Strength of Transverse Fillet Welded Joints

Analysis yields a design formula that is more rational

than the method of treating all fillets as though loaded
in the weakest direction

BY BEN KATO A N D KOJI M O R I T A

SUMMARY. The resultant force on a

fillet w e l d may be transverse to t h e
axis of the w e l d , inclined to the axis
or parallel to the axis. The stress distribution in the w e l d and its static resistance vary materially w i t h the relative orientation of load and w e l d axis.
Most of the basic investigations o n
the static strength and behavior of f i l let w e l d s w e r e conducted during
1920's and 1930's (Ref. 1). It has
been s h o w n that breaking loads for
transversely-loaded fillets w e r e of
the order of 4 0 % greater t h a n those
for longitudinally-loaded fillets of the
same size and length. In this paper
the term transverse fillet w i l l be used
to describe the former, w h i l e longitudinal fillet w i l l be used for the latter.
A f e w design specifications (e.g.,
Ref. 2) and design methods take
these differences into account, but
most do not, treating all fillet w e l d s
as though oriented in the weakest
direction. The main reasons for
neglecting the greater strength of
transverse fillet w e l d s are probably
an interest in simplifying design and

the fact that the performance of a

transverse fillet w e l d is complex.
Recently, in recognition of the remarkable improvement in quality of
steel, electrode and w e l d i n g t e c h niques, extensive investigations on
fillet w e l d e d joints w e r e conducted to
obtain more rational design formulas
(Refs. 3 , 4 ) .
Regardless of w h e t h e r or not one
distinguishes between the different
types of fillet w e l d loads in design, it
is desirable to make a study of their
performance. It should aid in assessing the true effectiveness of connections proportioned by conventional
methods.
In this report, the static strength
and behavior of transverse fillet
w e l d s are studied theoretically. A n
approximate solution based on the
theory of elasticity is reviewed and
supplemented by an elastic-plasticstrain hardening analysis performed
numerically using the finite element
technique. The results are compared
w i t h available test results.
An Approximate Approach from
t h e T h e o r y of Elasticity

BEN KATO is Professor and KOJI MORITA

is Assistant Professor in the Faculty of
Engineering, Department of Architecture,
University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.

A n approximate theory on the

strength of transverse fillet w e l d s
w a s presented by a senior writer (Ref.

5), based on the following assumptions::

1. The direct stress (q) on the tensile
face of the w e l d is uniformly
distributed (Fig. 1).
2. The pattern of the elastic stress
distribution remains unchanged
until the breaking of t h e w e l d .
3. Breaking w i l l occur w h e n the
shear stress at a point of the fillet
reaches
"Cmax.= <*>/

w h e r e <7T = the tensile strength of

the w e l d metal.
For simplicity, a fillet w e l d w i t h equal
legs is considered.
The elastic stress components in a
fillet are expressed in a polar coordinate system w i t h the origin 0 at the
toe of the fillet, as s h o w n in Fig. 1.
The compatibility equation is (Ref. 6).
( f W a 7 * r ^ ) ( ^ T e T ^ l ) = 0

(D
The general solution for this equation
is

I=
a 0 log r + b0r2<-c0r2log r d0r2e * a^e
(a, re s i n e ) / 2 ' ( b , r 3 * a ; r-Ub,'r logr)cos9
-(c, re cose)/2+(d,r 3 tc,' r-'.d,' r log r)sin 9
, ( ar% bnrn-2 a' r n b; r-"-2)cos ne
S (c n r n *d n r n * 2 -.Cnr- n *dnr- n,2 )sin ne
n 2

(2)

W E L D I N G R E S E A R C H S U P P L E M E N T I 59-s

Taking into account the boundary

conditions, stress components are obtained f r o m Eq. (2) as
ff =

I S i , i aft
1 -M

Comparison with Test Results

(3)

(y2sinecos(e-t/4)t(e-7r/A))

lit
sr*

(4)

q *

9 [J2 cose s i n ( e - / 4 ) - ( 8 - * / 4 ) ]

j.3i
" r 9 ~ r2 36
-q
1 -v/A

.1 d*x
rarae

(5)

/2 sin9sin(e-n:/4))

Fig. 1 Transverse fillet weld

The coordinate 9 w h i c h yields maximum shear T0.max is obtained as f o l lows:

From Eq. (5),
: L
sin6cos 6 r A
f^=
( -' ' )
36 T 1T(
-*/A

For the case of the longitudinal

fillet w e l d the critical section is clearly the throat (RQ in Fig. 1). Then the
maximum strength of a longitudinal
fillet w e l d of the same size and length
is
T

4-cose sin(e-/4))= o
From w h i c h , 0 = " 7 8 . Introducing d TT/Q into Eq. (5).

l.max. " A w 0-T/73

(8)

From Eqs. (7) and (8),

T,max. = ( 1 - * / 4 ) ( s i n - 2 * / 8 ) T , .

