Anthropomorphism

In this illustration by Milo Winter of Aesop's fable, "The North

Wind and the Sun", an anthropomorphic North Wind tries to strip
the cloak o of a traveler

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human form or

other characteristics to beings other than humans, particularly deities and animals. Personication is the related
attribution of human form and characteristics to abstract
concepts such as nations and natural forces likes seasons
and the weather. Both have ancient roots as storytelling
and artistic devices. Most cultures have traditional fables
with anthropomorphized animals as characters.

Name

Anthropomorphism derives from its verb form anthropomorphize,[n 1] itself derived from the Greek nthrpos
(, lit. human) and morph (, form).
It is rst attested in 1753, originally in reference to
the heresy of applying a human form to the Christian
God.[n 2][1]

The 40,000 year-old Lwenmensch gurine

Pre-history

From the beginnings of human behavioural modernity in may represent the earliest evidence we have of anthropothe Upper Paleolithic, about 40,000 years ago, examples morphism. One of the oldest known is an ivory sculpture,
of zoomorphic (animal-shaped) works of art occur that the Lwenmensch gurine, Germany, a human-shaped
1

IN LITERATURE

gurine with the head of a lioness or lion, determined to Genesis 1:27: So God created man in His own image,
be about 32,000 years old.[3][4]
in the image of God created He him; male and female
[8]
It is not possible to say what these prehistoric artworks created He them.
represent. A more recent example is The Sorcerer, an
enigmatic cave painting from the Trois-Frres Cave, Ar3.1 Criticism
ige, France: the gures signicance is unknown, but it
is usually interpreted as some kind of great spirit or masSome religions, scholars, and philosophers objected
ter of the animals. In either case there is an element of
to anthropomorphic deities. The Greek philosopher
anthropomorphism.
Xenophanes (570480 BCE) argued against the concepThis anthropomorphic art has been linked by tion of deities as fundamentally anthropomorphic:
archaeologist Steven Mithen with the emergence of
more systematic hunting practices in the Upper PalaeBut if cattle and horses and lions had hands
olithic (Mithen 1998). He proposes that these are the
or could paint with their hands and create
product of a change in the architecture of the human
works such as men do,
mind, an increasing uidity between the natural history
horses like horses and cattle like cattle
and social intelligences, where anthropomorphism
also would depict the gods shapes and make
allowed hunters to identify empathetically with hunted
their bodies
animals and better predict their movements.[n 3]
of such a sort as the form they themselves

In religion and mythology

Main article: Anthropotheism

have.
...
Ethiopians say that their gods are snubnosed
[] and black
Thracians that they are pale and redhaired.[9][n 4]

In religion and mythology, anthropomorphism refers to

god resembles man neither in
the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, He said that the greatest
[10]
form
nor
in
mind.
or the recognition of human qualities in these beings.
Ancient mythologies frequently represented the divine as Both Judaism and Islam reject an anthropomorphic deity,
deities with human forms and qualities. They resem- believing that God is beyond human comprehension. Juble human beings not only in appearance and personal- daisms rejection of an anthropomorphic deity grew durity; they exhibited many human behaviors that were used ing the Hasmonean period (circa 300 BCE), when Jewish
to explain natural phenomena, creation, and historical belief incorporated some Greek philosophy. Judaisms
events. The deities fell in love, married, had children, rejection grew further after the Islamic Golden Age in the
fought battles, wielded weapons, and rode horses and tenth century, which Maimonides codied in the [ntwelfth
5]
chariots. They feasted on special foods, and sometimes century, in his thirteen principles of Jewish faith.
required sacrices of food, beverage, and sacred objects
to be made by human beings. Some anthropomorphic
deities represented specic human concepts, such as love,
war, fertility, beauty, or the seasons. Anthropomorphic
deities exhibited human qualities such as beauty, wisdom,
and power, and sometimes human weaknesses such as
greed, hatred, jealousy, and uncontrollable anger. Greek
deities such as Zeus and Apollo often were depicted in
human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable human traits.

