An Analysis of the Environmental Impacts of Energy Crops in

Nigeria towards Environmental Sustainability

J. O. Olaoye
Department of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Abstract
Nigeria as a country today depends solely on fossil fuel bearing in mind that someday
this fossil fuel will deplete. Concerns about global climate change and air quality are
driving increased interest in biomass and other energy sources that are potentially
CO2-neutral and less polluting. Utilization of diverse energy crop in the midst of the
abundant renewable resources of the country demands a shift of focus on extensive
evaluation of environmental issues associated with the use of biomass (biogas, biofuel
and biodiesels). The issues related to the environmental impact assessment of these
resources were highlighted and suggestions on effective utilization of the biomass
energy towards environmental sustainability were presented. The potentials of
various energy crops and animal waste as forms of alternative energy for domestic
and automotive applications were evaluated.
Keywords: biomass, energy crop, environmental issues, biofuel, renewable energy,
environmental sustainability.
1.

Introduction

The term energy crop is used to principally to describe a crop grown primarily to
provide a feedstock for biofuels such as ethanol or to be burned for heat or electricity.
Examples of energy crops currently in production include corn (Zea mays), sugarcane
(Saccharum officinarum), and short-rotation plantations of poplar (Populus spp.),
physic nut, a member of the family Euphorbiaceae (Jatropha curcas), sycamore
(Platanus occidentalis) and eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.). According to Cook and
Bevea (1998) large scale biomass energy development could bring significant
environmental benefits as well as significant damages depending on the path taken.
Sustainable bioenergy development is considered as one that could reduce net
greenhouse gas emissions, improve air quality and reduce acid deposition, reduce
landfilling, reduce agricultural chemical runoff, and improve habitat for native
wildlife. Conversely, inappropriate bioenergy development could do great
environmental damage. In particular, the land requirements for biomass production
could be immense. The nature and extent of the impacts of these changes in land use
will depend on the specifics.
Riva (2006) noticed that in Asian countries recent increases in the cost of fossil fuels
as a result of the strong energy demand of the fast growing industries growing and the
on-going evolution of agriculture in Western countries, are leading to a more specific
focus linked to energy issues in the rural areas with a possibly different perspective in
respect of the past years.
Over-dependence on oil has slowed down the development of alternative fuels.
Diversification to achieve a wider energy supply mix will ensure greater energy
security for the nation. The domestic demand for petroleum products is growing
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rapidly. The development of alternative fuels from locally available energy resources
should therefore be vigorously pursued. The environmental implication of desirable
alternative is highly essential.
Energy, and in particular, oil and gas, has continued to contribute over 70% of
Nigerias Federal revenue. National developmental programmes, and security, depend
largely on these revenue earnings. Energy, especially crude oil, has over the past five
years contributed an average of about 25% to Nigerias Gross Domestic Product
(GDP), representing the highest contributor after crop production. The contribution of
energy to GDP is expected to be higher when we take into account renewable energy
utilization, which constitutes about 90% of the energy used by the rural population
(NPC, 1997).
According to ECN (1998) over the period 1989-2000, fuelwood and charcoal
constituted between 32 and 40% of total primary energy consumption. In year 2000,
national demand was estimated to be 39 million tonnes of fuelwood. About 95% of
the total fuelwood consumption was used in households for cooking and for cottage
industrial activities, such as for processing cassava and oil seeds, which are closely related to household activities. A smaller proportion of the fuelwood and charcoal
consumed was used in the services sector.
The demand for suitable and affordable energy for domestic and industrial
applications is a major concern word wide. Soaring energy consumption coupled with
concerns over green house gas emissions is fuelling a growing interest in alternative
power sources. In most countries of the south, where wood remains the primary
source of energy, there is pressure for the forestry sector to find the means to mobilise
clean energy, mitigate climate change and support economic development that is
environmentally sustainable. Up to 70% of total volume of natural forests may be
available for energy generation if the requirements could be met.
About 350,000 hectares of forest and natural vegetation are lost annually due to
various factors, by the beginning of the last decade, with a much lower afforestation
rate of 50,000 hectares/yr. With the depleting natural wood reserves, women and
children have to travel as far as six kilometres to collect wood, sometimes fresh trees
are cut down and allowed to dry for harvest as fuelwood thus putting further pressure
on the vegetation. Recent studies show that national demand for traditional energy
(mostly fuelwood and charcoal) is 39 million tonnes per annum (about 37.4% of the
total energy demand and the highest single share of all the energy forms). It is
projected to increase to 91 million tons by 2030 (ECN, 1998). The deforestation rate
is expected to similarly increase if no special programme is put in place to discourage
the use of fuelwood, promote the use of its alternatives and replenish through
deliberate afforestation and fuelwood lots. This has grave implications on sustainable
environment, food security and the health of the low income households who depend
on fuelwood.
2. Materials and Methods
Six-stage modeling approach for assessing regional or landscape scale environmental
impacts were adopted. It includes economic considerations, since economics will
determine where energy crops are profitable, what conventional crops they will
displace, and what management regimes will be used to produce them. Graham et al.
(1998) assessed the environmental impacts of biomass energy from energy crops from
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two different perspectives, the use of biomass for energy was considered in the
context of alternative energy options, and the environmental impact of producing
biomass from energy crops was also considered in the context of alternative land uses.
Using biomass-derived energy can either reduce or increase greenhouse gas
emissions; growing biomass energy crops can enhance soil fertility or degrade it.
Therefore, one must know the specific circumstances to be able to make a statement
about the environmental impacts of biomass energy.
It is important to quantify the environmental impacts of major shifts in land use to
grow energy crops. Shifting from current agriculture to energy crops could change
soil erosion patterns, water quality of regional streams, wildlife populations, and
regional air quality. Characterizing these impacts is challenging because they depend
on many site- and crop-specific factors.
Schafer (2007) quantifies the sustainability of energy crop production by means of
the overall efficiency o that is the energy output divided by the energy input of all
processes involved as shown in eqn. 1.
n
n
o Ai S i i . [ Ai . ( Si Pi K i )
i 1
i 1

