Journalism & Mass

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Audience Response to Brand Journalism: The Effect of Frame, Source, and

Involvement
James T. Cole II and Jennifer D. Greer
Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 2013 90: 673 originally published online
15 October 2013
DOI: 10.1177/1077699013503160
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research-article2013

JMQ90410.1177/1077699013503160Journalism & Mass Communication QuarterlyCole and Greer

Publics, Policies, and Social Control

Audience Response to
Brand Journalism: The
Effect of Frame, Source,
and Involvement

Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly

90(4) 673690
2013 AEJMC
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/1077699013503160
jmcq.sagepub.com

James T. Cole II1 and Jennifer D. Greer2

Abstract
This study examined reactions to brand journalism in light of frame, source, and
product involvement. Participants in an experimental study viewed a custom magazine
with either a commercial (branded) or editorial (nonbranded) frame and read a story
quoting either a peer or a corporate source. Readers rated the nonbranded magazine
higher in credibility, but source cues had no direct effects on credibility ratings.
Source did matter when combined with consumer product involvement. Highly
involved consumers had stronger brand attitudes and purchase intent after reading
advice from a peer source; low-involved consumers responded more favorably to a
corporate source.
Keywords
communication effects, magazines, framing, communication theory, advertising

Brand journalism, also called custom content or custom publishing, or named for
the medium of delivery (i.e., custom magazines), allows businesses to target customers with useful, tailored editorial content while promoting their brand, values, and
products. In 2011, U.S. companies poured 26% of their media budgets, a total of $40.2
billion, into custom content.1 Despite the digital publishing revolution, four-color
magazine-style print publications remain the preferred delivery method, accounting
1Red

Barn Media Group/Advanced Content, Birmingham, AL, USA

of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, USA

2University

Corresponding Author:
Jennifer D. Greer, Department of Journalism, University of Alabama, 490 Reese Phifer Hall, Box 870172,
Tuscaloosa, AL, 35487-0172, USA.
Email: jdgreer@ua.edu

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Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 90(4)

for about $24 billion of those expenditures. Even with rapid growth in electronic delivery, videos, and other new forms of reaching customers, 87% of companies still use
print as a custom content platform. About 88,500 unique custom print magazines were
produced in 2011.2 In a marketing environment, companies hope to build trust using
the relative power and credibility of editorial content, often seen as more pure than
advertising.3 As John Carroll of Boston University put it, Editorial is the new
advertising.4
To date, little academic research exists on how audiences react to custom magazines. What works best in these publications when companies seek to promote credibility, positive attitudes toward the brand, and purchase intent (PI)? Van Reijmersdal,
Neijens, and Smit,5 in one of the few published studies on effects of commerciality
in custom publications, found that as audiences perceive a publication as more commercial, credibility ratings dropped.6
Reactions to this mix of information and product promotion may indeed depend on
whether consumers perceive a custom magazine to be the creation of a sponsor (a
commercial frame) or as the creation of an independent publisher (an editorial
frame). The source of the information within the content might also affect audience
reaction. In custom magazines, customers and company experts are commonly used as
quoted sources in articles. Finally, custom magazines often are targeted to existing
customers, or those highly involved with a company or product category. Involvement
could interact with frame and source cues in shaping audience attitudes.
To investigate these concepts, this study uses an experimental design to examine
the effect of frame and attributed story source in a custom magazine on audience ratings of content credibility, attitude toward the brand, and PI. Furthermore, this study
examined the interaction of these variables with consumers involvement with the
product category. Understanding which type of sources and which type of publications
work best for which type of consumers provides valuable insight into those working in
brand journalism, and custom magazines in particular. The study also could provide
valuable insight into all those working in persuasive communication, including advertising and public relations. The questions also are vital in digital publishing environments that increasingly blend editorial and promotional content. How much
commercialism is accepted by readers in these contexts?

Literature Review
This study is guided by scholarly literature on framing, source credibility, and product
involvement.

