Institutio Oratoria

Against this backdrop, it was very dicult to nd orators in the tradition of Cicero, part of whose fame as
an orator stems from his public denunciations of enemies of the state (XIX). Such positions were simply too
dangerous to take during the reign of the emperors since
Augustus. Therefore, the role of the orator had changed
since Ciceros day. Now, they were more concerned with
pleading cases than anything else. Into this time, Quintilian attempted to interject some of the idealism of an
earlier time. Political oratory was dead, and everyone
in Rome knew it was dead; but Quintilian deliberately
chooses the oratory of a past generation as his educational
ideal (Gwynn, 188).

2 Contents overview
2.1 Overview of Books III
In the rst two books, Quintilian focuses on the early education of the would-be orator, including various subjects
he should be skilled in, such as reading and composition.
He oers us indeed not so much a theory as a curriculum. For instance in ch. iv of Book I he discusses certain
letters, the derivation of words, and parts of speech; in
ch. v, the necessity of correctness in speaking and writing, choice of words, barbarisms, aspiration, accent, solecisms, gures of speech, foreign words, and compound
words; in ch. vi, analogy, and in ch. viii, orthography
(Laing). Regarding the age at which the orators training
should begin, Quintilian refers to the views of Hesiod and
Eratosthenes, but accepts Chrysippus view that a childs
life should never be without education (Quintilian 1.1.1519).

Frontispiece of a 1720 edition of the Institutio Oratoria, showing

Quintilan teaching rhetoric

Institutio Oratoria (English: Institutes of Oratory) is

a twelve-volume textbook on the theory and practice of
rhetoric by Roman rhetorician Quintilian. It was published around year 95 CE. The work deals also with the
foundational education and development of the orator
himself.

Quintilian sees these formative years as the most critical

to the education of an orator: The infancy of the mind is
as important as the infancy of the body and needs as much
attention (Quintilian 1.1.1-24). The role of the orators
nurse is greatly emphasized as it is she that the boy will
hear rst, [and] it is her words that he will imitate (Laing,
519). Parents play an equally important role, their education being a determining factor in the orators progress.
Thirdly, the paedagogus, (the slave who attends the young
orator) must be well educated and ready at all times to
correct errors in grammar (Laing, 520). Finally, Quintilian stresses that the orator should be educated by the
most accomplished teacher (1.1.22). This ideal teacher
is described in detail in at (2.2.5).

Introduction

Quintilian wrote his book during the last years of the reign
of Emperor Domitian. In the tradition of several Roman
emperors, such as Nero and Caligula, Domitians regime
grew harsher as time went on. [An] active secret police preyed on the Roman population, and even senators
were encouraged in various ways to inform on each other
... under Domitian, even the slightest suspicion of disrespect for the emperor became a capital crime (xx). Social and political corruption were rife. In a move of utmost irony, the debauched Domitian appointed himself
censor perpetuus, making himself responsible for public
morals (xx).
In Book II, Quintilian denes rhetoric as an art, while
1

2 CONTENTS OVERVIEW

classifying the three types of arts: theoretical, practical, and productive (2.17-18). He concludes that rhetoric
partakes of all three categories, but associates it most
strongly with the practical (2.18.1-5). Rhetoric is also
divided into three categories: (1) art, (2) artist, and (3)
work (2.14.5). Quintilian then moves into an exploration
of rhetorics nature and virtue, following it with a comparison of oratory and philosophy (2.19-21). It should also
be noted that Quintilian uses these two terms, rhetoric
and oratory, interchangeably (see Book II).

2.2

Overview of Books IIIV

Books III-IX explore and develop the various types of oratory, focusing on the structure and methods of persuasion. Thus, these books are concerned primarily with
the art of rhetoric (Walzer, 40).

invention came rst and is all-important, it is expedient to imitate whatever has been invented with success
(10.2.1). Writing is then discussed (10.3), followed by
correction (10.4), varied forms of composition: translation, paraphrase, theses, commonplaces, and declamations (10.5), premeditation (10.6), and improvisation
(10.7).

2.6 Overview of Book XI

In Book XI, Quintilian emphasizes the orators choice of
appropriate subject matter at varying times (11.1). He
further stresses the role of the audience within oratory:
Their power and rank will make no small dierence;
we shall employ dierent methods according as we are
speaking before the emperor, a magistrate, a senator, a
private citizen, or merely a free man, while a dierent
tone is demanded by trials in the public courts, and in
cases submitted to arbitration (11.1.43). Also discussed
are the orators memory (11.2) and delivery (11.3), the
nal canons of Aristotles rhetoric.

