiddlesubcell(Eg=1.4eV),and
Germaniumforthebottomsubcell(Eg=0.67eV).TheuseofGeismainlyduetoitslatticeconstant,
robustness,lowcost,abundance,andeaseofproduction.
Becausethedifferentlayersarecloselylatticematched,thefabricationofthedevicetypicallyemploys
metalorganicchemicalvapordeposition(MOCVD).Thistechniqueispreferabletothemolecularbeam
epitaxy(MBE)becauseitensureshighcrystalqualityandlargescaleproduction.[11]
absorption
,cm/(Vs) p,s Hardness ,m/K
Material Eg,eV a,nm
(=0.8m),1/m n
(Mohs)
S,m/s
cSi
1.12 0.5431
0.102
1400
2.6
0.160
InGaP
1.86 0.5451
500
5.3
50
GaAs
1.4
0.9
8500
45
50
Ge
0.65 0.5657
3900
1000
1000
InGaAs
1.2
30
1200
5.66
1001000
0.5653
0.5868
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Structuralelements
Metalliccontacts
Themetalliccontactsarelowresistivityelectrodesthatmakecontactwiththesemiconductorlayers.They
areoftenaluminum.Thisprovidesanelectricalconnectiontoaloadorotherpartsofasolarcellarray.
Theyareusuallyontwosidesofthecell.Andareimportanttobeonthebackfacesothatshadowingonthe
lightingsurfaceisreduced.
Antireflectivecoating
Antireflective(AR)coatingisgenerallycomposedofseverallayersinthecaseofMJsolarcells.Thetop
ARlayerhasusuallyaNaOHsurfacetexturationwithseveralpyramidsinordertoincreasethe
transmissioncoefficientT,thetrappingofthelightinthematerial(becausephotonscannoteasilygetout
theMJstructureduetopyramids)andtherefore,thepathlengthofphotonsinthematerial.[9]Ontheone
hand,thethicknessofeachARlayerischosentogetdestructiveinterferences.Therefore,thereflection
coefficientRdecreasesto1%.InthecaseoftwoARlayersL1(thetoplayer,usuallySiO2)andL2(usually
TiO2),theremustbe
tohavethesameamplitudesforreflectedfieldsandnL1dL1=
4min,nL2dL2=min/4tohaveoppositephaseforreflectedfields.[15]Ontheotherhand,thethicknessof
eachARlayerisalsochosentominimizethereflectanceatwavelengthsforwhichthephotocurrentisthe
lowest.Consequently,thismaximizesJSCbymatchingcurrentsofthethreesubcells.[16]Asexample,
becausethecurrentgeneratedbythebottomcellisgreaterthanthecurrentsgeneratedbytheothercells,the
thicknessofARlayersisadjustedsothattheinfrared(IR)transmission(whichcorrespondstothebottom
cell)isdegradedwhiletheultraviolettransmission(whichcorrespondstothetopcell)isupgraded.
Particularly,anARcoatingisveryimportantatlowwavelengthsbecause,withoutit,Twouldbestrongly
reducedto70%.
Tunneljunctions
Themaingoaloftunneljunctionsistoprovidealowelectricalresistanceandopticallylowlossconnection
betweentwosubcells.[17]Withoutit,thepdopedregionofthetopcellwouldbedirectlyconnectedwiththe
ndopedregionofthemiddlecell.Hence,apnjunctionwithoppositedirectiontotheotherswouldappear
betweenthetopcellandthemiddlecell.Consequently,thephotovoltagewouldbelowerthanifthere
wouldbenoparasiticdiode.Inordertodecreasethiseffect,atunneljunctionisused.[18]Itissimplyawide
bandgap,highlydopeddiode.Thehighdopingreducesthelengthofthedepletionregionbecause
Hence,electronscaneasilytunnelthroughthedepletionregion.TheJVcharacteristicofthetunnel
junctionisveryimportantbecauseitexplainswhytunneljunctionscanbeusedtohavealowelectrical
resistanceconnectionbetweentwopnjunctions.FigureDshowsthreedifferentregions:thetunneling
region,thenegativedifferentialresistanceregionandthethermaldiffusionregion.Theregionwhere
electronscantunnelthroughthebarrieriscalledthetunnelingregion.There,thevoltagemustbelow
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enoughsothatenergyofsomeelectronswhoare
tunnelingisequaltoenergystatesavailableontheother
sideofthebarrier.Consequently,currentdensity
throughthetunneljunctionishigh(withmaximum
valueof ,thepeakcurrentdensity)andtheslope
neartheoriginisthereforesteep.Then,theresistanceis
extremelylowandconsequently,thevoltagetoo.[19]
Thisiswhytunneljunctionsareidealforconnecting
twopnjunctionswithouthavingavoltagedrop.When
voltageishigher,electronscannotcrossthebarrier
becauseenergystatesarenolongeravailablefor
electrons.Therefore,thecurrentdensitydecreasesand
thedifferentialresistanceisnegative.Thelastregion,
calledthermaldiffusionregion,correspondstotheJV
characteristicoftheusualdiode:
FigureD:Layersandbanddiagramofthetunnel
junction.Becausethelengthofthedepletionregion
isnarrowandthebandgapishigh,electronscan
tunnel.