Framing Theory
Framing, first formally named by Goffman7 in 1974, suggests that all individual perceptions occur within certain frames of reference, that is, accessible and preexisting
schema. Information is processed differently, given the interpretive schema an individual applies.8 The same message can be framed in different ways, invoking an
individual to use different schemas to interpret the message.9 Frames are critical to
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communication research, as they are important tools for individuals processing information and for message creators when tailoring a message.10 Entman argues that framing essentially involves selection and salience by making some information more
noticeable and salient.11 Frames can also obscure certain information, reducing its
salience.
Marketers, noting the demonstrated power of framing, see editorial content as perhaps the most valuable form of media, because it is perceived as more believable and
trustworthy than the hard sell of pure advertising.12 Outside of custom content
research, past studies have suggested that presenting an article as commercial (i.e.,
sponsored) content versus editorial (i.e., a news story or service story) can influence
how audiences interpret information. The placement and prominence of commercial
cues may trigger an advertising schema, thereby creating skepticism regarding the
content.13
Even advertorials, in which inherently commercial messages take on the appearance of editorial, have an advantage over pure advertising messages.14 Audiences find
pure editorial content more credible than advertising.15 In several experimental studies, researchers have found that audiences do not recognize advertiser-sponsored content when it is packaged to look like a news story.16 Even the label advertorial does
little to help readers recognize the information as an advertisement. Therefore,
advertiser-sponsored content presented as news stories is seen as more credible than
the same information presented as a traditional advertisement.17
Commercial entities often look to custom magazines to use the authority of editorial to shore up brand values.18 The intent, then, is not only to sell the product, but to
position the overall brand in the minds of the target audience.19 Attitude toward the
brand (Ab), or the audiences internal, individual evaluation of a brand, also is linked
to evaluations of promotional content. The audience sees the ad itself as a brand attribute. A likeable ad can contribute to the likeability of the brand.20
Custom magazines also may be used as a way to impactor even drivesales
leads.21 When product information is presented in an editorial format, or a news-like
presentation,22 perceived risk is decreased, and consumers show a tendency to trust the
information to draw a conclusion for their purchase intention.23
Literature on framing and perceived relative purity of editorial content led to the
creation of the following hypotheses:
H1a: Participants will rate information as more credible when it comes from an
editorial/non-branded frame, rather than a commercial/branded frame.
H1b: Participants will have a more positive attitude toward the company when
information comes from an editorial frame, rather than a commercial frame.
H1c: Purchase intent toward the featured product will increase when information
comes from an editorial frame, rather than a commercial frame.

Source Credibility
Messages are filtered through the receivers perception of the message source.24 Early
communication studies in source credibility set the construct forth as a component of
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Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 90(4)

persuasion.25 The sources intention, expertise, and trustworthiness affect the audiences perception of the credibility of the message.
In past studies, messages from a high-credibility source have been shown to
increase the amount of opinion change, at least short-term.26 To see a source as credible, the audience must believe the communicators opinions are unbiased and perceive
the source as knowledgeable in the content area.27
Companies that want to spread ideas through custom magazines face numerous
format choices for presenting ideas and numerous source choices to represent those
ideas.28 Of particular interest to a discussion of brand journalism is the intention of the
attributed source, referred to by McCroskey and Teven as the lost dimension of ethos/
credibility.29 This has been confirmed in editorial copy, where research indicates that
a competent (i.e., expert) neutral source is more credible than a competent source that
has a vested interest.30 Other studies suggest that information provided by peers is
perceived as credible as information from experts.31
The effect of attributed source in product information also has been explored in
relation to brand-building and PI. Although celebrity endorsers often are featured in
advertising, expert and peer endorsements are more relevant in custom magazines, as
they are generally perceived as more credible and more relatable to the target
audience.32
Framing has been used to examine the effects of source credibility. Druckman33
suggested that audiences rely on credible sources to sort through frames.34 Although
Druckmans work was concerned with the moderating effects of source credibility on
framing success, it can be helpful in the context of custom magazines, where the audiences defenses may already be heightened to the commerciality of the content.
Perception of the source as commercial (i.e., an advertiser serving its own benefit)
leads audiences to see this as an attempt to persuade. They, therefore, find the content
less credible.35 Van Reijmersdal, Neijens, and Smit clarified that persuasive knowledge has a negative effect on message credibility.36
The literature on the importance of source in audience perceptions led to the following hypotheses:
H2a: Participants will rate information as more credible when it is attributed to a
peer customer, rather than a corporate source.
H2b: Participants will have a more positive attitude toward the company when the
information is attributed to a peer customer, rather than a corporate source.
H2c: Purchase intent toward the product will increase when participants are presented with information attributed to a peer customer, rather than a corporate
source.

