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StrengthofMaterials/Unit6/Module3Strain,Hooke'sLaw

ProblemSet[ProfessorVideo][ProfessorNote][FacultyVideo][FacultyNote]
1. Twogagemarksareplacedexactly250mmapartona12-mm-diameteraluminumrod.Knowingthat,withan
axialloadof6000Nactingontherod,thedistancebetweenthegagemarksis250.18mm,determinethe
modulusofelasticityofthealuminumusedintherod.[Example]
6

2. RodBDismadeofsteel(E=29X10 psi)andisusedtobracetheaxiallycompressedmemberABC.The
maximumforcethatcanbedevelopedinmemberBDis0.02P.IftIestressmustnotexceed18ksiandthe
maximumchangeinlengthofBDmustnotexceed0.001timesthelengthofABC,determinethesmallestdiameterrodthatcanheusedformemberBD.

3. EachofthelinksADandCDismadeofaluminum(E=75GPa)andhasacross-sectionalareaof125mm .
KnowingthattheysupporttherigidmemberBC,determinethedeflectionofpointE.[Example]

4. Twocylindricalrods,oneofsteelandtheotherofbrass,arejoinedatCandrestrainedbyrigidsupportsatA
andE.FortheloadingshownandknowingthatE =200GPaandE =105GPa,determine(a)thereactions
s

atAandE.(b)thedeflectionofpointC.[Example]

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AdditionalProblems:
1. Forthesteeltruss(E=200GPa)andloadingshown,determinethedeformationsofthemembersABand
2

AD.knowing thattheircross-sectional areasare 2400 mm and 1800 mm ,respectively.[Example](Ans:

)

2. BothportionsoftherodABCaremadeofanaluminumforwhichE=70GPa.Knowingthatthemagnitudeof
Pis4kN,determine(a)thevalueofQsothatthedeflectionatAiszero,(b)thecorrespondingdeflectionofB.
[Example](Ans:(a)32.8kNand(b)0.0728mm)

3. The4-mm-diametercableBCismadeofasteelwithE=200GPaKnowingthatthemaximumstressinthe
cable mustnotexceed 190 MPa and thatthe elongation ofthe cable mustnotexceed 6 mm,find the
maximumloadPthatcanbeappliedasshown.(Ans:1.988kN)

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4. The1.5-mconcretepostisreinforcedwithsixsteelbars,eachwitha28-mmdiameter.KnowingthatE =200
s

GPaandE =25GPa,determinethenormalstressesinthesteelandintheconcretewhena1550-kNaxial
c

centricforcePisappliedtothepost.[Example](Ans:

Examples
1. TherigidbarBDEissupportedbytwolinksABandCD.Link
AB is made of aluminum (E = 70 GPa) and has a cross2

sectionalareaof500mm ;linkCDismadeofsteel(E=200
GPa)andhasacross-sectionalareaof600mm2.Forthe30-kN
forceshown,determinethedeflection(a)ofB,(b)ofD,(c)ofE.

Sol:
FreeBody:BarBDE

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a.DeflectionofB.SincetheinternalforceinlinkABis
compressive,wehaveP=-60kN

ThenegativesignindicatesacontractionofmemberAB.
and,thus,anupwarddeflectionofendB:

b.DeflectionofD.SinceinrodCD,P=90kN,wewrite

c.DeflectionofE.Wedenoteby

and

thedisplaced

positionsofpointsBandD.SincethebarBDEisrigid,points
,andlieinastraightlineandwewrite

2. The rigidcastings A andB are connectedby two

-in.-diameter steelbolts CD andGH andare in

contactwiththeendsof1.5-in.-diameteraluminumrodEF.Eachboltissingle-threadedwithapitchof
0.1 in.,andafter beingsnugly fitted,the nuts at D andH are bothtightenedone-quarter of a turn.
6

KnowingthatEis29X10 psiforsteeland10.6X10 psiforaluminum,determinethenormalstreein

therod.