InordertoavoidthereductionoftheMJsolarcell
performances,tunneljunctionsmustbetransparentto
wavelengthsabsorbedbythenextphotovoltaiccell,themiddlecell,i.e.EgTunnel>EgMiddleCell.
Windowlayerandbacksurfacefield
FigureE:(a)Layersandbanddiagramofawindowlayer.Thesurfacerecombination
isreduced.(b)LayersandbanddiagramofaBSFlayer.Thescatteringofcarriersis
reduced.
Awindowlayerisused
inordertoreducethe
surfacerecombination
velocityS.Similarly,a
backsurfacefield(BSF)
layerreducesthe
scatteringofcarriers
towardsthetunnel
junction.Thestructure
ofthesetwolayersisthe
same:itisa
heterojunctionwhich
catcheselectrons
(holes).Indeed,despite
theelectricfieldEd,
thesecannotjumpabove
thebarrierformedbythe
heterojunctionbecause
theydon'thaveenough
energy,asillustratedinfigureE.Hence,electrons(holes)cannotrecombinewithholes(electrons)and
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cannotdiffusethroughthebarrier.Bytheway,windowandBSFlayersmustbetransparenttowavelengths
absorbedbythenextpnjunctioni.e.EgWindow>EgEmitterandEgBSF>EgEmitter.Furthermore,thelattice
constantmustbeclosetotheoneofInGaPandthelayermustbehighlydoped(n1018cm3).[20]
JVcharacteristic
Formaximumefficiency,eachsubcellshouldbeoperatedatitsoptimalJVparameters,whicharenot
necessarilyequalforeachsubcell.Iftheyaredifferent,thetotalcurrentthroughthesolarcellisthelowest
ofthethree.Byapproximation,[21]itresultsinthesamerelationshipfortheshortcircuitcurrentoftheMJ
solarcell:JSC=min(JSC1,JSC2,JSC3)whereJSCi()istheshortcircuitcurrentdensityatagiven
wavelengthforthesubcelli.
BecauseoftheimpossibilitytoobtainJSC1,JSC2,JSC3directlyfromthetotalJVcharacteristic,the
quantumefficiencyQE()isutilized.Itmeasurestheratiobetweentheamountofelectronholepairs
createdandtheincidentphotonsatagivenwavelength.Leti()bethephotonfluxofcorresponding
incidentlightinsubcelliandQEi()bethequantumefficiencyofthesubcelli.Bydefinition,thisequatesto:
[22]
Thevalueof
isobtainedbylinkingitwiththeabsorptioncoefficient
,i.e.thenumberof
photonsabsorbedperunitoflengthbyamaterial.Ifitisassumedthateachphotonabsorbedbyasubcell
createsanelectron/holepair(whichisagoodapproximation),thisleadsto:[20]
wherediisthethicknessofthesubcelliand
ofincidentlightwhichisnotabsorbedbythesubcelli.