Involvement
Product involvement has been a key variable in numerous advertising studies, where
it has been used as an explanatory concept contributing to consumer attitudes and
behaviors. Research has shown that the level of product involvement an individual has
with a product or product category can influence the complexity and extensiveness of
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the cognitive and behavioral decision-making processes.37 When individuals have a

greater perception of product relevance, their involvement is high, and they tend to
engage in more effortful information processing on product evaluation.38 Researchers
have suggested that product involvement is a relatively stable and long-lasting attribute compared with other variables influencing the consumer decision-making
process.39
Park and Lee found that involvement with a product directly influences the degree
of purchase intention.40 In another study, researchers found that product involvement
played a key moderating role in purchase decisions that audiences made after reading
online reviews, which are also a form of persuasive content. Although quality and
number of online reviews both increased purchase intention, high-involved consumers
attended more to review quality, while low-involved consumers were more attuned to
the number of reviews.41 Other advertising studies have established links between the
perceived credibility of commercial messages and the audiences knowledge or experience with a product or brand.42
Although product involvement has not been tested in a custom magazine context,
similar effects may emerge. For example, Wang43 found that while expert and peer
endorsements have a positive effect on consumer attitudes, consumer endorsements
are perceived as more credible and have more influence on PI, especially when an
audience is interested in the endorsed product. To explore the effect of involvement
with the product and its interaction with source and frame cues, the following hypotheses are posed:
H3a: Greater involvement with the product will lead to higher ratings of
credibility.
H3b: Greater involvement with the product will lead to more positive attitudes
toward the brand.
H3c: Greater involvement with the product will lead to greater intentions to purchase the product.
Although the literature was clear that involvement would be positively associated
with the dependent variables, no past studies have examined effects of the interaction
of involvement with levels of commerciality in brand journalism. Therefore, the
studys sole research question is posed:
RQ1: Does involvement interact with commercial frame and attributed source on
audiences perceptions of message credibility, attitude to the brand, and purchase intent?

Interaction Between Frame and Source

The limited research in this area related to custom magazines shows that commerciality has a negative effect on credibility. Van Reijmersdal and colleagues explored the
format credibility44 of custom magazines, testing custom attitudes toward the magazine itself. The research team manipulated the amount of commerciality by
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manipulating levels of brand integration (0%, 50%, or 100%) present in a magazine.

The researchers found that greater product integration had a negative effect on readers perceived credibility of the magazine. They suggested that future studies examine
smaller differences in brand integration to find the tipping point where commerciality begins to affect credibility.45 To test interaction between frame and source, the final
hypotheses are posed:
H4a: The more commercial the frame and source combination, the less credible
participants will rate the content.
H4b: The more commercial the frame and source combination, the lower participants will rate attitude toward the brand.
H4c: The more commercial the frame and source combination, the lower participants will rate their purchase intention.

Method
An experimental study was designed to examine the effects of three independent variables (frame, attributed source, and product involvement) on three dependent variables (message credibility, PI, and Ab).

Participants
Participants in the study were 512 undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory
grammar class at a large southern university. The mean age was 19.78 (mdn = 20,
SD = 1.89, range = 18 to 40), and 97.7% were 22 or younger. Women were 78.7%
(n = 403) of the participant pool, a percentage slightly higher than the 71.2% of women
enrolled in the college offering the class. Most participants (n = 423, 82.6%), identified themselves as Caucasian, with smaller percentages identifying as African
American (n = 51, 10.0%), Asian or Asian American (n = 27, 5.3%), Hispanic/Latino
(n = 16, 3.1%), Native American (n = 5, 1.0%), or other (n = 5, 1.0%).46

Procedure
After approval by the universitys Institutional Review Board, participants were
recruited and promised extra credit. Four versions of a print magazine excerpt (a cover
and a one-page) were created. These versions were randomly ordered and distributed
in a large lecture hall during five data collection sessions, effectively randomly assigning participants to treatment groups. Participants were relatively equally assigned to
group, with between 124 and 133 seeing each of the four conditions.
Participants received a packet of stimulus material consisting of a cover letter, one
of the four magazine excerpts, and a questionnaire. The first page of the questionnaire
measured involvement with the product category (a home theater system). After
answering these questions, participants were instructed to pick up their magazine
excerpt and carefully review the cover and the article. After five minutes, researchers