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Sol:
Deformations:
BoltsCDandGH.Tighteningthenutscausestensioninthe
bolts. Because of symmetry, both are subjected to the same
internalforcePbandundergothesamedeformation Wehave

(1)
Rod EF. The rod is in compression. Denoting by P the
r

magnitudeoftheforceintherodandby r the deformationofthe

rod,wewrite

(2)
Displacement of D Relative to B. Tightening the nuts
one-quarterofaturncausesendsDandHoftheboltstoundergo
adisplacementof (0.1in.)relativetocastingB.Consideringend
D,wewrite

(3)
But

, where and represent the

D

displacementsofDandB.IfweassumethatcastingAisheldina
fixedpositionwhilethenutsatDandHarebeingtightened,these
displacementsare equal to the deformationsofthe boltsand of
therod,respectively.Wehave,therefore,

(4)
Substitutingfrom(1),(2),and(3)into(4),weobtain
-6

-6

0.025in.=1.405X10 P +0.6406X10
b

P (5)
r

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FreeBody:CastingB

(6)
ForcesinBoltsandRod
SubstitutingforP from(6)into(5),wehave
r

-6

-6

0.025in.=1.405X10 P +0.6406X10 (2p )

b

P =9.307X103lb=9.307kips
b

P =2P =2(9.307kips)=18.61kips
r

StressinRod

3. A 500-mm-long, 16-mm-diameter rod made of a homogeneous, isotropic material is observed to

increaseinlengthby300m,andtodecreaseindiameterby2.4mwhensubjectedtoanaxial12-kN
load.DeterminethemodulusofelasticityandPoisson'sratioofthematerial.
Sol:
Thecrossp-sectionalareaoftherodis

Choosingthexaxisalongtheaxisoftherod(Fig.A),we
write

FromHooke'slaw,

,weobtain

and,fromEq.(9),

4. Determine the value of the stress inportions AC andCB of the steelbar shown(Fig.B) whenthe
0

temperature of the bar is -50 F,knowingthat a close fit exists at bothof the rigidsupports when
0

6 0

temperatureis+75 F.UsethevaluesE=29X106psiand=6.5X10 / Fforsteel.

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Sol:

Wefirstdeterminethereactionsatthesupports.Sincetheproblemis
staticallyindeterminate,wedetachthebarfromitssupportsatBandletit
undergothetemperaturechange

Thecorrespondingdeformation(Fig.C)is

ApplyingnowtheunknownforceR atendB(Fig.C(c)),weusetoexpress
B

thecorrespondingdeformation .Substituting
R

L =L =12in.
1

A =0.6in A =1.2in
1

P =P =R E=29X10 psi
1

intobelowEq.,wewrite

Expressingthatthetotaldeformationofthebarmustbezeroasaresultoftheimposedconstraints,wewrite
= r + R = 0
-3
-6

= -19.50 X 10

in./lb) RB = 0

in. + (1.0345 X 10

from whichweobtain

3
RB = -18.85 X 10 lb = 18.85 kips
ThereactionatAisequalandopposite.
NotingthattheforcesinthetwoportionsofthebarareP =P =18.85kips,weobtainthefollowingvaluesof
1

thestressinportionsACandCBofthebar:

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Wecannotemphasizetoostronglythefactthat,whilethetotaldeformationofthebarmustbezero,the
deformationsoftheportionsACandCBarenotzero.Asolutionoftheproblembasedontheassumptionthatthese
deformationsarezerowouldthereforehewrong.NeithercanthevaluesofthestraininACorCBbeassumed
equaltozero.Toamplifythispoint,letusdeterminethestrain
inportionACofthebar.Thestrain
canbe
dividedintotwocomponentparts:oneisthethermalstrain producedintheunrestrainedbarbythetemperature
changeT(Fig.C(b)).FromEq.10wewrite

Theothercomponentof

isassociatedwiththestress

duetotheforceR appliedtothebar(Fig.
B

C(c)).FromHooke'slaw,weexpressthiscomponentofthestrainas

AddingthetwocomponentsofthestraininAC,weobtain

AsimilarcomputationyieldsthestraininportionCBofthebar:

Thedeformations AC and CB ofthetwoportionsofthebarareexpressedrespectivelyas

Wethuscheckthat,whilethesum

ofthetwodeformationsiszero,neitherofthe

deformationsiszero.