isthepercentage
Similarly,because
,thefollowingapproximationcanbeused:
Thevaluesof
arethengivenbytheJVdiodeequation:
TheoreticalLimitingEfficiency
Wecanestimatethelimitingefficiencyofidealinfinitemultijunctionsolarcellsusingthegraphical
quantumefficiency(QE)analysisinventedbyC.H.Henry.[23]TofullytakeadvantageofHenrysmethod,
theunitoftheAM1.5spectralirradianceshouldbeconvertedtothatofphotonflux(i.e.,numberof
photons/m2/s).Todothat,itisnecessarytocarryoutanintermediateunitconversionfromthepowerof
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electromagneticradiationincidentperunitareaperphotonenergytothephotonfluxperphotonenergy
(i.e.,from[W/m2/eV]to[numberofphotons/m2/s/eV]).Forthisintermediateunitconversion,the
followingpointshavetobeconsidered:Aphotonhasadistinctenergywhichisdefinedasfollows.
(1):Eph=hf=h(c/)
whereEphisphotonenergy,hisPlancksconstant(h=6.626*1034[Js]),cisspeedoflight(c=2.998*108
[m/s]),fisfrequency[1/s],andiswavelength[nm].
Thenthephotonfluxperphotonenergy,dnph/dh,withrespecttocertainirradianceE[W/m2/eV]canbe
calculatedasfollows.
(2):
=E/{h(c/)}=E[W/(m2eV)](109[m])/(1.9981025[Jsm/s])=E5.031015[(#
ofphotons)/(m2seV)]
Asaresultofthisintermediateunitconversion,theAM1.5spectralirradianceisgiveninunitofthephoton
fluxperphotonenergy,[numberofphotons/m2/s/eV],asshowninFigure1.
Figure1.Photonflux
perphotonenergy
fromstandardsolar
energyspectrum(AM
of1.5).
Basedontheaboveresultfromtheintermediateunitconversion,wecanderivethephotonfluxby
numericallyintegratingthephotonfluxperphotonenergywithrespecttophotonenergy.Thenumerically
integratedphotonfluxiscalculatedusingtheTrapezoidalrule,asfollows.
(3):
Asaresultofthisnumericalintegration,theAM1.5spectralirradianceisgiveninunitofthephotonflux,
[numberofphotons/m2/s],asshowninFigure2.
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Figure2.Photonflux
fromstandardsolar
energyspectrum(AM
of1.5).
Itisshouldbenotedthattherearenophotonfluxdatainthesmallphotonenergyrangefrom0eVto
0.3096eVbecausethestandard(AM1.5)solarenergyspectrumforh<0.31eVarenotavailable.
Regardlessofthisdataunavailability,however,thegraphicalQEanalysiscanbedoneusingtheonly
availabledatawithareasonableassumptionthatsemiconductorsareopaqueforphotonenergiesgreater
thantheirbandgapenergy,buttransparentforphotonenergieslessthantheirbandgapenergy.This
assumptionaccountsforthefirstintrinsiclossintheefficiencyofsolarcells,whichiscausedbythe
inabilityofsinglejunctionsolarcellstoproperlymatchthebroadsolarenergyspectrum.However,the
currentgraphicalQEanalysisstillcannotreflectthesecondintrinsiclossintheefficiencyofsolarcells,
radiativerecombination.Totaketheradiativerecombinationintoaccount,weneedtoevaluatetheradiative
currentdensity,Jrad,first.AccordingtoShockleyandQueissermethod,[24]Jradcanbeapproximatedas
follows.
(4):
(5):
whereEgisinelectronvoltsandnisevaluatedtobe3.6,thevalueforGaAs.Theincidentabsorbedthermal
radiationJthisgivenbyJradwithV=0.
(6):
Thecurrentdensitydeliveredtotheloadisthedifferenceofthecurrentdensitiesduetoabsorbedsolarand
thermalradiationandthecurrentdensityofradiationemittedfromthetopsurfaceorabsorbedinthe
substrate.DefiningJph=enph,wehave
(7):J=Jph+JthJrad
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Thesecondterm,Jth,isnegligiblecomparedtoJphforallsemiconductorswithE.g.0.3eV,ascanbe
shownbyevaluationoftheaboveJthequation.Thus,wewillneglectthistermtosimplifythefollowing
discussion.ThenwecanexpressJasfollows.
(8):
TheopencircuitvoltageisfoundbysettingJ=0.