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allowed participants to complete the last section of the questionnaire, which included
dependent variable measures, demographic questions, and manipulation checks.
The magazine excerpt was printed in full color on slick, heavyweight paper to replicate a custom magazine. Because product advice is common in custom content,47 the
article focused on providing tips to first-time buyers of home theater equipment. All
versions of the one-page article featured a sidebar on a product, a relatively inexpensive ($399) all-in-one home theater system sold by a fictional company, NextAV.
Audio-visual equipment was selected because it is often featured in custom magazines
and because college students are a key market for this product category. Participants
indicated high involvement with the product, with 43.3% indicating either they or their
families owned a home theater system. Furthermore, participants perceived themselves as coming from affluent backgrounds (M = 3.62 on a scale estimating familys
economic status between 1 = lower class and 5 = upper class). Before reading the
materials, about 80% of participants indicated they would consider buying a home
theater system priced less than $400.

Independent Variables
Frame
The magazine in this study was framed as either commercial/branded or editorial/
nonbranded. To make this frame apparent, the cover letter told participants they were
about to read an article from a magazine produced by either NextAV, Inc., a home
theater retailer, or Sight & Sound, an independent journalistic magazine. On the first
page of the questionnaire, participants read that the magazine they were about to
review was either designed to promote the companys products (commercial frame) or
to help provide objective information so consumers could make wise choices in selecting AV products (editorial frame). In addition, seven text-based and visual frame cues
were included in the magazine excerpt. For example, the title of the magazine was
prominently displayed as either NextAV Inc., Your audio and video equipment
superstore or Sight & Sound, Your source for home entertainment news. Visual
cues included a large picture of a store on the commercial cover and a picture of a
home theater on the editorial cover. These frame cues were carried over onto the article page, with visual and verbal cues reinforcing NextAV Inc. or Sight & Sound.
Manipulation checks showed that 89.95% of participants correctly named the producer of the magazine based on their treatment group. However, when asked what type
of company produced the magazine (a manufacturer/superstore or an independent journalistic outlet), participants were less attuned to the cues. Only 67.6% correctly identified this item, with participants in the commercial frame conditions (71.3%) more likely
to correctly answer this question than those in the editorial frame conditions (63.7%).

Attributed Source
All information in the article was attributed to a NextAV product engineer (corporate source) or a recent college graduate who recently purchased a home theater
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Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 90(4)

(peer/consumer source). A gender-neutral name, Pat Cramer, was used, and no gendered pronouns were included. The photographs, designed to further highlight the
source differences, used for a man and a woman. In the corporate source version, the
photo depicted a young man wearing a NextAV shirt and woman carrying a clipboard. In the peer customer version, the photo depicted a young man and woman
seated in front of a home entertainment center.
Across conditions, 79.0% of the participants correctly identified the source in
manipulation checks. Perhaps because of closer identification with the peer customer
source, 87.7% in those conditions correctly identified the source, compared with only
70.3% who correctly identified the source in the corporate source groups.

Involvement
Participants rated their involvement with home theater systems on a version of
Zaichkowskys personal involvement inventory.48 Attitudes toward home theater systems were measured on a 7-point continuum with nine bi-polar adjective pairs as
anchors (e.g., boring/interesting and worthless/valuable). These items all worked as a
reliable scale ( = 0.87) and, therefore, were averaged to create an involvement score
with higher scores indicating greater involvement with the product category.
Scores ranged from 1 to 7 (M = 5.00, SD = 0.96). The high mean was expected
given that the product was chosen because of its interest among the participant
pool. Participants were split into three product involvement categories for analyses: low, including those with scores lower than 4.63 (n = 162, 31.9%); medium,
with scores from 4.63 to 5.54 (n = 165, 32.5%); and high, with scores higher than
5.55 (n = 181, 35.6%).