^rs m a x . = / 2 q ( 1 - t / A ) " ' s i n 2 f / 8

= 1.46 T,

(9)

The expression in terms of the external loadT, per one fillet w e l d is

-<=re max. = <1 " */4)-'( sin 2 */8 )( T,/A w )
(6)

Thus, the present method predicts

that transverse fillet welds are 4 6 %
stronger t h a n longitudinal fillet w e l d s
of the same size and length.

The m a x i m u m strength of a transverse fillet w e l d is obtained by introducing

Tr0.max.= ffT / / 3 i n E q . ( 6 ) :
h

ma x.

101

Tsrr

= (1-' ^)fein- */8)AvvffT//3

(7)

The oblique plane RP in Fig. 1 w h i c h

is normal to the coordinate line $ =
n
/8 through the root of the w e l d can
be considered the fracture plane, t h a t
is, breaking w i l l occur along the plane
RP making the angle 6 - f / 8 w i t h
the shear face.

sxq
JSL

^C
AQQ

(a)

TEST

The theoretical prediction obtained

in the previous section is now c o m pared w i t h available test results.
One test w a s performed using specimens of the form s h o w n in Fig. 2(a),
w h e r e slice-cut specimens w i t h large
size fillets w e r e adopted (Ref. 5).
Mechanical properties of steel plates
and w e l d metal are s h o w n in Table 1;
those of w e l d metal w e r e obtained
from small tensile test pieces machined out of the actual fillets as
s h o w n in Fig. 2(b). The experimental
maximum strength of joints is c o m pared w i t h the theoretical prediction
in Table 2. Figure 3 compares theoretical and test results for the angle the
breaking plane makes w i t h the shear
face.
Additional tests w e r e performed
using specimens of the form s h o w n
in Fig. 4 , consisting of several sizes of
fillets and a limited fillet length (Ref.
7). Mechanical properties of plates
and w e l d metals are s h o w n in Table
3. Test results are compared w i t h the
theoretical predictions in Fig. 5 and
Table 4. Figure 5 compares the maximum strength w h i l e the angle of
breaking plane is compared in Table
4 . In both cases, the correlation bet w e e n tests and theory is quite good.
The approximate theory also seems
to be able to give a good explanation
for the results of group tests cited
earlier (Refs. 3, 4). The results of tests
carried out by the task committee of
A W S Structural W e l d i n g Committee
shows that for test specimens of A
441 steel welded w i t h E70XX type

Y~
flhfl

400

r_d

SPECIMENS Cin mm.

(b) TEST PIECES M I L L E D OUT

OF THE WELD METAL (in mm.)

Fig. 2 Test specimens (Test No. 1)

Notation .

AW = I * a = t h r o a t a r e a
a = s / / 2 = throat
DP = e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l
stiffness matrix
E = Young's modulus
H' = strain hardening modulus
I = length of a fillet
q = uniformly distributed stress
the tensile face of a fillet
60-s I F E B R U A R Y

1974

on

s = size of a fillet
T, = external load per one longitudinal fillet w e l d
Tt = external load per one transverse fillet w e l d
A f = increment of strain vector
A* = equivalent plastic strain i n crement
< = Poisson's ratio

rj,,o"8 ,o~x 'Cfy = normal stress components

o-x,<ry = deviatoric stress
a = equivalent stress
o-T = tensile strength of the w e l d
metal
&? = increment of stress vector
T ,r r8 i rxv = shear stress components
<E> = stress function defined by Eq. (2)

e l e c t r o d e s , t h e a v e r a g e r a t i o of t h e
s t r e n g t h of t r a n s v e r s e fillet w e l d s t o
t h a t of l o n g i t u d i n a l f i l l e t w e l d s is 1 . 5 6
and for specimens of A 5 1 4 steel
w e l d e d w i t h E 1 1 0 X type electrode's,
t h e a v e r a g e r a t i o i s 1 . 4 5 (Fief. 3 ) . It
has also been found that t h e results
of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e s t s c o n d u c t e d
under t h e aegis of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Institute of W e l d i n g ,
incorporating
results f r o m m o r e t h a n t e n countries,
could be w e l l interpreted o n t h e basis
of t h i s t h e o r y ( R e f s . 4 , 8 ) .
Analysis b yt h e Finite
Element