(9):
Themaximumpowerpoint(Jm,Vm)isfoundbystettingthederivative
.Thefamiliarresultof
thiscalculationis
(10):
(11):
Finally,themaximumwork(Wm)doneperabsorbedphoton,Wmisgivenby
(12):
Combiningthelastthreeequations,wehave
(13):
Usingtheaboveequation,Wm(redline)isplottedinFigure3fordifferentvaluesofEg(ornph).
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Figure3.Maximum
workbyidealinfinite
multijunctionsolar
cellsunderstandard
AM1.5spectral
irradiance.
Now,wecanfullyuseHenrysgraphicalQEanalysis,takingintoaccountthetwomajorintrinsiclossesin
theefficiencyofsolarcells.Thetwomainintrinsiclossesareradiativerecombination,andtheinabilityof
singlejunctionsolarcellstoproperlymatchthebroadsolarenergyspectrum.Theshadedareaunderthered
linerepresentsthemaximumworkdonebyidealinfinitemultijunctionsolarcells.Hence,thelimiting
efficiencyofidealinfinitemultijunctionsolarcellsisevaluatedtobe68.8%bycomparingtheshadedarea
definedbytheredlinewiththetotalphotonfluxareadeterminedbytheblackline.(Thisiswhythis
methodiscalledgraphicalQEanalysis.)Althoughthislimitingefficiencyvalueisconsistentwiththe
valuespublishedbyParrottandVosin1979:64%and68.2%respectively,[25][26]thereisasmallgap
betweentheestimatedvalueinthisreportandliteraturevalues.Thisminordifferenceismostlikelydueto
thedifferentwayshowtoapproximatethephotonfluxfrom0eVto0.3096eV.Here,weapproximatedthe
photonfluxfrom0eVto0.3096eVasthesameasthephotonfluxat0.31eV.
Materials
Themajorityofmultijunctioncellsthathavebeenproducedtodateusethreelayers(althoughmany
tandemaSi:H/mcSimoduleshavebeenproducedandarewidelyavailable).However,thetriplejunction
cellsrequiretheuseofsemiconductorsthatcanbetunedtospecificfrequencies,whichhasledtomostof
thembeingmadeofgalliumarsenide(GaAs)compounds,oftengermaniumforthebottom,GaAsforthe
middle,andGaInP2forthetopcell.
Galliumarsenidesubstrate
DualjunctioncellscanbemadeonGalliumarsenidewafers.AlloysofIndiumgalliumphosphideinthe
rangeIn.5Ga.5PthroughIn.53Ga.47Pserveasthehighbandgapalloy.Thisalloyrangeprovidesforthe
abilitytohavebandgapsintherangeof1.92eVto1.87eV.ThelowerGaAsjunctionhasabandgapof
1.42eV.
Germaniumsubstrate
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Triplejunctioncellsconsistingofindiumgalliumphosphide(InGaP),galliumarsenide(GaAs)orindium
galliumarsenide(InGaAs)andgermanium(Ge)canbefabricatedongermaniumwafers.Earlycellsused
straightgalliumarsenideinthemiddlejunction.LatercellshaveutilizedIn0.015Ga0.985As,duetothebetter
latticematchtoGe,resultinginalowerdefectdensity.
DuetothehugebandgapdifferencebetweenGaAs(1.42eV),andGe(0.66eV),thecurrentmatchisvery
poor,withtheGejunctionoperatedsignificantlycurrentlimited.
CurrentefficienciesforcommercialInGaP/GaAs/Gecellsapproach40%underconcentratedsunlight.[27][28]
Labcells(partlyusingadditionaljunctionsbetweentheGaAsandGejunction)havedemonstrated
efficienciesabove40%.[29]
Indiumphosphidesubstrate
Indiumphosphidemaybeusedasasubstratetofabricatecellswithbandgapsbetween1.35eVand0.74eV.
IndiumPhosphidehasabandgapof1.35eV.Indiumgalliumarsenide(In0.53Ga0.47As)islatticematchedto
IndiumPhosphidewithabandgapof0.74eV.AquaternaryalloyofIndiumgalliumarsenidephosphidecan
belatticematchedforanybandgapinbetweenthetwo.