Dependent Variables
Credibility
Message credibility was measured with a shortened version of a scale designed by
Flanagin and Metzger.49 Participants rated the information in the article they read on
three bi-polar adjective pairs (unbelievable/believable, inaccurate/accurate, not
trustworthy/trustworthy) along a 7-point continuum. The items created one reliable
scale ( = 0.89) and were averaged to create an article credibility score where higher
scores indicated stronger ratings of message credibility.
Scores again ranged from 1 to 7 (M = 5.17, SD = 1.24). The high mean likely was
because the article was written by a professional journalist to mirror high-quality professional media content. A histogram revealed that the scores followed a normal, bellshaped curve skewed to the right, reflecting the high mean.
Ab and PI. Ab and PI often are highly correlated.50 In some studies, they are measured together as a single construct.51 However, because communicators use custom
content for building relationship with the brand and, increasingly, for generation of
sales leads,52 this study measures the two as separate constructs, using scales for each
construct developed by Spears and Singh.53
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Table 1. MANCOVA Model Testing Main and Interactive Effects of Frame, Source, and
Product Involvement on the Three Dependent Variables.
Credibility

Part.2

Corrected model
4.32***
.102
1. Covariates
Perceived affluence
3.78
.008
Gender
0.001
.000
2. Main effects
Commercial frame
16.81***
.033
Attributed source
0.142
.000
Product involvement
14.73***
.056
3. Interactions
Frame Source
0.04
.000
Product involvement Frame
0.40
.002
Product involvement Source 2.18
.009
Product involvement Frame
2.05
.008
Source
Error, Total number
492, 506

Ab

PI

Part.2

Part.2

6.54***

.147

6.51***

.147

6.61*
3.81

.013
.008

1.21
0.01

.002
.000

3.87*
4.23*
29.71***

.008
.009
.108

0.05
0.82
7.06***
0.94

.000
.003
.028
.004

492, 506

2.46
0.01
38.48***
0.01
0.08
1.50
0.24

.005
.000
.135
.000
.000
.006
.001

492, 506

Note. Ab = Attitude toward Brand; PI = Purchase Intent.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

The anchors for the Ab scale were unappealing/appealing, bad/good, unpleasant/

pleasant, unfavorable/favorable, and unlikable/likable. All five items produced a
reliable scale ( = 0.94) and were averaged to create an Ab score where higher values
indicated more positive attitudes toward the brand. Scores ranged from 1 to 7 (M = 5.25,
SD = 1.12).
The anchors for the PI scale were never buy/definitely buy, very low purchase
interest/very high purchase interest, and probably not buy it/probably buy it. The
items produced a reliable scale ( = 0.91) and were averaged to create a PI score with
higher scores indicating greater intention to purchase the product. Scores ranged from
1 to 7 (M = 4.1, SD = 1.42). A histogram revealed that the scores on both of these
measures again followed a normal, bell-shaped curve, with a right skew.

Results
To test most of the hypotheses, a multiple analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was
run. The model included three independent variables run on three dependent variables.
To control for participants ability to purchase the product, a self-reported score of
their perceived affluence (ranging from 1 to 5) was used as a covariate. Gender, using
the dummy variable 0/1, was also loaded as a covariate because of the large percentage
of women in the participant pool. Significant models emerged for all three dependent
variables (see Table 1), suggesting the model had at least moderate predictive values
on scores for all of the measured attitudes.
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Table 2. Means for High, Medium, and Low Involvement Participants in All Conditions
Combined by Dependent Variable.

Dependent variable
Message credibility
Attitude toward brand
Purchase intent

Low, N = 162

Medium, N = 165

High, N = 181

M (SD)

M (SD)

M (SD)

5.01 (1.26)
4.92 (1.08)
3.35 (1.44)

4.93 (1.27)
5.11 (1.09)
3.91 (1.22)

5.53 (1.13)
5.69 (1.12)
4.58 (1.33)