Hindus do not reject the concept of a deity in the abstract

unmanifested, but note practical problems. Lord Krishna
said in the Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 12, Verse 5, that it is
much more dicult for people to focus on a deity as the
unmanifested than one with form, using anthropomorphic
icons (murtis), because people need to perceive with their
senses.[12][13]

In Faces in the Clouds, anthropologist Stewart Guthrie

proposes that all religions are anthropomorphisms that
originate in the brains tendency to detect the presence
Anthropomorphism in this case is referred to as or vestiges of other humans in natural phenomena.[14]
anthropotheism.[6]
From the perspective of adherents to religions in which
humans were created in the form of the divine, the
phenomenon may be considered theomorphism, or the
giving of divine qualities to humans.

4 In literature
4.1 Religious texts

Anthropomorphism has cropped up as a Christian heresy,

particularly prominently with the Audians in third century There are various examples of personication as a literSyria, but also in fourth century Egypt and tenth century ary device in both Hebrew Bible and Christian New TesItaly.[7] This often was based on a literal interpretation of tament and also in the texts of some other religions.

4.3

Fairy tales

4.2

Fables

4.3 Fairy tales

Anthropomorphic motifs have been common in fairy
tales from the earliest ancient examples set in a mythological context to the great collections of the Brothers
Grimm and Perrault. The Tale of Two Brothers (Egypt,
13th century BCE) features several talking cows and in
Cupid and Psyche (Rome, 2nd century CE) Zephyrus, the
west wind, carries Psyche away. Later an ant feels sorry
for her and helps her in her quest.

4.4 Modern literature

From the Panchatantra: Rabbit fools Elephant by showing the

reection of the moon

Anthropomorphism,
sometimes referred to as
personication, is a well established literary device
from ancient times. The story of The Hawk and the
Nightengale in Hesiod's Works and Days preceded
Aesop's fables by centuries.[15] Collections of linked
fables from India, the Jataka Tales and Panchatantra,
also employ anthropomorphized animals to illustrate
principles of life. Many of the stereotypes of animals
that are recognized today, such as the wiley fox and the
proud lion, can be found in these collections. Aesop's
anthropomorphisms were so familiar by the rst century CE that they colored the thinking of at least one
philosopher:
And there is another charm about him,
namely, that he puts animals in a pleasing light
and makes them interesting to mankind. For
after being brought up from childhood with
these stories, and after being as it were nursed
by them from babyhood, we acquire certain
opinions of the several animals and think of
some of them as royal animals, of others as
silly, of others as witty, and others as innocent.
Apollonius of Tyana[16]

Apollonius noted that the fable was created to teach

wisdom through ctions that are meant to be taken as ctions, contrasting them favorably with the poets stories
of the deities that are sometimes taken literally. Aesop,
by announcing a story which everyone knows not to be
true, told the truth by the very fact that he did not claim
to be relating real events.[16] The same consciousness of
the fable as ction is to be found in other examples across
the world, one example being a traditional Ashanti way of
beginning tales of the anthropomorphic trickster-spider
Anansi: We do not really mean, we do not really mean
that what we are about to say is true. A story, a story; let
it come, let it go.[17]

John Tenniels depiction of this anthropomorphic rabbit was featured in the rst chapter of Lewis Carroll's Alices Adventures in
Wonderland

Building on the popularity of fables and fairy tales, specifically childrens literature began to emerge in the nineteenth century with works such as Alices Adventures in
Wonderland (1865) by Lewis Carroll, The Adventures
of Pinocchio (1883) by Carlo Collodi and The Jungle
Book (1894) by Rudyard Kipling, all employing anthropomorphic elements. This continued in the twentieth
century with many of the most popular titles having anthropomorphic characters,[18] examples being The Tales
of Beatrix Potter (1901 onwards),[n 6] The Wind in the Willows (1908) by Kenneth Grahame, The Lion, the Witch,
and the Wardrobe by C. S. Lewis and Winnie-the-Pooh
(1926) by A. A. Milne. In many of these stories the ani-

mals can be seen as representing facets of human personality and character.[20] As John Rowe Townsend remarks,
discussing The Jungle Book in which the boy Mowgli must
rely on his new friends the bear Baloo and the black panther Bagheera, The world of the jungle is in fact both
itself and our world as well.[20] A notable work aimed
at an adult audience is George Orwell's Animal Farm, in
which all the main characters are anthropomorphic animals. Non-animal examples include Rev.W Awdry's childrens stories of Thomas the Tank Engine and other anthropomorphic locomotives.