Indiumphosphidebasedcellshavethepotentialtoworkintandemwithgalliumarsenidecells.Thetwo
cellscanbeopticallyconnectedinseries(withtheInPcellbelowtheGaAscell),orinparallelthroughthe
useofspectrasplittingusingaDichroicfilter.
Indiumgalliumnitridesubstrate
Indiumgalliumnitride(InGaN)isasemiconductormaterialmadeofamixofgalliumnitride(GaN)and
indiumnitride(InN).ItisaternarygroupIII/Vdirectbandgapsemiconductor.Itsbandgapcanbetunedby
varyingtheamountofindiuminthealloyfrom0.7eVto3.4eV,thusmakingitanidealmaterialforsolar
cells.[30]However,itsconversionefficienciesbecauseoftechnologicalfactorsunrelatedtobandgaparestill
nothighenoughtobecompetitiveinthemarket.[31][32]
Performanceimprovements
Structure
AllMJphotovoltaiccellsuseIIIVsemiconductormaterials.GaAsSbbasedheterojunctiontunneldiodes,
insteadofconventionalInGaPhighlydopedtunneldiodesdescribedabove,havealowertunneling
distance.Indeed,intheheterostructureformedbyGaAsSbandInGaAs,thevalencebandofGaAsSbis
higherthanthevalencebandoftheadjoiningpdopedlayer.[18]Consequently,thetunnelingdistancedtunnel
isreducedandsothetunnelingcurrent,whichexponentiallydependsofdtunnel,isincreased.Hence,the
voltageislowerthanthatoftheInGaPtunneljunction.GaAsSbheterojunctiontunneldiodesofferother
advantages.Thesamecurrentcanbeachievedbyusingalowerdoping.[33]Secondly,becausethelattice
constantislargerforGaAsSbthanGe,onecanuseawiderrangeofmaterialsforthebottomcellbecause
morematerialsarelatticematchedtoGaAsSbthantoGe.[18]
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Chemicalcomponentscanbeaddedtosomelayers.AddingaboutonepercentofIndiumineachlayer
bettermatcheslatticeconstantsofthedifferentlayers.[34]Withoutit,thereisabout0.08percentof
mismatchingbetweenlayers,whichinhibitsperformance.Addingaluminiumtothetopcellincreasesits
bandgapto1.96eV,[34]coveringalargerpartofthesolarspectrumandobtainahigheropencircuitvoltage
VOC.
ThetheoreticalefficiencyofMJsolarcellsis86.8%foraninfinitenumberofpnjunctions,[11]implying
thatmorejunctionsincreaseefficiency.Themaximumtheoreticalefficiencyis37,50,56,72%for1,2,3,
36pnjunctions,respectively,withthenumberofjunctionsincreasingexponentiallytoachieveequal
effiencyincrements.[20]Theexponentialrelationshipimpliesthatasthecellapproachesthelimitof
efficiency,theincreasecostandcomplexitygrowrapidly.Decreasingthethicknessofthetopcellincreases
thetransmissioncoefficientT.[20]
Finally,anInGaPheterolayerbetweenthepGelayerandtheInGaAslayercanbeaddedinordertocreate
automaticallythenGelayerbyscatteringduringMOCVDgrowthandincreasesignificantlythequantum
efficiencyQE()ofthebottomcell.[34]InGaPisadvantageousbecauseofitshighscatteringcoefficientand
lowsolubilityinGe.