] .1

(1)

Where, A denotes the area, S the solar energy, P the energy input of crop cultivation,
K the energy input of fuel conversion, i the technical efficiency of photosynthesis
and i the member of crop rotation. The crop scientist concerns for i and to some
extent for P while K and P is of engineers and partially animal production scientists
interest. Please note that the solar-radiation intensity is limited like the cultivating
area too.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Evaluation of biomass and renewable resources in Nigeria
Sambo (2009) and Olaoye (2001) agreed that the availability of biomass resources
follows the same pattern as the nations vegetation. The rain forest in the south
generates the highest quantity of woody biomass while the guinea savannah
vegetation of the north central region generates more crop residues than the sudan
and sahel savannah zones. The biomass resources and the estimated quantities in
Nigeria are presented in Table 1.
Three other major renewable energy resources are also identified in conjunction with
the prevalence of bomass resources in Nigeria are identified as Solar Energy, wind
energy and small hydro power development. In Nigeria, where rivers, waterfalls and
streams with high potentials for SHP development is abundant, harnessing of these
hydro-resources leads to decentralized use and local implementation and management, thereby making sustainable rural development possible through self-reliance
and the use of local natural resources. This can be the most affordable and accessible
option to provide off-grid electricity services. Based on Nigerias level of hydropower
development, small hydropower station is defined as follows: Small = installed
capacity of between 2 MW and 10 MW; Mini 2 MW ; Micro 100 kW . In recent
studies carried out in twelve states and four (4) river basins, over 278 unexploited
SHP sites with total potentials of 734.3 MW were identified. However, SHP potential