Method

The assumptions m a d e in t h e derivation of t h e m e n t i o n e d solution a r e

n o t p r e c i s e . In c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h (1), it
is k n o w n t h a t t h e d i r e c t s t r e s s o n t h e
tensile face of t h e w e l d varies approximately linearly from t h e toe to t h e
r o o t . A s f o r t h e a s s u m p t i o n (2), t h e
peak stress
predicted
by elastic
theory should be relieved by plastic
d e f o r m a t i o n a s s o o n a s it e x c e e d s t h e
yield stress a n d thus a redistribution
of t h e s t r e s s w i l l o c c u r . W i t h r e s p e c t
to t h e third assumption, t h e breaking
stress should be evaluated according
to a n appropriate failure theory.
In a d d i t i o n , t h e s h e a r s t r e s s a l o n g
t h e a s s u m e d b r e a k i n g p l a n e R P is e x pressed as

oblique
plane
RP. O b v i o u s l y
this
result comes mainly f r o m t h e a s s u m p t i o n (1) m e n t i o n e d a b o v e .
I n s p i t e of t h o s e s h o r t c o m i n g s , t h e
prediction
from
this
approximate
theory hads h o w n satisfactory agreem e n t w i t h various tests results. M o r e
precise study o n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of
the transverse fillet w e l d in elasticp l a s t i c r a n g e is d e s i r a b l e i n o r d e r t o
k n o w h o w this approximate solution
can predict t h e actual behavior a n d to
assert t h e generality of t h i s solution.
For t h i s p u r p o s e , a n u m e r i c a l a n a l ysis by t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d ,
extended to t h e elastic-plastic-strain
h a r d e n i n g range by Pope a n d o t h e r s
(Refs. 9 , 10), is applied h e r e i n . A n a l y s i s is p e r f o r m e d o n t h e b a s i s o f i n c r e m e n t a l strain t h e o r y a n d a n isotropic a n d ductile material assumed
to obey t h e v o n M i s e s yield condition
w i t h Prandtl-Reuss loading function.
T h e principal feature of t h i s p r o b l e m
lies in t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e elasticplastic material stiffness matrix D p
w h i c h relates t h e strain increment to
t h e stress i n c r e m e n t of t h e material.
D is g i v e n i n R e f s . 9 , 1 0 , a s f o l l o w s :
D

= -P-

multiplied by

|3= 5 * / 8

2rj

(10)

-9

-tfj^ve,

deviatoric stress

E =

Young's modulus

j, =

Poisson's ratio

cr = Jcrx2 (5-y2 _ o-x cry * 3 t x y 2

equivalent stress

H' = A C T / A P

gP=

strain hardening modulus

lit((crx't*o-y')Aex*(o-^*<5-xHey
3 c2

- ("xS f i ^ h :xy
rSti-iSLyr-

= equivalent plastic strain increment.

T h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l procedure of t h e
p r o b l e m is o u t l i n e d in t h e f l o w c h a r t
of F i g . 7 . T h e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f
the analytical process for t h e similar
p r o b l e m i s g i v e n e l s e w h e r e (Ref. 1 1 ) .

A<T=DPA6,

AO" = { AO",AO~y,,&Xxy}
A = { A X , AGy , A r X y }

F r o m E q s . (3), ( 4 ) , ( 5 ) a n d ( 1 0 ) , t h e d i s tribution of shear stress along t h e

p l a n e RP is g i v e n as s h o w n i n Fig. 6 .
T h i s m e a n s t h a t rrfl.max. i s n o t t h e
m a x i m u m shear stress along t h e

cry' = ( 2 c r y - < T x ) / 3

(11)

(SYM.)