IN FILM, TELEVISION, AND VIDEO GAMES

In the lms Cars (2006), Cars 2 (2011), Planes (2013)

and Planes: Fire & Rescue (2014), all the characters
are anthropomorphic vehicles.[29] Discussing Madagascar, Escape 2 Africa (2008), and Europes Most Wanted
(2012), Laurie suggests that social dierences based on
conict and contradiction are naturalized and made less
'contestable' through the classicatory matrix of human
and nonhuman relations.[29]

In the motion picture Fantastic Mr. Fox (2009), most of

the characters are anthropomorphic animals very similar
to the style seen in the Furry Fandom. They are given esThe fantasy genre developed from mythological, fairy pecially human characteristics such as body shape, hands,
tale, and Romance motifs[21] and characters, sometimes and clothing among other things.
with anthropomorphic animals. The best-selling exam- Most of lm director Mark Dindal's projects, Cats Don't
ples of the genre are The Hobbit[22] (1937) and The Lord Dance, The Emperors New Groove, Chicken Little, and
of the Rings[n 7] (19541955), both by J. R. R. Tolkien, The Emperors New School, feature anthropomorphic anbooks peopled with talking creatures such as ravens, spi- imals. Cats Don't Dances cast includes talking animals,
ders, and the dragon Smaug and a multitude of anthro- New Groove had an Incan turned into a llama, Chicken Litpomorphic goblins and elves. John D. Rateli calls this tle had an all animal cast, and New School feature the main
the "Doctor Dolittle Theme in his book The History of characters getting turned into various animals throughout
the Hobbit [24] and Tolkien saw this anthropomorphism as the entire show, almost every episode.
closely linked to the emergence of human language and
myth: "...The rst men to talk of 'trees and stars saw
things very dierently. To them, the world was alive with
mythological beings... To them the whole of creation was 5.2 Television
myth-woven and elf-patterned.'[25]
By the 21st century, the childrens picture book market Since the 1960s, anthropomorphism has also been reprehad expanded massively.[n 8] Perhaps a majority of pic- sented in various animated television shows such as Biker
ture books have some kind of anthropomorphism,[18][27] Mice From Mars (19931996) and SWAT Kats: The Radwith popular examples being The Very Hungry Caterpil- ical Squadron (19931995). Teenage Mutant Ninja Turlar (1969) by Eric Carle and The Grualo (1999) by Julia tles, rst aired in 1987, features four pizza-loving anthropomorphic turtles with a great knowledge of ninjutsu, led
Donaldson.
by their anthropomorphic rat sensei, Master Splinter.
Anthropomorphism in literature and other media led to
a sub-culture known as furry fandom, which promotes TUGS (1988) is a British childrens series, set in the
and creates stories and artwork involving anthropomor- 1920s, featuring anthropomorphic tugboats. They moved
phic animals, and the examination and interpretation of like real boats but would sometimes perform certain actions without the aid of humans although not seen. Like
humanity through anthropomorphism.[28]
real boats they obeyed maritime laws but would someVarious Japanese manga have used anthropomorphism as times perform actions of their own will.
the basis of their story. Examples include Squid Girl (anthropomorphized squid), Hetalia: Axis Powers (personi- In the American animated TV series Family Guy, one of
ed countries), Upotte!! (personied guns), and Arpeggio the shows main characters, Brian, is a dog. Brian shows
many human characteristics he walks upright, talks,
of Blue Steel (personied ships).
smokes, and drinks Martinis but also acts like a normal
dog in other ways; for example he cannot resist chasing
a ball and barks at the mailman, believing him to be a
5 In lm, television, and video threat.

games
5.1

Film

Some of the most notable examples are the Walt Disney

characters the Magic Carpet from Disneys Aladdin franchise, Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, and Oswald
the Lucky Rabbit; the Looney Tunes characters Bugs
Bunny, Day Duck, and Porky Pig; and an array of others
from the 1920s to present day.