In Book III, Quintilian begins with an apology to his readers for dry, technical nature of his writing (3.1). The following chapters discuss the origins of rhetoric (3.2), as
well as its nature and various divisions (3.3). Quintilian
then asks whether there are more than three types of oratory (3.4) before discussing cause (3.5) and the status of a
2.7 Overview of Book XII
cause (3.6). Three overarching forms of oratory are discussed: panegyric (3.7), deliberative (3.8), and forensic
Book XII addresses the career of the educated orator after
(3.9).
he has completed his training. In the preface, Quintilian
A signicant portion of the text is structured around expresses, for the rst time, that he is theorizing beyond
Aristotles 5 canons of rhetoric: Books III to VI concern the work of others:
the process of invention, arrangement in Book VII, and
style in Books VIII and IX. In Book IV, Quintilian disNow there is Nothing before and nothing
cusses Ciceros parts of an oration (4.1-5). Book V is
behind but the sky and the Ocean. One only
largely a discussion of proofs, designated as articial or
can I discern in all of the boundless waste of
unarticial (5.1).
waters, Marcus Tullius Cicero, and even he,
though the ship in which he entered the seas is
of such size and so well found, begins to lessen
2.3 Overview of Book VI
sail and to row a slower stroke, and is content
to speak merely of the kind of speech to be emThe central theme of Book VI is laughter,[1] and it is disployed by the perfect orator. But my temerity
cussed extensively in chapter three.[2] Aristotles three
is such that I shall essay to form my orators
artistic appeals, ethos, pathos, and logos, are also discharacter and to teach him his duties. Thus
cussed in Book VI (6.2).
I have no predecessor to guide my steps and
must press far, far on, as my theme may demand (Quintilian 12.Pref.4).
2.4 Overview of Books VIIIX
Book VII covers arrangement, one of Aristotles 5 canons Above all else, Quintilian advocates that a good orator
must be a vir bonus, a good man (12.1.1). To aid the orof rhetoric. Style is discussed in Books VIII and IX.
ator in becoming a good man, Quintilian discusses methods for inuencing his character, coupled with the study
2.5 Overview of Book X
of philosophy (12.2). Quintilian then emphasizes the
study of civic law as essential to orators ability to advise
In Book X, Quintilian surveys the past contributions of the state (12.3). Also discussed are the orators ability
Latin and Greek authors to rhetoric(10.1). Following to draw from past and present examples (12.4), as well
this discussion, Quintilian argues that the orator should as a certain loftiness of the soul that situates the orator
imitate the best authors if he wishes to be successful above fear (12.5.1). Quintilian does not oer a specic
(10.1.5), For there can be no doubt that in art no small age at which the order should begin to plead; he reasons
portion of our task lies in imitation, since, although that this age will of course depend on the development

3
of his strength (12.6.2). The orators careful selection of
cases is then discussed, alongside the question of payment
(12.7). In (12.8), Quintilian stresses that the orator must
devote time and eort to his study of cases. But above
his other duties, Quintilian makes clear that the orator
should never, like so many, be led by a desire to win applause to neglect the interest of the actual case (12.9.1).
Lastly, Quintilian compares various styles of Greek and
Roman oratory (especially Atticism and the Asiatic style),
also commenting on artistic styles of painting and sculpture (12.10). As he concludes, Quintilian discusses when
the orator should retire and examines the possible advantages of such a career. His nal words urge the orator to
devote himself fully to the task: Wherefore let us seek
with all our hearts that true majesty of oratory, the fairest
gift of god to man, without which all things are stricken
dumb and robbed alike of present glory and the immortal
record of posterity; and let us press forward to whatsoever
is best, since, if we do this, we shall either reach the summit or at least see many others far beneath us (12.11.30).

On rhetoric

ence. Even dicult questions can be dealt with by an

orator of moderate ability if he is content to follow nature as his leader and does not give all his attention to a
showy style (Gwynn, 78).
Institutio Oratoria is eectively a comprehensive textbook
of the technical aspects of rhetoric. From the eleventh
chapter of Book II to the end of Book XI, Quintilian covers such topics as natural order, the relation of nature and
art, invention, proof, emotion, and language. Perhaps
most inuential among the ideas discussed is his examination of tropes and gures, found in Books 8 and 9. [A]
trope involves the substitution of one word for another, a
gure does not necessarily entail any change either to the
order or the meaning of words (Leitch, 156). An example of a trope would be metaphor, the altering of a
words meaning. A gure, on the other hand, gives the
words a new aspect or greater emotional value. Figures
are divided into gures of thought, which may make proof
seem more forceful, intensify emotions, or add elegance
or ornamentation; and gures of diction, which is further
subdivided into the grammatical, in which the form of
the word creates the gure, and the rhetorical, in which
the position of the word is the primary factor (Gwynn,
88).