_ t ; r e C os 2(3

<s; = ( 2cr x - o - y ) / 3

(1->)txyAl'xy)

<rrJ.2c,

cr;2* 2c,
-c =, _2i=_L s i n

c 2 = o"x'2 2 u c-'o- y ' * 6~y 2 * 2 ( 1 - l- 2 ) (

where,
2H'=2

T a b l e 1 M e c h a n i c a l P r o p e r t i e s of Plate a n d W e l d M e t a l (Test N o . 1)
W e l d metal

Property
Yield point
(UN/cm*) 1
Tensile strength,
(kN/cm 2 )
Elongation, %
Reduction of
area(%)

D4316

(a)

D5011

(a)

Steel
plate

|_(b)

T(b)

Mean

Mean

27.54

37.73

40.47

39.10

40.67

39.49

40.08

45.86

47.33

48.22

4782

51.74

50.27 51.06

29.0

37,8
56.1

28.9
45.8

33.4
51.0

32.9
41.2

33.4
39.4

33.2
40.3

(a) Type of electrode; D4316: low hydrogen type; D5011; high cellulose type,
lb) L - longitudinal. T = transverse; see Fig 2(b)
(c) 1 kN/cm J = 1 45 ksi

Fig. 3 Breaking

planes, theory and tests

T a b l e 2 M a x i m u m Loads b y T e s t s a n d T h e o r y (Test N o . 1)
Theory

Tests
M a x i m u m load,
kN

L1

L2

L3

Mean

HI

H2

H3

Mean

301.84

28616

319.48

302 82

343.0

311.64

338.1

331.24

307.72

329.28

W E L D I N G

RESEARCH

S U P P L E M E N T !

61-s

r b 1

-nSi*

2t

Table 4 Angle of Breaking Plane with

Shear Face

JL.

T^

Specimen

Angle,
deg

Specimen

Angle,
deg

S5 B
S5 R
S10B
S15B
S15R

21.0
20.5
20.5
21.9
21 8

S20B
S30B
S40B
S40R
Theory

22.0
21.5
21.0
20.5
22.5

40
4.

S 5B S10B 5 1 5 B S20B S30B S40B

S5R
S15R
S40R
s
5
10
15
20
40
30
72
27
49.5
94.5 13 9.5 18 4.5
b
2U
16.5
31.5
4 6.5
9
61.5
t
B: Basic type electrode , R: futile type electrode
b=4.5(s*1) . t = 1.5(s*1), s,b. t . in mm.
Fig. 4 Test specimens (Test No. 2)

2.0 +

ral'-Cmax.

1.5

.1.0-

m B - r e g r e s s i o n curve
o R
from Eq.(4)

a throat
I length of weld

X10

20
a

30
(mm)

Fig. 5 Comparison between tests and theory (Test No. 2)

The specimen is modeled by t r i a n gular elements as s h o w n in Fig. 8.

The important results obtained are
compared w i t h experimental results
and w i t h previous approximate solution in the f o l l o w i n g .
Elastic Behavior
The d i s t r i b u t i o n
of
principal
stresses in the fillet and its vicinity in
the elastic range is s h o w n in Fig. 9.
Measured stresses and those calculated by the finite element m e t h o d
are compared in this figure. M e a sured stresses are obtained from electric resistance w i r e strain gages i n stalled on the test specimen S40B
mentioned earlier (Ref. 12). In the
actual specimen, some friction bet w e e n the inner plate and outer plate
is inevitable, w h i l e in the analytical
model no f r i c t i o n between t h e m is
assumed. Considering this difference
of condition, the correlation between
test and theory seems to be good.
A n o t h e r comparison of experimental and calculated stresses is
given in Fig. 10. The cited test results
are taken from Reference B. This
test consists of t w o types of specimen; one has slits along the contact
faces of joined plates as seen in Fig.
10(a), the other has joined plates
closely in contact as seen in Fig.
10(b). Stresses given in the figure are
also those at the load level T=441 kN.
Stress measurements w e r e
carried out using an extensometer.
Principal stresses are s h o w n in the
right side of each figure, w h e r e m a g -

Table 3 Mechanical Properties of Plates a nd Weld Metals (Test No. 2)

Steel )
platesf

used t
with

'