A CanadianNew Zealand-American animated TV show

called Turbo Dogs (2008) starred anthropomorphized
dog characters. In 2010, a French-American animated
TV show The Mysteries of Alfred Hedgehog was mostly
consisted of woodland anthropomorphic characters.
A British TV series, Thomas and Friends, features anthropomorphized trains, airplanes, helicopters, and cars.
Both the YouTube series The Annoying Orange and its
American television adaptation The High Fructose Adventures of Annoying Orange feature anthropomorphized

6.3

Post Minimalism

fruits and vegetables.

An AmericanCanadian series, Johnny Test, features a
talking dog named Dukey, who is genetically engineered
by the title characters sisters, which they all try to keep a
secret from anyone else (except in a couple of episodes).

5.3

Video games

Sonic the Hedgehog, a game released in 1991, features

a speedy blue hedgehog as the protagonist. This series
characters are almost all anthropomorphic animals such
as foxes, cats, and other hedgehogs who are able to speak
and walk on their hind legs like normal humans. As with
most anthropomorphisms of animals, clothing is of little
or no importance, where some characters may be fully
clothed while some only wear shoes and gloves.
Another example in video games is Super Mario Bros.,
which was released in 1985. Some of the characters
include Yoshi, a dinosaur who is able to talk, run and
jump, and Bowser, a Koopa that is able to perform most
human characteristics, with some exceptions, as he can
breathe re.
Anthropomorphic pareidolia by Giuseppe Arcimboldo

5.4

Radio programs

The Signature Series is a radio program based in Canada

that explores the personality traits of the 24 keys of western music by personifying them and giving each key a
gender, a story and specic character traits.

6
6.1

Art history
Claes Oldenburg

Claes Oldenburg's soft sculptures are commonly described as anthropomorphic. Depicting common household objects, Oldenburgs sculptures were considered Pop
Art. Reproducing these objects, often at a greater size
than the original, Oldenburg created his sculptures out
of soft materials. The anthropomorphic qualities of the
sculptures were mainly in their sagging and malleable exterior which mirrored the not so idealistic forms of the
human body. In Soft Light Switches Oldenburg creates
a household light switch out of Vinyl. The two identical
switches, in a dulled orange, insinuate nipples. The soft
vinyl references the aging process as the sculpture wrinkles and sinks with time.

6.2

Minimalism

In the essay Art and Objecthood, Michael Fried makes

the case that "Literalist art" (Minimalism) becomes theatrical by means of anthropomorphism. The viewer engages the minimalist work, not as an autonomous art

object, but as a theatrical interaction. Fried references

a conversation in which Tony Smith answers questions
about his six-foot cube, Die.
Q: Why didn't you make it larger so that it would loom
over the observer? A: I was not making a monument. Q:
then why didn't you make it smaller so that the observer
could see over the top? A: I was not making an object.
Fried implies an anthropomorphic connection by means
of a surrogate person-that is, a kind of statue.
The minimalist decision of hollowness in much of their
work, was also considered by Fried, to be blatantly
anthropomorphic. This hollowness contributes to the
idea of a separate inside; an idea mirrored in the human
form. Fried considers the Literalist arts hollowness to
be biomorphic as it references a living organism.[30]

6.3 Post Minimalism

Curator Lucy Lippard's Eccentric Abstraction show, in
1966, sets up Briony Fer's writing of a post minimalist
anthropomorphism. Reacting to Frieds interpretation of
minimalist arts looming presence of objects which appear as actors might on a stage, Fer interprets the artists
in Eccentric Abstraction to a new form of anthropomorphism. She puts forth the thoughts of Surrealist writer
Roger Caillous, who speaks of the spacial lure of the
subject, the way in which the subject could inhabit their
surroundings. Caillous uses the example of an insect who
through camouage does so in order to become invisi-

MASCOTS

ble... and loses its distinctness. For Fer, the anthropomorphic qualities of imitation found in the erotic, organic
sculptures of artists Eva Hesse and Louise Bourgeois, are
not necessarily for strictly mimetic purposes. Instead,
like the insect, the work must come into being in the
scopic eld... which we cannot view from outside.[31]

to the fact that both humans and cats have identical

neurochemicals and regions in the brain responsible for
emotion as proof that it is not anthropomorphic to
credit cats with emotions such as jealousy.[41]