A good part of this work, of course, deals with the technical aspects of rhetoric and the Institutio Oratoria stands
along with Aristotle's 'Rhetoric' and Ciceros works as
one of the ancient worlds greatest works on rhetoric. He
organizes the practice of oratory into ve canons: inventio
(discovery of arguments), dispositio (arrangement of arguments), elocutio (expression or style), memoria (memorization), and pronuntiatio (delivery). For each canon,
particularly the rst three, he provides a thorough exposition of all the elements that must be mastered and considered in developing and presenting arguments. The thorough and sensible presentation reect his long experience
From the middle of the rst century BC to Quintilians as orator and teacher, and in many ways the work can be
time, there had been a owering of Roman rhetoric. But seen as the culmination of Greek and Roman rhetorical
by Quintilians time, the current of popular taste in ora- theory.
tory was rife with what has been called silver Latin, a
style that favored ornate embellishment over clarity and Throughout these and other discussions, Quintilian reprecision. Quintilians Institutio Oratoria can in many mains concerned with the practical, applicable aspect,
ways be read as a reaction against this trend; it advocates a rather than the theoretical. Unlike many modern theoreturn to simpler and clearer language. It may also reect rists, he does not see gurative language as a threat to the
the inuence of the late Emperor Vespasian, who was [a] stability of linguistic reference (Leitch, 156). The refman of plebeian stock, ... a down-to-earth realist with erential use of a word was always the primary meaning,
the common touch (Murray, 431); Vespasian disliked and the use of gurative language was merely an addition
excess and extravagance, and his patronage of Quintil- to it, not a replacement for it.
ian may have inuenced the latters views of language.
Cicero is the model Quintilian adopts as the standardbearer for this form; during the previous century, Ciceros
far more concise style was the standard. This relates to 4 On education
his discussion of nature and art. Quintilian evidently preferred the natural, especially in language, and disliked the My aim, then, is the education of the perfect orator
excessive ornamentation popular in the style of his con- (Quintilianus, 1.Preface.9). Book I of Institutio Oratotemporaries. Deviating from natural language and the ria discusses at length the proper method of training an
natural order of thought in pursuit of an over-elaborate orator, virtually from birth. This focus on early and comstyle created confusion in both the orator and his audi- prehensive education was in many ways a reection of
In Quintilians time, rhetoric was primarily composed of
three aspects: the theoretical, the educational, and the
practical. Institutio Oratoria does not claim originality;
Quintilian drew from a number of sources in compiling
his work. This eclecticism also prevented him from adhering too rigidly to any particular school of thought on
the matter, although Cicero stands out among the other
sources. Quintilian also refused any short, simple lists of
rules; he evidently felt that the study and art of rhetoric
could not be so reduced. This might explain the length of
Institutio Oratoria, which consists of twelve books.

4
Quintilians career; Emperor Vespasians inuence on the
ocial status of education marked the period as one of
conscientious education. Quintilians contribution to this
line of thought, aside from his long career as a public educator, was the opening of his text, and it is regarded as
a highlight of the discussion:

LIMITATIONS

and intimate terms with us and make his teaching not a

duty but a labor of love (1.2.15).