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sites exist in virtually all parts of Nigeria with an estimated capacity of 3,500 MW.
(Sambo, 2009 and Olaoye, 2009).
According to ECN (1998) Nigeria lies within a high sunshine belt and thus has
enormous solar energy potentials. The mean annual average of total solar radiation
varies from about 3.5 kWhm2day-1 in the coastal latitudes to about 7 kWhm2day1 along the semi arid areas in the far North. On the average, the country receives
solar radiation at the level of about 19.8 MJm 2 day-1. Average sunshine hours are
estimated at 6hrs per day. Solar radiation is fairly well distributed. The minimum
average is about 3.55 kWhm2day-1 in Katsina in January and 3.4 kWhm2day-1 for
Calabar in August and the maximum average is 8.0 kWhm2day-1 for Nguru in May.
Given an average solar radiation level of about 5.5 kWhm2day-1, and the prevailing
efficiencies of commercial solar-electric generators, then if solar collectors or
modules were used to cover 1% of Nigerias land area of 923,773km2, it is possible
to generate 1850x103 GWh of solar electricity per year. This is over one hundred
times the current grid electricity consumption level in the country.
Wind, which is an effect from the uneven heating of the earths surface by the sun and
its resultant pressure inequalities is available at annual average speeds of about 2.0
m/s at the coastal region and 4.0 m/s at the far northern region of the country.
Assuming an air density of 1.1 kg/m3, wind energy intensity, perpendicular to the
wind direction, ranges between 4.4 W/ m2 at the coastal areas and 35.2 W/ m2 at the far
northern region. (Sambo, 2009). Wind energy conversion systems (wind turbines,
wind generators, wind plants, wind machines, and wind dynamos) are devices which
convert the kinetic energy of the moving air to rotary motion of a shaft, that is,
mechanical energy. The technologies for harnessing this energy have, over the years
been tried in the northern parts of the country, mainly for water pumping from open
wells in many secondary schools of old Sokoto and Kano States as well as in Katsina,
Bauchi and Plateau States.
3.2

Suggested models for assessing regional or landscape scale environmental

impacts

Figure 1 shows the six stages of assessing regional or landscape scale environmental
impact. These factors can assist to present the desired approach for the evaluation and
the results of environmental consequences shall be amplified. According to Graham et
al. (1998) the environmental impact can be calculated by linking the environmental
impacts per hectare determined in Stage 3 to the land-use changes predicted in Stage
5. Regional wildlife impacts depend not only on how much and what type of land is
converted, but also on the location of that land in relation to other land uses. To
evaluate these impacts, one must create maps of the changes in regional or landscape
pattern created by the projected land use changes. These maps are then used as inputs
to spatial models of animal behavior and habitat to examine wildlife impacts. Effects
on regional water quality depend on how much and what type of land is converted,
where it is in relation to other land, and the topographic position of the land in relation
to streams and lakes.

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3.3

Associated environmental impact of major shift in land use for production of

energy crop

Graham et al. (1998) presented four major factors for determination of environmental
impacts of energy crop productions. These factors are considered as the associated
environmental impact of major shift in land use for production of energy crop.
3.3.1 Crop factors
According to Tolbert and Schiller (1996) and Hoffman et al. (1995) in Graham et al.
(1998) the issues arising from cultivation of crops may lead to more soil erosion and
use more fertilizers than growing short rotation poplar or jathropha. Also, because
trees use more water than herbaceous crops, they may reduce stream flow. The type of
crop grown is a decisive variable in predicting environmental impacts from energy
crop production; crops have different effects on erosion, water availability and
quality, wildlife habitat, and air quality. Wildlife will differentiate among crop types;
for example, tree crops can provide habitat for forest bird species. Perennial grasses
enhance soil carbon more than do annual crops. Tree crops release more hydrocarbons
into the air than do herbaceous crops. The management strategies of crop are
important factors to consider. These include methods of interplanting to reduce
erosion, types and amounts of fertilizer and herbicides to apply and the timing
application will affect water quality. Other handling procedure that may induce air
quality and loss of nutrient are method of tree harvesting respectively.
3.3.2

Site factors

The difference between the environmental effects of the former land use and of the
energy crop determines the environmental value of the energy crop. The physical
characteristics of the land will strongly influence the productivity of energy crops and
therefore the likelihood that they will be grown. Other related factors are soil type,
climate, and topography. While topography is viewed as major factor that will affect
erosion and runoff also, the soil type will influence the need for fertilizers and the rate
at which pesticides and fertilizers leach to groundwater (Tolbert and Schhilller,
(1996), Ranney and Mann (1994)). High organic matter content increases the soil's
retention of pesticides and nutrients. In a warmer climate, pesticides break down and
volatilize more rapidly. The location of the energy crops in relation to other land uses
will strongly influence water quality and wildlife impacts.
3.3.3

Size of land dedicated to energy crops

The size of land earmarked for growing energy crop will produce corresponding
impact on the region. The correlation between the impact and the size of land use for
energy crop production may not be proportional when considering the wildlife and
water quality impacts. Graham and Dowining (1993) showed that the impact of
erosion, which can be calculated on a per hectare basis does not depend on land use
changes elsewhere and this also will not simply be proportional to the amount of land
planted to energy crops in a region. This is because soil type, topography, and former
land use all will vary within the region.
3.3.4