In the context of the sciences, the term anthropomorphism has been deprecated to the point that, when applied to a scientist, the term functions as a pejorative (see
above). There is also a risk of straying o the path of
objectivity, however, when scientists choose to assume
that only humans possess any degree of certain traits.[42]
This assumption is called anthropocentrism, practitioners
of which either believe in or unintentionally form an outlook of human exceptionalism. Darwin to the chagrin
of many religious philosophers dismissed these ideas
of human exceptionalism in his book The Descent of Man
by saying that our dierences are only in degree and not
in kind.[43]

In science

In the scientic community, the use of anthropomorphic

language that suggests animals have intentions and emotions has traditionally been deprecated as indicating a
lack of objectivity. Biologists have been warned to avoid
assumptions that animals share any of the same mental, social, and emotional capacities of humans, and to
rely instead on strictly observable evidence.[32] In 1927
Ivan Pavlov wrote that animals should be considered
without any need to resort to fantastic speculations as
to the existence of any possible subjective states.[33]
More recently, The Oxford companion to animal behaviour (1987) advised that one is well advised to study
the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any underlying emotion.[34] Some scientists, like William M
Wheeler (writing apologetically of his use of anthropomorphism in 1911), have used anthropomorphic language in metaphor to make subjects more humanly comprehensible or memorable.[n 9]

7.1 Antonym

8 Mascots

Despite the impact of Charles Darwin's ideas in

The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
(Konrad Lorenz in 1965 called him a "patron saint" of
ethology)[36] ethology has generally focused on behavior,
not on emotion in animals.[36] Though in other ways Darwin was and is the epitome of science, his acceptance
of anecdote and anthropomorphism stands out in sharp
contrast to the lengths to which later scientists would go
to overlook apparent mindedness, selfhood, individuality,
and agency:
Fatso the Fat-Arsed Wombat, a popular symbol of the Sydney
The study of great apes in their own environment and 2000 Summer Olympics created as a parody of the blandly comin captivity[n 10] has changed attitudes to anthropomor- mercial ocial mascots.
phism. In the 1960s the three so-called "Leakeys
Angels", Jane Goodall studying chimpanzees, Dian Main articles: Mascot and List of mascots
Fossey studying gorillas and Birut Galdikas studying
orangutans, were all accused of that worst of ethological For branding, merchandizing, and representation, gures
sins anthropomorphism.[39] The charge was brought known as mascots are now often employed to personabout by their descriptions of the great apes in the eld; ify sports teams, corporations, and major events such as
it is now more widely accepted that empathy has an im- the Worlds Fair and the Olympics. These personicaportant part to play in research.
tions may be simple human or animal gures, such as
De Waal has written: To endow animals with human
emotions has long been a scientic taboo. But if we do
not, we risk missing something fundamental, about both
animals and us.[40] Alongside this has come increasing
awareness of the linguistic abilities of the great apes and
the recognition that they are tool-makers and have individuality and culture.

Ronald McDonald or the ass that represents America's

Democratic Party. Other times, they are anthropomorphic items, such as "Clippy" or the "Michelin Man".
Most often, they are anthropomorphic animals such as
the Energizer Bunny or the San Diego Chicken.

The practice is particularly widespread in Japan, where

cities, regions, and companies all have mascots, collecWriting of cats in 1992, veterinarian Bruce Fogle points tively known as yuru-chara. Two of the most popular

7
are Kumamon (a bear who represents Kumamoto Prefecture)[44] and Funassyi (a pear who represents Funabashi,
a suburb of Tokyo).[45]

Gallery
A glass door in the Chatham House
Almada tram in smiley livery
Pareidolia of an Indian face in a rock
Seymore D. Fair 1st-ever World Expo Mascot

10

See also

Aniconism: antithetic concept

Animism
Anthropic principle
Anthropocentrism
Anthropology
Anthropomorphic maps
Anthropopathism
Great Chain of Being
Humanoid
Moe anthropomorphism
National personication
Pareidolia: seeing faces in everyday objects
Pathetic Fallacy
Prosopopoeia
Speciesism
Anthropomorphic animals
Human-animal hybrid
Funny animal
Furry fandom