FacultyNotes
1.NormalStrain
Asolidbodysubjectedtoachangeoftemperatureortoanexternalload
deforms.Forexample,while a specimen isbeing subjected to an increasing
forcePasshowninFig1,achangeinlengthofthespecimenoccursbetween
anytwopoints,suchasAandB.Initially,twosuchpointscanbeselectedan
arbitrarydistance apart.Thus,depending on the test,either1-,2-,4-,or8-in
lengths are commonly used. This initial distance between the two points is
calledagagelength.Inanexperiment,thechangeinthelengthofthisdistance
ismeasured.Mechanicaldialgages,suchasshowninFig.1,havebeenlargely
replaced by electronic extensometers for measuring these deformations. An
exampleofsmallclip-onextensometerisshowninFig.2.

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Duringanexperiment,thechangeingagelengthisnotedasafunctionof
the applied force. With the same load and a longer gage length, a larger
deformation isobserved,then when the gage length issmall.Therefore,itis
morefundamentaltorefertotheobserveddeformationperunitoflengthofthe
gage,i.e.,totheintensityofdeformation.
IfL istheinitialgagelengthandListheobservedlengthunderagivenload,thegageelongationL=Lo

L .Theelongationandperunitofinitialgagelengthisthengivenas
o

(1)

This expression defines the extensional strain. Since this strain is

associatedwiththenormalstress,itisusuallycalledthenormalstrain.Itisa
dimensionless quantity, but it is customary to refer to it as having the
dimensions ofin/in,rn/rn,or m/m (microstrain).Sometimes itis given as a
percentage. The quantity generally is very small. In most engineering
applicationsofthetypeconsideredinthistext,itisoftheorderofmagnitudeof
0.1percent.
For small strains, this definition essentially coincides with the
conventionalstrain.Ifundertheintegral,thelengthLissetequaltoL ,the
o

straindefinitiongivenbyEq.1isobtained.
Naturalstrainsareusefulintheoriesofviscosityandviscoplasticityfor
expressing an instantaneous rate of deformation. Natural strains are not
discussedelsewhereinthistext.
Sincethestrainsgenerallyencounteredareverysmall,itispossibletoemployahighlyversatilemeansfor
measuringthem,usingexpendableelectricstraingages.Thesearemadeofveryfinewireorfoilthatisgluedto
thememberbeinginvestigated.Astheforcesareappliedtothemember,elongationorcontractionofthewiresor
foil takesplace concurrentlywith similarchangesin the material.These changesin length alterthe electrical
resistanceofthegage,whichcanbemeasuredandcalibratedtoindicatethestraintakingplace.Suchgages,
suitablefordifferentenvironmentalconditions,areavailableinarangeoflengths,varyingfrom4to150mm(0.15
to6in).AschematicdiagramofawiregageisshowninFig.3,andaphotographofatypicalsmallfoilgageis
showninFig.4.

2.Stress-StrainRelationships

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In solid mechanics,the mechanical behaviorofreal materialsunder