Relationships between interactions among factors

The current global climate changes are considered as chains of reaction associated
with various intervening factors that cannot be considered in isolation, because they
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interact strongly in affecting the environment. In considering factors affecting shift in

land use conditions, soil, climate, topography, crop type, and crop management all
will affect energy crop productivity and therefore the quantity of land needed to
produce a specific supply. Also, former land use conditions can influence energy crop
productivity. For example, soil compaction as a result of pasture use may reduce
expected energy crop yields. These factors should be extended to include the
economic forces and policies that will control where energy crops will be grown and
what land uses they will displace. According to Graham et al. (1998) assessing the
potential environmental impacts of energy crop production requires an integrated
approach that considers all these factors.
3.4

Potentials of animal waste/energy Crop and sustainability for energy

production

The sustainability of energy crop production must be undertaken to determine

establish the stand point of energy crop and food security status of the specific energy
crop to be adopted. Olaoye (2009) detailed the conflicting issues on biofuel
development and food security challenges. Hence, the process energy efficiency must
be evaluated for any specific energy crop of interest by using equation 1. The
calculation of the process energy efficiency includes the process energy input and the
free energy (exergy) before and after processing. High process energy efficiency of
any cultivated crop fosters common acceptance of the crop as energy crop. The
evaluation of overall process energy efficiency creates opportunity to infer among
other factors the status of the crop as viable crop for anaerobic digestion to produce
biogas, conversion of meal feed into manure, and organic farming practices. Crop
processing generates usually different products. Some are suitable for energy
production others for fibre production, human nutrition or animal feed.
4 Conclusions
The prevalence of energy crops in Nigeria was analysed and this was also considered
with reference to the other available renewable sources of energy.
The effectiveness of using biomass to reduce detrimental environmental impact of
other energy sources was reviewed and it was noted that to reduce CO2 emissions
from fossil fuels will depend on the net effective greenhouse gas flux for the overall
biomass production-use cycle and the relative efficiency of the biomass conversion or
end-use process. Therefore, increasing energy efficiency and displacing fossil fuels
with renewable energy are two of the leading options for reducing emissions of CO2,
the principal greenhouse gas.
Suggested models for assessing regional or landscape scale environmental impacts
was presented and the associated environmental impact of major shift in land use for
production of energy crop were highlighted.
The paper has shown that if the sustainability of energy crop production is
determined, energy crop production becomes captivating with many win-win
situations. Such that environmentally neutral bio-fuels will replace polluting fossil
fuels, farmers will get better prices for energy crops, the agrochemical industry will
gains from intensification of energy crop production, and turn over of power industry
will grow due to increasing energy consumption to produce agrochemicals and to
process biomass into fuel.
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Table 1: Biomass Resources and the Estimated Quantitiesin Nigeria

Resources
Fuelwood
Agro-waste
Saw Dust
Municipal Solid Waste

Quantity
(million tonnes)
39.1
11.244
1.8
4.075

Source: Sambo (2009)

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Energy
(000 MJ)
531.0
147.7
31.433
-

Value

(1)
Characterization of the Region:
Region Climate, Topography, Soil
Quality and Types, Location,
Management Practices and
Profitability of Current Land Uses
(6)
Evaluation of environmental impacts:
Regional Impacts on Soil Fertility,
Water Quality, and Air Quality
Largely Depend on How Much and
What Type of Land is Converted

(2)
Development of Energy Crop
Management Scenarios and
Production Costs: Region
Characterization and Appropriate
Energy Crop with Soils and Climate
Conditions
Prediction of Environmental Impacts
and Land Use

(5)
Determining where land use change
will occur:
Predict land use changes, Least
Expensive biomass for a conversion
facility
(4)
Calculation of probable Farm Gate
Biomass Price: Use data from Stage 1
to Calculate Price of Biomass, Use
the break-even farmgate price to
identify the appropriate energy crop
lands

(3)
Modeling Crop Yields and on-site
Environmental Impacts:
Prediction on variations in crop yield
associated with soils and climates.
Using empirical crop yield
information

Fig. 1. Suggested model for assessing regional and landscape scale environmental impact for growing energy crops

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