11 Notes
[1] Possibly via French anthropomorphisme.[1]
[2] Anthropomorphism, among divines, the error of those
who ascribe a human gure to the deity.[2]
[3] In the New York Review of Books, Gardner opined that I
nd most convincing Mithens claim that human intelligence lies in the capacity to make connections: through
using metaphors.[5]
[4] Many other translations of this passage have Xenophanes
state that the Thracians were blond.
[5] Moses Maimonides quoted Rabbi Abraham Ben David:
It is stated in the Torah and books of the prophets that
God has no body, as stated 'Since G-d your God is the god
(lit. gods) in the heavens above and in the earth below and
a body cannot be in both places. And it was said 'Since you
have not seen any image' and it was said 'To who would
you compare me, and I would be equal to them?' and if
he was a body, he would be like the other bodies.[11]
[6] The Victoria and Albert Museum wrote: Beatrix Potter
is still one of the worlds best-selling and best-loved childrens authors. Potter wrote and illustrated a total of 28
books, including the 23 Tales, the 'little books that have
been translated into more than 35 languages and sold over
100 million copies.[19]
[7] 150 million sold, a 2007 estimate of copies of the full story
sold, whether published as one volume, three, or some
other conguration.[23]
[8] It is estimated that the UK market for childrens books was
worth 672m in 2004.[26]
[9] In 1911, Wheeler wrote: The larval insect is, if I may be
permitted to lapse for a moment into anthropomorphism,
a sluggish, greedy, self-centred creature, while the adult is
industrious, abstemious and highly altruistic...[35]
[10] In 1946, Hebb wrote: A thoroughgoing attempt to avoid
anthropomorphic description in the study of temperament
was made over a two-year period at the Yerkes laboratories. All that resulted was an almost endless series of specic acts in which no order or meaning could be found.
On the other hand, by the use of frankly anthropomorphic
concepts of emotion and attitude one could quickly and
easily describe the peculiarities of individual animals...
Whatever the anthropomorphic terminology may seem to
imply about conscious states in chimpanzee, it provides an
intelligible and practical guide to behavior.[38]

12 References
12.1 Citations

Talking animals in ction

[1] Oxford English Dictionary, 1st ed. anthropomorphism,

n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1885.

Zoomorphism

[2] Chamberss Cyclopdia, Supplement, 1753.

[3] Lionheaded Figurine.

[4] Dalton (1 January 2004). Lwenmensch Oldest Statue.
VNN World.
[5] Gardner, Howard (9 October 1997), Thinking About
Thinking, New York Review of Books, archived from the
original on 29 March 2010, retrieved 8 May 2010.
[6] anthropotheism. Ologies & -Isms. The Gale Group, Inc.
2008.
[7] Fox, James Joseph (1907).
"Anthropomorphism".
Catholic Encyclopedia 1. New York: Robert Appleton
Company.
[8] Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). Anthropomorphite.
Cyclopdia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (rst ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.
[9] Diels-Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Xenophanes frr. 15-16.
[10] Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies V xiv 109.13
[11] Maimonides, Moses, Fundamentals of Torah, Ch. 1,
8, Book of Science.
[12] Fowler, Jeanne D. (1997). Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 4243. ISBN
1898723605.
[13] Narayan, M. K. V. (2007). Flipside of Hindu Symbolism.
Fultus. pp. 8485. ISBN 1596821175.
[14] Guthrie, Stewart E. (1995). Faces in the Clouds: A New
Theory of Religion. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN
0-19-509891-9.
[15] EB (1911).
[16] Philostratus, Flavius (c.210 CE). The Life of Apollonius,
5.14. Translated by F.C. Conybeare. the Loeb Classical
Library (1912)
[17] Kwesi Yankah (1983). The Akan Trickster Cycle: Myth
or Folktale?" (PDF). Trinidad University of the West Indes.
[18] The top 50 childrens books. The Telegraph. 22 Feb
2008. and Sophie Borland (22 Feb 2008). Narnia triumphs over Harry Potter. The Telegraph.
[19] Beatrix Potter, Ocial website, Victoria and Albert
Museum.
[20] Gamble, Nikki; Yates, Sally (2008). Exploring Childrens
Literature. Sage Publications Ltd;. ISBN 978-1-41293013-0.
[21] John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy,
p 621, ISBN 0-312-19869-8
[22] 100 million copies sold: BBC: Tolkiens memorabilia go
on sale. 18 March 2008
[23] The Toronto Star, 16 April 2007.