load is ofprimary importance.Experiments,mainly tension or compression
tests, provide basic information on this behavior. In these experiments,
macroscopic(overall)responseofspecimenstotheappliedloadsisobserved
inordertodetermineempiricalforce-deformationrelationships.Researchersin
materialscienceattempttoprovidereasonsfortheobservedbehavior.
Itshould be apparentfromthe previousdiscussion thatforgeneral purposes,itismore fundamental to
reportthestrainofamemberintensionorcompressionthantoreporttheelongationofitsgage.Similarly,stressis
amoresignificantparameterthanforcesincetheeffectonamaterialofanappliedforcePdependsprimarilyon
thecrosssectionalareaofthemember.Asaconsequence,intheexperimentalstudyofthemechanicalproperties
ofmaterials,itiscustomarytoplotdiagramsoftherelationshipbetweenstressandstraininaparticulartest.Such
diagrams,formostpracticalpurposes,areassumedtobeindependentofthesizeofthespecimenandofitsgage
length.
Therearetwowaysinwhichthesediagramscanbedescribed.Bothofthemarediscussedinthissection.
EngineeringStress-StrainDiagramsAssumingthatthestressisconstantoverthecrosssectionofthecentral
portionofthespecimenandalongthegagelength,thenominalorengineeringstress,,canbedetermined.Thus,
dividingtheappliedforcePbythespecimen'soriginalcross-sectionalareaA .
0

(2)

Likewise,thenominalorengineeringstrain,,isfounddirectlyfromthestraingagereadingorbydividing
thechangeinthegagelengthLbythespecimen'soriginalgagelengthL andapplyingEq.1.Herethestrainis
0

assumedtobeconstantthroughoutthegagelength.
Ifthecomputedvaluesofandcorrespondingareplottedonagraph,forwhichtheordinateisthestress
andabscissaisthestrain,theresultingcurveiscalledtheengineeringstress-straindiagram.Thisdiagramisvery
importantin engineering since itprovidesthe meansforobtaining variousmechanical propertiesofa material
withoutregard to itsphysical size orshape.Asan example,the characteristicsofthe engineering stress-strain
diagramforductilesteel,acommonlyusedmaterialformakingstructuralmembersandmechanicalelements,will
bediscussed.
Thegeneralshapeofthestress-straindiagramforaductilesteelspecimenloadedintensiontofailurefora
monotonicallyincreasingloadiswellknownfromnumeroustests.Aplotofthenormalstressversusengineering
strain,showninFig.5,canbesubdividedintofourwell-definedregions:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Thelinearelasticregion
Theyieldplateau
Thestrain-hardeningregion
Thepostultimatestressorstrain-softeningregion.

Thelinearelasticregion0 ofthestress-straincurve,Where istheyieldstrain,isastraight

line(seeFig.5).

Intheyieldplateauregion < <

beginsatthe point A(

sh

,where

sh

isthestrainatinitiationofhardeningstrain,which

) ,the steel behavesplastically.Thisspecificregion ofthe stress-strain curve is

y, y

shownintheinsetofFig.5andisassumedtobehorizontal.Theyieldstress, ,correspondingtotheidealized

yieldplateaumustthereforebetakenasanarbitaryaveragevaluewithintherangeofthisplateau.

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The pointatwhich the yield plateau ends and strain hardening begins is notobvious.Before strain
hardening initiates,a dip generadlly occurs in the yield plateau,followed by a steep increase thatsuddenly
changesslopeintotherelativelysmoothstrain-hardeningregion.Thestrain-hardeningregion(seeFig.5)ranges
fromtheidealizedpointB(
) ,atwhichstarinhardeningbegins,totheultimatepointC(
) ,that

sh, y

su, su

correspondstothemomentatwhichthemaximumtensilestressisresistedandtheprocessofneckingbegins.
Neckingisdisplayedbycontractionofthespecimen,asshowninFig.6.
Inthepostultimateregion

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lengthoverwhichexperimentaldataarecollected.Therefore,itisassumedthattheultimatepointC(
markstheendofusefulregionofthestress-straincurve.

su, su

Inthepastitwasgenerallyassumedthatthemonotonicstress-strain curve ofductile steel subjectedto

compression isequal and opposite to the tension curve.However,the experimental data frommonotonictests
showthatthetensionandcompressionengineeringstress-straincurvesarepracticallycoincidentonlywhenthe
strainissmall.Thedifferencesbetweenthetwodiagrams,shownexaggeratedinFig.7,begintoappearinthe
strain-hardening region, where the extent of the strain becomes more pronounced, when necking/barreling
developsinthetensile/compressiontest.
TrueStress-StrainDiagramsInsomeengineeringapplications(forexample,inmetalforming),thestrainsmay
belarge.Forsuchpurposestehtotalstrainisdefinedasthesumofincrementalstrains ;thus