The first set of hypotheses examined the effect of frame. As Table 1 shows, a significant main effect for frame emerged for message credibility and Ab. Participants in the
two editorial frame conditions rated message credibility on average at 5.36 (SD = 1.17),
compared with 4.98 (SD = 1.29) for participants in the commercial frame conditions. For
Ab, average scores were higher in the editorial conditions (M = 5.31, SD = 1.07) than in
the commercial conditions (M = 5.20, SD = 1.18). In both cases, the more independent
frame resulted in more positive attitudes, meaning H1a and H1b were supported. No
effect was found for frame on purchase intention, meaning H1c was not supported.
The second set of hypotheses focused on the effects of attributed source. As Table
1 shows, a statistically significant main effect on Ab emerged, based on source. Those
in the two corporate source conditions rated the brand as more favorable, 5.31 (SD =
1.01), than those in the peer source conditions, 5.20 (SD = 1.24). This relationship was
the opposite of what H2b predicted, so H2b is rejected. No other direct source effects
were found, meaning H2a and H2c also were rejected. Source on its own was not
related to variation in perceptions of credibility or purchase intention.
The third set of hypotheses examined involvement. As Table 1 shows, involvement
accounted for most of the predictive power of all the models, with effect sizes dwarfing those of the manipulated independent variables. For all three dependent variables,
the most involved participants had the highest scores (see Table 2). These strong and
statistically significant effects for involvement were consistent across all four conditions, indicating that consumers involved with the product category had more favorable feelings about the article, the brand, and buying the product, regardless of
experimental condition.
The studys only research question investigated how product involvement, which
was suspected to be a major predictor for audience attitudes, interacted with the
manipulated independent variables of frame and attributed source. As Table 1 shows,
a significant interactive effect was found between product involvement and attributed
source cues for Ab. No statistically significant interaction was found for message credibility or purchase intention.
As the means for credibility in Table 3 show, those highly involved with the product rated the information as highly credible. The significant effects appear to be driven
by differences in the way medium- and low-involvement participants responded.
Moderately involved customers rated message credibility lower when information was
attributed to a corporate source rather than a peer customer source, regardless of frame.
For those with low involvement with the product, the inverse was true.
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Table 3. Mean Scores for the Message Credibility Based on Product Involvements
Interaction with Source Cues.
Involvement
Low
Medium
High

Corporate source

Peer source

5.11 (N = 85)
4.79 (N = 98)
5.49 (N = 80)

4.90 (N = 77)
5.10 (N = 76)
5.56 (N = 101)

The final hypotheses investigated the overall effect of commerciality (frame and
source) on reader attitudes. Although no frame and source interactive effects were
detected in Table 1, the MANCOVA model examined these as distinct constructs,
rather than along a continuum of highest commerciality (corporate frame and source)
to lowest commerciality (editorial frame and peer source). Therefore, a MANOVA
was run, testing the amount of commerciality on the three dependent variables collectively. A significant model emerged for article credibility only, supporting H4a.
Those in the commercial frame/corporate source condition rated credibility the lowest
(M = 4.90, SD = 1.30), followed by those in the commercial frame/peer source (M =
5.05, SD = 1.28), and those with the editorial frame/corporate source (M = 5.29, SD =
1.13). Those in the condition with the lowest commerciality, in contrast, rated the
article as most credible (M = 5.41, SD = 1.13). No significant effects were found on Ab
or PI; thus, H4b and H4c were not supported.

Discussion
Framing a custom magazine as editorial can positively affect readers perception of message credibility and increase positive attitudes toward a brand. Attributing information
to a corporate source also affects brand attitudes positively, a finding opposite to what
was hypothesized. Furthermore, increased commerciality through combining frame and
source can significantly depress ratings of message credibility. Finally, product involvement plays a significant role in explaining variation in all attitudes examined. Involvement
also produces an interesting interactive effect when examined in light of source. For
low-involved consumers, corporate sources led to the highest credibility ratings; for
medium involvement consumers, peer sources made content seem most credible. High
involvement participants rated content from both sources as highly credible.
Although two factors controlled by custom magazine producers (frame and source)
were related to the participants perceptions of message credibility and Ab, only product involvement was linked to PI. This study indicates that product involvement
should be examined closely as custom magazine producers make decisions on targeting their messages.