Quintilians most arresting point about the growing orator, however, is that he should be educated in morality
above all else. To Quintilian, only a good man could be
an orator. This is another aspect where he diers from
Cicero, or rather pushes further Ciceros injunction that
an orator should be a good man. Quintilian quite literally
Quintilians Institutio Oratoria is a landbelieved that an evil man could not be an orator, [f]or
mark in the history of Roman education: it is
the orators aim is to carry conviction, and we trust those
the culmination of a long development, and it
only whom we know to be worthy of our trust (Gwynn,
had no successor [No] teacher was found
231). This was quite possibly a reaction to the corrupt and
who could speak with Quintilians authority,
dissolute times in which Quintilian lived; he may have atno orator suciently interested in the theory
tributed the decline in the role of the orator to the decline
of his art to produce a second de Oratore
in public morality. Only a man free from vice could con(Gwynn, 242).
centrate on the exacting study of oratory. But the good
man does not always speak the truth or even defend the
His theory of education is one area in which Quintilian better causewhat matters is not so much the act as the
diers from Cicero. Cicero called for a broad, general motive (Clarke, 117). Therefore, Quintilians good oraeducation; Quintilian was more focused. He lays out the tor is personally good, but not necessarily publicly good.
educational process step by step, from hav[ing] a father
conceive the highest hopes of his son from the moment of
his birth (Quintilianus, 1.1.1).[3] Other concerns are that
the childs nurse should speak well (The ideal according
to Chrysippus, would be that she should be a philosopher
(1.1.4)), and that both the parents and the teachers of the
child should be well-educated.[3] With respect to the par- 5 Limitations
ents, Quintilian do[es] not restrict this remark to fathers
alone (1.1.6);[3] a well-educated mother is regarded as
an asset to the growing orator. Quintilian also presents a Several limitations have been pointed out in Quintilians
wide review of suitable literary examples, and this work work. Among them is the injunction that he was too imis also an important work of literary criticism. While he mersed in the culture of rhetoric. Because of his poclearly favors certain writers, his fairness is notable, as sition and his profession, it was impossible for him to
even writers, such as Sallust, an inuential practitioner view rhetoric from the outside. Therefore, it would have
of the sort of style that Quintilian opposed, are aorded been dicult for him to entertain any doubts about its
some consideration. Above all, Quintilian holds up Ci- value. This helps explain his ideal orator as a morally
good man-rhetoric to Quintilian was in itself inhercero as an example of a great writer and orator.
ently good. It may also shed some light on his view of
Quintilian discusses many issues of education that are still philosophy; he considered rhetoric to be the basis of all
relevant today. He believed that education should be be- education, [and] viewed philosophy as a challenge to its
gun early, as mentioned above, but also that it should be supremacy (Dominik, 53). He believed that an orator
pleasurable for the child. Above all things we must take should read philosophy, but only because philosophy had
care that the child, who is not yet old enough to love his usurped some of the functions of oratory in the rst place.
studies, does not come to hate them and dread the bitterness which he had once tasted, even when the years Another limitation of Quintilian is that he is inevitably a
of infancy are left behind. His studies must be made an victim of his own educational tradition. As mentioned
amusement (1.1.20).[3] The proliferation of educational above, he lived in a time of owery, ornate language.
toys available for pre-school aged children shows that this Therefore, although he obviously prefers natural language
view still has power. He also examines the various pros and attempts to interject some simplicity into the way lanand cons of public schooling versus homeschooling, even- guage is taught, to a certain degree he is forced to accept
tually coming out in favour of public school, so long as it the unnatural language of his time, simply because of the
is a good school. His view is that in public schools stu- force of current fashion.
dents can learn from what is taught to and praised and Finally, some have called into question the idea of the
censured in their peers in the group instead of only those ideal orator. The education so dictated in Institutio Orathings directed entirely at themselves. (1.2.21) One must toria was designed to create a person who had never exnote, however, that Quintilian makes a point of declaring isted, and probably never would. Quintilian seemed willthat a good teacher will not burden himself with a larger fully unconscious of the changes since the days of great
number of pupils than he can manage, and it is further of Ciceronian oratory. To what end would this perfect orathe very rst importance that he should be on only friendly tor be created, if there was no place for him?

8.2

Other material

Notes

[1] Rodrguez Martn (2003), pp.157, 160

[2] Phillips-Anderson (2007), p.22
[3] Halsall, Paul Ancient History Sourcebook: Quintilian: The
Ideal Education, c. 90 CE, 1998

References
Phillips-Anderson, Michael Andrew (2007), A theory of rhetorical humor in American political discourse.
Rodrguez Martn, Jos-Domingo (2003), Moving the judge: a legal commentary on Book VI
of Quintilians Institutio oratoria in: Olga Eveline
Tellegen-Couperus (ed.) (2003), Quintilian and the
law: the art of persuasion in law and politics.

External links

8.1

Editions of Institutio Oratoria

Institutio Oratoria English translation, with indices, search engine, bibliography, and history of
the text at EServer.org
Institutio Oratoria Latin text and English translation at LacusCurtius
Institutio Oratoria and the disputed Declamationes
Majores Latin texts at the Latin Library
Institutio Oratoria Latin text at the Bibliotheca
Augustana

8.2

Other material

Detailed Outline of Institutio Oratoria: Outline

A timeline history of Institutio Oratoria and its inuence: MSU
Herbert F. Wright (1920). "Institutes of Oratory,
The". Encyclopedia Americana.

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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