(3)

whereListhecurrentgagelengthofthespecimenwhentheincrementofelongation(contraction)Loccurs.IfL

istheinitialgagelengthofthespecimen,theninthelimitasL0thestrain correspondingtothegagelength
L canbedefinedbythefollowingintegral:
f

(4)

Thisstrain,obtainedbyaddinguptheincrementsofstrains,whicharebasedonthecurrentdimensionsofa
specimen,iscalledanaturalortruestrain.Sometimesthetruestrainiscalledlogarithmicstrainbecauseofthe
formofEq.4.
Forsmallstrains,thetruestrain definedbyEq.4essentiallycoincideswiththeengineeringstrain.If,
undertheintegral,thelengthLissetequaltoL ,thestraindefinitiongivenbyEq.4isobtained.
0

Duringplasticstrainofauniformspecimensubjectedtoaxialtension(compression),thecross-sectional
areagetssmaller(larger)asthespecimenelongates(shortens).Amoreaccuratedescriptionoftheactualstress
experienced by the specimen can be given by the true stress concept.The true stress, is related to the
instantaneouscross-sectionalarea,A,andtheappliedforceFas

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(5)

Sinceplasticstraininvolvesnovolumechange--thatis,A L =ALandL=L (1+)

0 0

(6)

which,usingEq.2andnotingthatF=P,allowstorelatethetruestressandengineeringstressasfollows:

(7)

Ifthevalueofthe issodefinedandthecorresponding areplottedonagraph,forwhichtheordinateis

thetruestressandtheabscissaisthetruestrain,theresultingcurveiscalledthetruestress-straindiagram.The
truestress-straindiagramsforductilematerials(suchasaductilesteel),thecompression,andthetensiontrue
stress-straindiagramspracticallycoincide,whereasthetwoengineeringstress-straindiagramsdriftapart.
In Fig. 7, in the same quadrant, compression and tension stress-strain diagram are illustrated for a
monotonictestofaductilesteelspecimenplottedintrueandengineeringcoordinatesystems.Ascanbeseen,
both compression and tension true stress-strain diagrams are similar until the effect of bucking becomes
noticeableatastrainlevelofapproximately6%inthecompressiontest.Comparisionoftheengineeringandthe
true stress-strain diagrams shows thatin tension,since the cross-sectional areadecreases as the specimen
elongates,thetruestressisgratedthanengineeringstress,whereasincompressionasthespecimenshortens,
thecross-sectionalareaincreasesandthusthetruestressislessthanthecorrespondingengineeringstress.
Itisimportanttorecognizethatexperimentallydeterminedstress-straindiagramsdifferwidelyfordifferent
materials.Evenforthesamematerialtheydifferdependingonthetemperatureatwhichthetestwasconducted,
thespeedofthetest,andanumberofothervariables.Conventionalstress-straindiagramsforafewrepresentative
materialsareillustratedinFigs.8and9.TheseareshowntolargerscaleinFig.9,particularlyforstrain.

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Since for most engineering applications,

deformations must be limited, the lower range of
strains is particularly important. The large
deformations of materials in the analysis of such
operationsasforging,forming,anddrawingarenot
pursued.
IncalculatingengineeringstressusingEq.2,
theoriginalcross-sectionalAoisgenerally
designatedbyA.
An illustration of fractured tension specimens
afterstatictension tests,i.e.,where the loadswere
gradually applied, is shown in Fig. 10. Steel and
aluminumalloyspecimensexhibitductile behavior,and a fracture occursonlyaftera considerable amountof
deformation.This behavior is clearly exemplified in their respective stress-strain diagrams;see Fig.9.These
failuresoccurprimarilyduetoslipinshearalongtheplanesformingapproximately45angleswiththeaxisofthe
rod.Atypicalcupandconefracturemaybedetectedinthephotographsofsteelandaluminumalloyspecimens.
Bycontrast,thefailureofacastironspecimentypicallyoccursverysuddenly,exhibitingasquarefractureacross
thecrosssection.Suchcleavageorseparationfracturesaretypicalofbrittlematerials.