Effect of Frame
Framing theory suggests that presentation is critical to the audiences interpretation of
a message. Marketers rely on the perception of editorial purity in brand journalism to
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Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 90(4)

enhance the appearance of neutrality, even if the underlying intent is anything but
neutral.54 It is not surprising, then, that participants in this study found information
more credible when it was presented in an editorial frame. Moreover, this finding supports past studies that suggest commercial cues may create skepticism regarding content.55 The findings provide support for the conclusions of Van Reijmersdal, Neijens,
and Smit that increased commerciality in custom magazines is linked to lower credibility ratings.56
Although consumers have trouble clearly identifying advertorial content in some
cases, when they do perceive a message as commercial, they respond negatively to it.
Advertisers are increasingly embracing editorial-style storytelling to supplement or
replace traditional advertising to combat credibility challenges.57 This study suggests
that these efforts are in the right direction for marketers who aim to build credibility
among current or potential customers.
However, if the goal is to build Ab and PI for their products, this practice might not
be proven. An editorial frame was linked to more positive attitudes toward the brand.
But this effect, while statistically significant, accounted for only a small portion of the
explanatory power in the model examining brand attitudes. Furthermore, no positive
effect for editorial frame emerged for PI. Perhaps editorial neutrality alone has no
effect on PI without specific calls to action, such as business reply prompts.
Because sponsors of custom magazines are increasingly concerned with return on
investment, investigating the instances in which higher article credibility and brand
attitudes ratings are linked to greater PI would be valuable. It should also be noted that
although those who invest in custom magazines may hope to drive PI, experts emphasize that journalism, not marketing, should be the end result of custom content, as the
goals of the two disciplines are different. Marketing seeks to push wares at the
moment of truth, while the editorial approach seeks to present insights that add
value to customers lives.58

Effect of Source
Straughan, Bleske, and Zhao59 emphasized the importance of selecting effective
sources to represent a companys ideas. Of particular interest is the concept of persuasive intent60 and its potential negative effect on attitudes toward the content.61
Persuasive intent of corporate sources, for instance, has been viewed in previous
research as causing a lost dimension of ethos/credibility.62 The hard persuasive sell
coming from a source clearly vested in a product often is rejected.
In this study, however, the attributed source exhibited an effect only on Ab. In contrast to our hypothesis, participants had more positive attitudes toward the brand when
reading information from a company source. This makes sense, as even in the editorial
frame condition, participants reading the information from the corporate source (and
seeing the man with the NextAV Inc., logo on his shirt) did receive more exposure to
the brand. In this way, the company source may seem to be a good choice, at least for
brand-building. However, analyses of interaction with involvement suggest that company sources may be more effective when communicating to those with low product

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involvement. Using a clear corporate source might work best, therefore, in building
new clientele rather than speaking to existing customers.
No main effects for source were found on perceptions of article credibility and PI.
Expert and peer endorsements are often used in custom content, but a testimonial from
another buyer is generally perceived as relating more to the target audience.63 The
failure to find effects on PI are not surprising, however, as the article did not include a
specific call to action or a special offer that might clearly prompt PI.
What is surprising is the lack of effect of source on perceived message credibility.
The information presented in the article carried an authoritative tone, regardless of
source cited (Heres information to help you). Perhaps this tone, coupled with the
professional presentation and writing style, led participants to perceive a high level of
expertise with both source types. Appearance of expertise has been identified as one
of the main tenets of credibility.64 The corporate source and the peer source offered
only general advice rather than a direct endorsement of the brand or the product.
Therefore, bias might not have influenced how the participants evaluated credibility.
Again, the findings for involvement must be considered, as corporate sources may be
better used for communicating with lower-involved customers.

Overall Commerciality
Looking at combined effects of frame and source, this study found that increased commerciality in custom magazines leads to lower ratings of message credibility. The
article in the editorial frame with the peer source was rated as the most credible. This
supports conclusions reached by Van Reijmersdal, Neijens, and Smit65 that credibility
was rated higher when commerciality was lower. Because commerciality in the current study was operationalized as a continuum based on the combination of a commercial frame and corporate source, the findings shed new light on the tipping point
of what consumers will accept.
Creators of custom magazines might want a more direct return on investment than
message credibility, but credibility includes trustworthiness. Trust between customer
and company is a key component of brand-building, a desirable outcome sought when
investing in brand journalism. A lack of bias, or at least a perceived one, is what communicators believe makes custom magazines work as a marketing tool. Taken with
previous studies that show negative effects of commerciality and product placement,66
this study suggests that content creators might consider the editorial approach as an
important component of building trust with customers.