12

REFERENCES

[24] Rateli, John D. (2007). The History of the Hobbit: Return to Bag-end. London: HarperCollins. p. 654. ISBN
978-0-00-723555-1.
[25] Carpenter, Humphrey (1979). The Inklings: C. S. Lewis,
J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams and Their Friends.
Boston: Houghton Miin. p. 43. ISBN 0-395-276284.
[26] The Value of the Childrens Picture Book Market.
[27] Ben Myers (10 June 2008). Why we're all animal lovers.
The Guardian.
[28] Patten, Fred (2006). Furry! The Worlds Best Anthropomorphic Fiction. ibooks. pp. 427436. ISBN 1-59687319-1.
[29] Laurie, Timothy (2015), Becoming-Animal Is A Trap
For Humans, Deleuze and the Non-Human eds. Hannah
Stark and Jon Roe.
[30] Fried, Michael (1998). Art and Objecthood. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-26319-3.
[31] Fer, Briony (1999). Objects Beyond Objecthood. Oxford Art Journal 22: 2536. doi:10.1093/oxartj/22.2.25.
[32] Introduction to Flynn, Cli (2008). Social Creatures:
A Human and Animal Studies Reader. Lantern Books.
ISBN 1-59056-123-6.
[33] Ryder, Richard. Animal Revolution: Changing Attitudes
Towards Speciesism. Berg, 2000, p. 6.
[34] Masson and McCarthy 1996, xviii
[35] Wheeler, William Morton (November 1911), Insect parasitism and its peculiarities, Popular Science, Vol. 79, p.
443.
[36] Black, J (Jun 2002). Darwin in the world of emotions
(Free full text). Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
95 (6): 3113. doi:10.1258/jrsm.95.6.311. ISSN 01410768. PMC 1279921. PMID 12042386.
[37] Darwin, Charles (1871). The Descent of Man (1st ed.). p.
39.
[38] Hebb, Donald O. (1946), Emotion in man and animal:
An analysis of the intuitive processes of recognition,
Psychological Review, Vol. 53, No. 2, pp. 88106,
doi:10.1037/h0063033, PMID 21023321.
[39] cited in Masson and McCarthy 1996, p9 Google books
[40] Frans de Waal (1997-07). Are We in Anthropodenial?".
Discover. pp. 5053.
[41] Fogle, Bruce (1992). If Your Cat Could Talk. London:
Dorling Kindersley. p. 11. ISBN 9781405319867.
[42] Merriam Webster Anthropocentrism..
[43] The Descent Of Man.
[44] Ocial website. (Japanese)
[45] Ocial website. (Japanese)

12.2

Bibliography

"Anthropomorphism", Encyclopdia Britannica,

9th ed., Vol. II, New York: Charles Scribners Sons,
1878, pp. 123124.
"Anthropomorphism", Encyclopdia Britannica,
11th ed., Vol. II, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911, p. 120.
Masson, Jerey Moussaie; Susan McCarthy
(1996). When Elephants Weep: Emotional Lives of
Animals. Vintage. p. 272. ISBN 0-09-947891-9.
Mithen, Steven (1998). The Prehistory Of The
Mind: A Search for the Origins of Art, Religion and
Science. Phoenix. p. 480. ISBN 978-0-7538-02045.

13

External links

Anthropomorphism entry in the Encyclopedia of

Human-Animal Relationships (Horowitz A., 2007)
Anthropomorphism entry in the Encyclopedia of
Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceight
Anthropomorphism in mid-century American
print advertising. Collection at The Gallery of
Graphic Design.

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Anthropomorphism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphism?oldid=676451660 Contributors: Derek Ross, Wesley,

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