3.Hooke'sLaw
Foralimitedrangefromtheorigin,theexperimentalvaluesotstressvs.strainlieessentiallyonastraight
line.Thisholdstruealmostwithoutreservationsfortheentirerangeforglassatroomtemperature.Itistrueformild
steeluptosomepoint,asAinFig.5.Itholdsnearlytrueuptoveryclosetothefailurepointformanyhigh-grade
alloysteels.On the otherhand,the straightpartofthe curve hardlyexistsin concrete,soil,annealed copper,
aluminum,orcastiron.Nevertheless,forallpracticalpurposes,uptosomesuchpoint,suchasA,alsoinFig.11,
therelationshipbetweenstressandstrainmaybesaidtobelinearforallmaterials.Thissweepingidealization
andgeneralizationapplicabletoallmaterialsisknownasHooke'slaw.isSymbolically,thislawcanbeexpressed
bytheequation
(8)
which simply means that stress is directly
proportionaltostrain,wheretheconstantofproportionality
isE.ThisconstantEiscalledtheelasticmodulus,modulus
ofelasticity,orYoungsmodulus.Asisdimensionless,E
hastheunitsofstressinthisrelation.IntheU.S.customary
systemofunits,itisusuallymeasuredinpoundspersquare
inch,and in the SIunits,itis measured in newtons per
squaremeter(orpascals).
Graphically,Eisinterpretedastheslopeofastraight
linefromtheorigintotherathervaguepointAonauniaxial
stress-straindiagram.Thestresscorrespondingtothelatter
point is termed the proportional or elastic limit of the
material. Physically, the elastic modulus represents the
stiffnessofthe material to an imposed load.The value of
theelasticmodulusisadefinitepropertyofamaterial.From
experiments, it is known that is always a very smnall
quantity;hence,Emustbelarge.Itsapproximatevaluesare
tabulated for a few materials in Tables 1A and B ofthe
Appendix.Forallsteels,Eatroomtemperatureisbetween