Effect of Involvement with the Product

One of the key findings is that product involvement produces the same effects in custom magazines as it does in more overt persuasive contexts, namely advertising.
Product involvement emerged as a significant predictor for all three attitudes. Those
with the highest involvement with the product category rated credibility, the brand,
and PI significantly higher than those with moderate and low involvement, regardless
of manipulations of frame and source.
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This finding is consistent with past studies, particularly those examining persuasive
content in general67 and advertising in particular. 68 This study supported the positive
relationship, documented in past studies, between involvement and PI as well as
between involvement and brand attitudes. Furthermore, it established a link between
product involvement and perceived credibility of information about that product.
Consequently, product involvement cannot be overlooked as a variable in studies
regarding custom magazines, or any form of brand journalism. Brand journalism is
typically targeted at either prospects or existing customers.69 The results of this study
suggest that current customers, those most highly involved with the product, are the
most receptive audience for custom magazines.
Targeting brand journalism at existing customers likely is more effective than targeting prospects through custom content. In fact, given the return on investment pressures, marketers should examine spending on traditional magazine advertising versus
custom magazines, especially when targeting highly involved audiences. The effect of
commercial cues on credibility, combined with the involvement findings here, could
indicate to some that editorial content may be a wiser investment than traditional
advertising buys. That conclusion should not be based solely on these data; future
research should compare traditional advertising with custom magazines and other
forms of brand journalism.
An interesting interaction occurred for source and involvement. Participants with
the lowest product involvement rated Ab as higher and the article as more credible
when a corporate source was quoted. Moderately interested readers responded better
to the peer source. In light of these results and those from Poorisat and colleagues,70
the customerespecially for those more involvedmay be the authoritative voice.
Alternatively, when introducing a product or brand values to prospects with little or no
brand involvement, brand journalists may be best served by using corporate sources.

Limitations and Future Research

As with any experimental design, this study was limited by the artificiality of the laboratory setting, as participants were given a portion of a magazine and told to focus on
it. In addition, cumulative effects could not be studied. Experimental research, in general, is limited by the available participants, in this case, college students. To mitigate
this, we recruited freshmen with no formal instruction in advertising. Furthermore, we
chose a product within economic reach and of high interest to the participants (indeed,
43.3% of participants already had direct experience with a home theater system). The
magazine created for this study mimicked those targeted toward younger adults. Still,
effects might differ among other types of customers.
The study also was limited by the frame manipulation. Although participants could
name the producer of the magazine, more than a third struggled to identify whether the
magazine was produced by a product manufacturer in an independent journalistic outlet. Lack of recognition between commercial and editorial frames is a common refrain
in brand journalism, as studies have shown. Participants did better recognizing sources,
but both manipulations could have been stronger.

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The model tested in this study contains a great deal of unexplained variance. This
suggests other unexplored factors at work in shaping attitudes. Participants recognition and understanding of custom magazines, general perceptions of the trustworthiness of advertising,71 and trust of media in general72 all might be related to attitudes
about brand journalism. Furthermore, these attributes tend to become more pronounced
with age, again suggesting research with nonstudent participants.
Although some interesting differences emerged by involvement level in tolerance
of commerciality, the experimental design does not allow us to decipher why this is
the case. Focus groups or depth interviews with low, medium, and high involvement
consumers might provide valuable insight.

Conclusion
The more neutral approach of editorial and targeting of highly involved consumers
appear to be strong choices for custom magazine producers, findings useful beyond
the field of brand journalism. This study does support the efficacy of lower-cost alternatives. For instance, the finding that an editorial frame can enhance brand attitudes
and credibility supports results of previous studies regarding effectiveness of using an
editorial frame in advertorials73 placed in mainstream magazines. The involvement
findings lend credence to practices such as placing advertisements in highly targeted
trade publications to reach highly involved audiences.
All forms of brand journalism likely will rise to prominence as consumers become
more desensitized to traditional advertising. Companies are beginning to recognize the
advantage of owning their own media to communicate with customers directly. This
study provides clues that may help them make the most of these opportunities, especially for developing content in custom magazines. They must be careful about framing their publications as too commercial, at least if they want to be seen as credible.
And they should investigate using different types of sources to target customers with
different levels of motivation (especially low and moderate involvement consumers)
if they want to improve brand attitudes. This study did little to shed light on how to
improve PI using content. Still, these results may be valuable to content creators in
building trust and loyalty with a brand, a primary goal of brand journalism.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.

Notes
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