Spectralvariations
SolarspectrumattheEarthsurfacechangesconstantlydependingontheweatherandsunposition.This
resultsinthevariationof(),QE(),()andthustheshortcircuitcurrentsJSCi.Asaresult,thecurrent
densitiesJiarenotnecessarilymatchedandthetotalcurrentbecomeslower.Thesevariationscanbe
quantifiedusingtheaveragephotonenergy(APE)whichistheratiobetweenthespectralirradianceG()
(thepowerdensityofthelightsourceinaspecificwavelength)andthetotalphotonfluxdensity.Itcanbe
shownthatahigh(low)valueforAPEmeanslow(high)wavelengthsspectralconditionsandhigher
(lower)efficiencies.[35]ThusAPEisagoodindicatorforquantifyingtheeffectsofthesolarspectrum
variationsonperformancesandhastheaddedadvantageofbeingindependentofthedevicestructureand
theabsorptionprofileofthedevice.[35]
Useoflightconcentrators
Lightconcentratorsincreaseefficienciesandreducethecost/efficiencyratio.Thethreetypesoflight
concentratorsinusearerefractivelenseslikeFresnellenses,reflectivedishes(parabolicorcassegraine),
andlightguideoptics.Thankstothesedevices,lightarrivingonalargesurfacecanbeconcentratedona
smallercell.Theintensityconcentrationratio(orsuns)istheaverageintensityofthefocusedlight
dividedby0.1W/cm.IfitsvalueisXthentheMJcurrentbecomesXhigherunderconcentrated
illumination.[36][37]
Usingconcentrationsontheorderof500to1000,meaningthata1cmcellcanusethelightcollectedfrom
0.1m(as1mequal10000cm),producesthehighestefficienciesseentodate.Threelayercellsare
fundamentallylimitedto63%,butexistingcommercialprototypeshavealreadydemonstratedover40%.[38]
[39]Thesecellscaptureabout2/3oftheirtheoreticalmaximumperformance,soassumingthesameistrue
foranonconcentratedversionofthesamedesign,onemightexpectathreelayercellof30%efficiency.
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Thisisnotenoughofanadvantageovertraditionalsilicondesignstomakeupfortheirextraproduction
costs.Forthisreason,almostallmultijunctioncellresearchforterrestrialuseisdedicatedtoconcentrator
systems,normallyusingmirrorsorfresnellenses.
Usingaconcentratoralsohastheaddedbenefitthatthenumberofcellsneededtocoveragivenamountof
groundareaisgreatlyreduced.Aconventionalsystemcovering1mwouldrequire62516cmcells,but
foraconcentratorsystemonlyasinglecellisneeded,alongwithaconcentrator.Theargumentfor
concentratedMultijunctioncellshasbeenthatthehighcostofthecellsthemselveswouldbemorethan
offsetbythereductionintotalnumberofcells.However,thedownsideoftheconcentratorapproachisthat
efficiencydropsoffveryquicklyunderlowerlightingconditions.Inordertomaximizeitsadvantageover
traditionalcellsandthusbecostcompetitive,theconcentratorsystemhastotrackthesunasitmovesto
keepthelightfocusedonthecellandmaintainmaximumefficiencyaslongaspossible.Thisrequiresa
solartrackersystem,whichincreasesyield,butalsocost.
Fabrication
Asof2014multijunctioncellswereexpensivetoproduce,usingtechniquessimilartosemiconductor
devicefabrication,usuallymetalorganicvapourphaseepitaxybuton"chip"sizesontheorderof
centimeters.
Anewtechniquewasannouncedthatyearthatallowedsuchcellstouseasubstrateofglassorsteel,lower
costvaporsinreducedquantitiesthatwasclaimedtooffercostscompetitivewithconventionalsiliconcells.
[40]
Comparisonwithothertechnologies
Therearefourmaincategoriesofphotovoltaiccells:conventionalmonoandmulticrystallinesilicon(cSi)
cells,thinfilmsolarcells(aSi,CIGSandCdTe),andmultijunction(MJ)solarcells.Thefourthcategory,
emergingphotovoltaics,containstechnologiesthatarestillintheresearchordevelopmentphaseandare
notlistedinthetablebelow.
Categories
Crystallinesiliconcells
Thinfilmsolarcells
Multijunctioncells
Technology
(%) VOC(V) ISC(A) W/m t(m) Refs
Monocrystalline
24.7
0.5
0.8
63
100
Polysilicon
20.3
0.615
8.35
211
200
Amorphoussilicon 11.1
0.63
0.089
33
CdTe
16.5
0.86
0.029
CIGS
19.5
MJ
40.7
2.6
1.81
476
140
MJsolarcellsandotherphotovoltaicdeviceshavesignificantdifferences(seethetableabove).Physically,
themainpropertyofaMJsolarcellishavingmorethanonepnjunctioninordertocatchalargerphoton
energyspectrumwhilethemainpropertyofthethinfilmsolarcellistousethinfilmsinsteadofthick
layersinordertodecreasethecostefficiencyratio.Asof2010,MJsolarpanelsaremoreexpensivethan
others.Thesedifferencesimplydifferentapplications:MJsolarcellsarepreferredinspaceandcSisolar
cellsforterrestrialapplications.