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29and30x10 psi,or200and207GPa.
Itfollowsfromthe foregoing discussion thatHookeslaw appliesonlyup to the proportional limitofthe
material.Thisishighlysignificantasinmostofthesubsequenttreatment,thederivedformulasarebasedonthis
law.Clearly,then,suchformulasarelimitedtothematerialsbehaviorinthelowerrangeofstresses.
Somematerials,notablysinglecrystalsandwood,possessdifferentelasticmoduliindifferentdirections.
Suchmaterials,havingdifferentphysicalpropertiesindifferentdirections,arecalledanisotropic.Aconsiderationof
suchmaterialsisexcludedfromthistext.Thevastmajorityofengineeringmaterialsconsistofalargenumberof
randomlyorientedcrystals.Becauseofthisrandomorientation,propertiesofmaterialsbecomeessentiallyalikein
anydirection.Such materialsare called isotropic..With some exceptions,such aswood,in thistext,complete
homnogeneity(samenessfrompointtopoint)andisotropyofmaterialsisgenerallYassumed.
4.FurtherRemarksonStress-strainRelationships
In addition to the proportional limitdefined in Section-3,several
otherinteresting pointscan be observed on the stress-strain diagrams.
Forinstance,thehighestpoints(seetheultimatestresspointCinFig.5)
correspondtotheultimatestrengthofamaterial.Stressassociatedwith
thelongplateauofthestress-straincurve(seetheinsetofFig.5)iscalled
the yield strength of a material. As will be brought out later, this
remarkablepropertyofmildsteel,incommonwithotherductilematerials,
issignificantinstressanalysis.Forthepresent,notethatatanessentially
constantstress,strains 15 to 20 times those thattake place up to the
proportionallimitoccurduringyielding.Attheyieldstress,alargeamount
ofdeformationtakesplaceataconstantstress.Theyieldingphenomenon
isabsentinmostmaterials.
A study ofstress-strain diagrams shows thatthe yield strength
(stress)issoneartheproportional limitthat,formostpurposes,the two
maybe taken to be the same.However,itismuch easierto locate the
former.Formaterialsthatdonotpossessawell-definedyieldstrength,oneissometimesinventedbytheuseof
theso-calledoffsetmethod.ThisisillustratedinFig.12,wherealineoffsetanarbitraiyamountof0.2percentof
strainisdrawnparalleltothestraight-lineportionoftheinitialstress-straindiagram.PointCisthentakenasthe
yieldstrengthofthematerialat0.2-percentoffset.
Thatamaterialiselasticusuallyimpliesthatstressisdirectlyproportionaltostrain,asinHookeslaw.Such
materialsarelinearlyelasticorHookean.Amaterialrespondinginanonlinearmannerandyet,whenunloaded,
returningbackalongtheloadingpathtoitsinitialstress-freestateofdeformationisalsoanelasticmaterial.Such
materialsarecallednonlinearlyelastic.Thedifferencebetweenthetwotypesofelasticmaterialsishighlightedin
Figs. 13(a) and (b). if in stressing a material its elastic limit is exceeded, on unloading it usually responds
approximatelyinalinearlyelasticmanner,asshowninFig.13(c),andapermanentdeformation,orset,develops
atnoexternalload.Theareaenclosedbytheloopcorrespondstodissipatedenergyreleasedthroughheat.Ideal
elasticmaterialsareconsiderednottodissipateanyenergyundermonotonicorcyclicloading.

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Forductilematerials,stress-straindiagramsobtainedforshortcompressionsblocksarereasonablycloseto
those found in tension.Brittle materials,such as castiron and concrete are very weak in tension butnotin
compression.Forthesematerials,thediagramsdifferconsiderably,dependingonthesenseoftheappliedforce.
Itiswelltonotethatinsomeofthesubsequentanalyses,itwillbeadvantageoustorefertoelasticbodies
and systemsassprings.Sketchessuch asshown in Fig.14 are frequentlyused in practice forinterpreting the
physicalbehaviorofmechanicalsystems.

1.6.PoissonsRatio
In addition to the deformation ofmaterialsin the direction ofthe applied
force,anotherremarkablepropertycanbeobservedinallsolidmaterials,namely,
thatatrightanglesto the applied force,a certain amountoflateral (transverse)
expansion orcontraction takesplace.Thisphenomenon isillustrated in Fig.15,
wherethedeformationsaregreatlyexaggerated.Forclarity,thisphysicalfactmay
be restated thus: if a solid body is subjected to an axial tension, it contracts
laterally; on the other hand, if it is compressed, the material squashes out
sideways. With this in mind, directions of lateral deformations are easily
determined,dependingonthesenseoftheappliedforce.
Forageneraltheory,itispreferabletorefertotheselateraldeformationson
thebasisofdeformationsperunitoflengthofthetransversedimension.Thus,the
lateraldeformationsonarelativebasiscanbeexpressedinin/inorm/m.These
relativeunitlateraldeformationsaretermedlateralstrains.Moreover,itisknown
fromexperimentsthatlateralstrainsbearaconstantrelationshiptothelongitudinal
oraxialstrainscausedbyanaxialforce,providedamaterialremainselasticandis
homogeneousandisotropic.Thisconstantisadefinitepropertyofamaterial,just
liketheelasticmodulusE,andiscalledPoissonsratio.Itwillbedenotedby (nu)
andisdefinedasfollows:
(9)

where the axial strainsare caused byuniaxial stressonly,i.e.,bysimple tension orcompression.The