Weld
metals

Yield
point,
kN/cm 2

Tensile
strength,
kN/cm 2

Elongation,

B-type(a>
electrode
R-type(a)
electrode

33.22

56.25

32.4

34.30

55.17

37.4

S5 B
S10B
S15B
S20B
S30B
S40B
S5 R
S15R
S40R

44.88
44.39
44.59
47.04
47.04
47.04
46.35
44.59
45.77

57.62
58.80
58.31
59.49
59.49
59.49
56.35
54.19
54.59

21.0
21.0
21.7
19.3
19.3
19.3
17.5
18.5
16.4

FEBRUARY

\\

ty

s^v

\
\

\\\\v

x/8

R
Fig. 6Shear stress distribution by Eq.(10)

{a) B = basic; R = rutile

62-s

1974

nitudes are given irrespective of their

orientation.a x , <ry and T ^ in the
left side of each figure are the normal
stress component perpendicular to
the tensile face, the normal stress
component
perpendicular
to
the
shear face, and the shear stress
along tensile face and shear face,
respectively.
In test specimen (b), frictional
forces w i l l be induced w h e n the specimen is subject to tension; no friction
w i l l appear in specimen (a), but some
additional bending due to eccentricity
w i l l appear in this case. In the analytical model for the f i n i t e e l e m e n t
calculation, however, the condition of
no gap but no friction b e t w e e n
contact faces is assumed, as seen in
Fig. 8. The result f r o m the finite
element method, Fig. 10(c), shows an
intermediate feature b e t w e e n test
results of (a) and (b), and taking into
account above mentioned situation,
the theoretical basis of the finite
element computation seems to be
reasonable.

y>

Start)
fpata Input I
] Print

Subroutine

Input

InputJjataJ

Setup Overall
Matrix KT

Subroutine DM(Calculate D* )
Subroutine DPM (Calculate D* )
Subroutine QSRM (Calculate element
stiffness matrix K e ( e m
superpose
K
elem. o n K i )

Stiffness

4_
Setup Load Vector F.
M o d i f y KT by Support
I Condition

Solve Stiffness Equation!

KT-**

Calculate

= F

Subroutine

SOLVE

Subroutine

LDINCR

Subroutine

PRINT

A . a<T

Determine Load Increment

Factor, U
Determine Stress, Strain,
Displacement, etc. at this Step
<r=<r(j*ff'. t = E|je

s = s* \i*S.

etc.,

Output ResuJisJ
" <r ^ - ~ ~

no ..

es

\
no,

"jt_

Plastic Behavior
1

Figure 11 s h o w s the spread of the

plastic zone for increasing loading
steps. W h e n a certain load level
(T=849 kN) is exceeded the spread of
the yield-flow region expands no further, w h i l e the rapid progress of plastic deformation into strain hardening
range is observed along a localized
area, w h i c h approximately coincides
w i t h the formerly predicted breaking
plane.
Distributions of shear stress along
the assumed breaking plane RP are
s h o w n in Fig. 12 for various loading
steps. R vsults frorr the finite : ^ m e n t
method are given in solid lines, fhese
are different from the pattern given in
Fig. 6 the result from the elastic
theory, and present no stress peaks
at the ends. Rather, they s h o w good
agreement up to the ultimate stage
w i t h the prediction given by Eq. (6),
s h o w n by dashed lines in the figure.
The above observations seem to explain the reason w h y the approximate
solution given by Eq. (7) can provide a
satisfactory estimation of t h e actual
strength of the transverse fillet
welded joints.

. yes

Stop Step2>>
'

yes

Notations.

<

p = equivalen1 plastic strain

e ^ s plastic strain at the
b e g i n n i n g of n e c k i n g
f = equivalent stress
0~, = t r u e stress at the beginning
of n e c k i n g

Output Data Cards

f o r the Next Run

yes H 1

S = displacement

vector

Fig. 7 Flow chart for computational procedure"

T/8

Conclusion
It has been s h o w n that the strength
of transverse fillet welded joints
could be estimated by Eq. (7) satisfactorily in spite of theoretical shortcomings involved in the basis of its argument. A n elastic-plastic analysis by
the finite element technique made
herein seems to explain the reason
w h y the prediction by Eq. (7) agrees
w i t h tests results and thus to support
the validity of Eq. (7) from the theoretical side.