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Theefficienciesofsolar
cellsandSisolar
technologyarerelatively
stable,whilethe
efficiencyofsolar
modulesandmulti
junctiontechnologyare
progressing.
MeasurementsonMJ
solarcellsareusually
madeinlaboratory,
usinglightconcentrators
(thisisoftennotthecase
fortheothercells)and
understandardtest
conditions(STCs).STCs
prescribe,forterrestrial
applications,theAM1.5
spectrumasthereference.Thisairmass(AM)correspondstoafixedpositionofthesunintheskyof48
andafixedpowerof833W/m.Therefore,spectralvariationsofincidentlightandenvironmental
parametersarenottakenintoaccountunderSTC.[41]
Consequently,performanceofMJsolarcellsinterrestrialenvironmentisinferiortothatachievedin
laboratory.Moreover,MJsolarcellsaredesignedsuchthatcurrentsarematchedunderSTC,butnot
necessarilyunderfieldconditions.OnecanuseQE()tocompareperformancesofdifferenttechnologies,
butQE()containsnoinformationonthematchingofcurrentsofsubcells.Animportantcomparisonpoint
israthertheoutputpowerperunitareageneratedwiththesameincidentlight.
Applications
Asof2010,thecostofMJsolarcellswastoohightoallowuseoutsideofspecializedapplications.The
highcostismainlyduetothecomplexstructureandthehighpriceofmaterials.Nevertheless,withlight
concentratorsunderilluminationofatleast400suns,MJsolarpanelsbecomepractical.[20]
Aslessexpensivemultijunctionmaterialsbecomeavailableotherapplicationsinvolvebandgap
engineeringformicroclimateswithvariedatmosphericconditions.[42]
MJcellsarecurrentlybeingutilizedintheMarsrovermissions.[43]
Theenvironmentinspaceisquitedifferent.Becausethereisnoatmosphere,thesolarspectrumisdifferent
(AM0).Thecellshaveapoorcurrentmatchduetoagreaterphotonfluxofphotonsabove1.87eVvs.those
between1.87eVand1.42eV.ThisresultsintoolittlecurrentintheGaAsjunction,andhamperstheoverall
efficiencysincetheInGaPjunctionoperatesbelowMPPcurrentandtheGaAsjunctionoperatesabove
MPPcurrent.Toimprovecurrentmatch,theInGaPlayerisintentionallythinnedtoallowadditional
photonstopenetratetothelowerGaAslayer.
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Interrestrialconcentratingapplications,thescatterofbluelightbytheatmospherereducesthephotonflux
above1.87eV,betterbalancingthejunctioncurrents.Radiationparticlesthatarenolongerfilteredcancause
damagethecell.Therearetwokindsofdamage:ionisationandatomicdisplacement.[44]Still,MJcells
offerhigherradiationresistance,higherefficiencyandalowertemperaturecoefficient.[20]
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Furtherreading
Luque,AntonioHegedus,Steven,eds.(2003).HandbookofPhotovoltaicScienceandEngineering
(http://books.google.com/books?id=ubCMhl_JjQC&pg=PT390).JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN0471
491969.
Yarris,Lynn(7Nov2011).BerkeleyLabResearchSparksRecordBreakingSolarCellPerformance
(http://newscenter.lbl.gov/featurestories/2011/11/07/recordbreakingsolarcellperformances/).
NewsCenter(LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory).Retrieved10Dec2011."Theoretical
researchbyscientistswiththeU.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE)sLawrenceBerkeleyNational
Laboratory(BerkeleyLab)hasledtorecordbreakingsunlighttoelectricityconversionefficiencies
insolarcells."(reprintedinR&DMagazine(http://www.rdmag.com/News/2011/11/EnergySolar
EnergyBerkeleyLabResearchSparksRecordBreakingSolarCellPerformances/))
Seealso
Listofsemiconductormaterials
Organicphotovoltaiccell
PINdiode
Micromorph(aSi/cSitandemcell)
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