second,alternative formofEq.(9)istrue because the lateral and axial strainsare alwaysofopposite sign for
uniaxialstress.
Thevalue offluctuatesfordifferentmaterialsoverarelativelynarrowrange.Generally,itisontheorder
of0.25to0.35.Inextremecases,valuesaslowas0.1(someconcretes)andashighas0.5(rubber)occur.The
lattervaluesisthelargestpossible.Itisnormallyattainedbymaterialsduringplasticflowandsignifiesconstancy
ofvolume.Inthistext,Poissonsratiowillbeusedonlywhenmaterialsbehaveelastically.
Inconclusion,notethatthePoissoneffectexhibitedbymaterialscausesnoadditionalstressesotherthan
thoseconsideredearlierunlessthetransversedeformationisinhibitedorprevented.
1-9.ThermalStrainandDeformation
Withchangesoftemperature,solidbodiesexpandonincreaseoftemperature
andcontractonitsdecrease.Thethermalstrain causedbyachangeintemperature
T

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fromT toTmeasuredindegreesCelsiusorFahrenheit,canbeexpressedas
0

= (T T )
T

(10)
Where is an experimentally determined coefficient of linear thermal
expansion. For moderately narrow ranges in temperature, remains reasonably
constant.
Equal thermal strains develop in every direction for unconstrained
homogeneous isotropic materials. For a body of length L subjected to a uniform
temperature,theextensionaldeformation duetoachangeintemperatureofT=TT is
T

=(T)L(11)
T

Foradecreaseintemperature,Tassumesnegativevalues.
AnillustrationofthethermaleffectondeformationofbarsduetoanincreaseintemperatureisshowninFig.
16.

ProfessorNotes
Mechanicalpropertiesofmaterial:
Propertiesofmaterialare

Elasticity=mildsteel,ss,alloysteels

PlasticityPolymers,rubber,steelbeyondelasticlimit

BrittlenessGlass,castiron

MalleabilityCu,tin,CRCAsheet,silver,gold

DuctilityCu,Al,silver,gold

Stressstraindiagramofmildsteelofmediumstrengthof

axiallyloadbar

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-
-

StressreducetomaintainequilibriuminAB,quickly

- InBCforsamestressstraincontinuous.AtoBtoCiscalledyieldingwithoutincreaseinstressstrain
increases.
-AtChardeningofmaterialtakesplacerequiringincreaseinstressforstraintoincrease,butthisisanon
linearlengthchange.
-Disthehightstreereachedbythememberofgivenarea(original)stressat'D'iscalledtheultimate
stress.AtUltimatestreepointwaistneckingstarstoformatDforms.

-AtpointEmaterialfails

Propertiesofengineeringmaterials:

Workingstressisthestressthematerialissubjectedtoallowablestressorwiththeload.
Permissiblestress:ofmaterialishigheststressallowedtojunction

Workingstresstobe<Permissiblestresstofunctionsafely
Permissiblestressmaybeelasticlimit,ultimatestress
Example1

YieldedatF=82.5KNspecimenattainedamaximumloadof
155KNandUltimatelybrokeat72.5KN
Find:(i)Tensilestrengthatyieldpoint

(ii)Ultimatestress

(iii)Averagestressatbreakingifdia.ofneck

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Originalareaofspecimensection=
Tensilestress(strength)atyield=
(UsedfordesignEstimates)
Ultimatestree(strength)=
(Usedforfactorofsafety)

Actually,atbreakingpointthoughloadislesscomparedtoultimate

Example2
Abarsubjectedtotensiletestyieldedat47.25KN
Find:

(i)TensileStressatyieldpoint
Originalarea=
TensileStress=

(ii)Ultimatestressatpointbreaking
Ultimatestress=
(iii)Averagestreeatbreakpointyneckdilis8.05mm

Averagestreeatbreak-point=

[StartProfessorNote][StartFacultyNote][Top]

Queries,CommentsandComplementscanbemailedon:sunil.raiyani@rgukt.in

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