Fig. 8 Subdivision of the spec/men into triangular elements

WELDING

RESEARCH SUPPLEMENTl

63-s

t(

20

^T

L . J I
(a) Slits Along Contact Faces
Fig. 10 Comparison

Elastic

(b) Plates Closely Contacted

of stress

(c) Calculated by Finite Element Method

distributions

Range

985kN
6A8kN

( T = 4 4 t kN )
- --> tension
>- -^compression
observed
by Finite Element Method
Fig. 9 Distribution
of principal
stress

530kN
319 kN

from Finite Element Method

from Eq.(6)
i Fig. 12 Shear stress distribution
tained by finite element
method

T = 778 kN

T=840 kN

Ta 849 kN

3 Yield-flow Region
Fig. 11 Spread of plastic

region in a fillet

64-s I F E B R U A R Y

1974

Sirain-hardening Region

ob-

References
1. Spraragen, W . and Claussen, G. E.,
Static Tests of Fillet and Plug W e l d s , a
Review of Literature f r o m 1 9 3 2 to J a n u a r y
1, 1 9 4 0 , Welding Journal, A p r i l , 1 9 4 2 .
2. A m e r i c a n W a t e r w o r k s Association
Standard for Steel Tanks, Standard Pipes,
Reservoirs and Elevated Tanks for W a t e r
Storage, 1 9 5 9 ed., (for example).
3. Higgins, T. R. a n d Preece, F. R., " P r o posed W o r k i n g Stress for Fillet W e l d s in
Building C o n s t r u c t i o n , " Engineering
Journal, AISC, V o l . 6, No. 1, 1 9 6 9 .
4. Ligtenberg, F. K., I n t e r n a t i o n a l Test
Series, Final Report, Doc. X V - 2 4 2 - 6 8 ,
I.I.W., 1 9 6 8 .
5. Kato, B. and Naka, T., " D e f o r m a t i o n
and S t r e n g t h of End Fillet W e l d s , " Jour, of
the Faculty of Engineering,
University of
Tokyo, Vol. XXVIII, No. 3, 1 9 6 6 .
6. Timoshenko, S., Theory of
Elasticity,
M c G r a w - H i l l Book Co.
7. Kato, B., et al., " U l t i m a t e S t r e n g t h of
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8. Kato, B. and M o r i t a , K T h e S t r e n g t h
of Fillet W e l d e d J o i n t s , Doc. X V - 2 6 7 - 6 9 ,
I.I.W., 1 9 6 9 .
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Solution of Elastic-Plastic Problems by the
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WRC Bulletin
No. 184
June 1973
"Submerged-Arc-Weld Hardness and
Cracking in W e t Sulfide Service"
by D. J. Kotecki and D. G. Howden

This study was undertaken to determine:

(1) The causes of higher-than-normal hardness in submerged-arc welds in plaincarbon steels
(2) The levels of strength or hardness which will not be susceptible to sulfidecorrosion cracking
(3) Welding procedures which will assure that nonsusceptible welds will be
produced.
Concentration is primarily on weld metal, though some consideration to the
weld heat-affected zone is given. The study covered a two-year period. The first
year was concerned with a macroscopic view of the weldments. In that first-year
study, some inhomogeneities were observed in weldments which are not obvious
in a macroscopic view of the weldment. It appeared likely that these
inhomogeneities could affect the behavior of the weldment in aqueous hydrogensulfide service. Accordingly, their presence and effects were investigated during
the second year.
The price of WRC Bulletin 184 is $3.50 per copy. Orders should be sent to the
Welding Research Council, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017.

WRC Bulletin
No. 185
July 1973
"Improved Discontinuity Detection Using ComputerAided Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Techniques"
by J. R. Frederick and J. A. Seydel

The purpose of this project, sponsored by the Pressure Vessel Research Committee of the Welding Research Council, was to investigate means for obtaining
improved characterization of the size, shape and location of subsurface discontinuities in metals. This objective was met by applying computerized dataprocessing techniques to the signal obtained in conventional ultrasonic pulseecho systems. The principal benefits were improved signal-to-noise ratio and
resolution.
The price of WRC Bulletin 185 is $3.50 per copy. Orders should be sent to the
Welding Research Council, 345 East 47th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017.

WELDING RESEARCH S U P P L E M E N T !

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