BIOLOGY FORM 5 NOTES CHAPTER 4 : REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH

4.1 GAMETE FORMATION

4.1.1 THE NECESSITY FOR ORGANISMS TO REPRODUCE
1. All organisms carry out reproduction to:
(a) ensure the continuity of life
(b) conserve the continuity of its own species
4.1.2 TYPE OF REPRODUCTION
1. There are two types of reproduction:
(a) Asexual reproduction:
- involves only one parent
- does not involve gamete
(b) Sexual reproduction:
- involves two parents from the same species but with different sexes.
- both parents produce gametes for fertilisation
4.1.3 THE NECESSITY FOR FORMATION OF GAMATES
1. In human,
Male gamete = sperms, reproduced in testes (male gonads / reproductive organs)
Female gamete = ova / ovum, reproduced in ovaries (female gonads / reproductive
organs)
2. Formation of gametes is important to life because:
(a) It increases the number of offspring through fertilization
(b) It results in genetic variation in the offspring
(c) It maintains the diploid number of zygote (2n) from one generation to another by fusing
one male gamete (n) with one female gamete (n).
(d) To ensure the survival and continuity of organisms
4.1.4 THE HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The human male reproductive system consists of two testes connected by sperm duct to
a penis.
Each testis has about a thousand of seminiferous tubules.
All the tubules in a testis are joined to a single, much-colied tube called the epididymis.
The epididymis connects to a sperm duct called the vas deferens (sperm duct).
The two sperm ducts are joined to the urethra.
The urethra leads through the penis to the exterior.
Sperm Formation in Humans
1. Spermatogenesis:
- Spermatogenesis is the formation of sperm
- it occurs in the sminiferous tubules

2. Spermatogenesis in male:
(a) Germinal epithelial cells divide many times through mitosis to form spermatogonia.
(b) Spermatogonia undergo growth to form primary spermatocytes.
(c) Primary spermatocytes divide by first meiotic division to produce haploid secondary
spermocytes.
(d) Secondary spermocytes undergo a second meiotic division to form spermatids.
(e) The spermatids develop tails and mature into sperms (spermatozoa)

4.1.6 THE HUMAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. The human female reproductive system consists of:
Two ovaries
Two fallopian tubes
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
Vulva (external genital organs)
2. Ovaries produce:
Female gametes (ova)
Female sex hormones (oestrogen and progesterone)
Ovum Formation in Humans
1.
-

Oogenesis:
Oogenesis is the formation of ovum
It starts in the ovaries of the feotus before birth

2. Oogenesis in female:
(a) Germinal epithelial cells divide many times through mitosis to form oogonia.
(b) Oogonia undergo growth to form primary oocytes.
(c) Primary oocytes are surrounded by a layer of follicle cells and are called primary follicles.
These are formed before a baby is formed, remain dormant until puberty.
(d) Every month from puberty onwards, one oocyte undergoes first meiotic division to
become a secondary oocyte and a polar body. Both are haploid..
(e) The secondary oocyte undergoes the second meiotic division until metaphase II. The
secondary oocyte which is lined by layers of follicle cells is called a secondary follicle.
(f) The secondary follicle increase in size to form Graafian follicle. At intervals of
approximately 28 days in women, the Graafian follicle merges with the wall of the ovary,
the ovary wall ruptures, the secondary oocyte is released into the oviduct. This process is
known as ovulation.
(g) When fertilization occurs, the secondary oocyte enters the Fallopian tube and complete
the second meiotic division to form an ovum (n) and a polar body (n).
(h) The haploid polar body formed during meiosis I also undergoes meriosis II to form
another two haploid polar body.
(i) All three polar body will eventually degenerate.
4.2 THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
1. Menstrual cycle = The monthly cycle of changes that occur in the female body which is
associated with the ovulation and the discharge of blood.
2.

Menstruation is the discharge of excess blood and tissues of the endometrium when the
uterine lining breaks down during the menstrual cycle. It normally lasts for about 4 to 5
days.

3.

Puberty is the period which marks the beginning of maturity in both males and females.
During this period, there are various physical, emotional and physiological changes that
are associated with the development of the reproductive system.

4.

In female, puberty is characterized by the onset of menstruation.

5. Menstrual cycle can be divided into three stages:

(a) Menstruation stage (menstruation occurs, 1st day to 5th day)
(b) Follicle development stage (from the end of the menstruation to ovulation, 6 th day to 14th
day)

(c) Corpus luteum stage (from the ovulation to the beginning of next menstruation, 15 th day
to 28th day)
1. Menstruation stage (1st day to 5th day):
(a) Progesterone level is at the lowest
(b) The endometrium of uterus breaks down and sloughs off. The discarded tissue of
endometrium together with blood is discharged. Menstruation begins.
(c) During menstruation, the pituitary gland is stimulated to secrete FSH (Folliclestimulating Hormone)
(d) When FSH reaches the ovary, it will stimulate the growth of one follicle.
2. Folicle development stage (6th day to 14th day)
(a) Primary follicle in the ovary develops into a Graafian follicle.
(b) The development of the follicle in the ovary stimulates the secretion of oestrogen
hormone.
(c) Ostrogen repairs the uterine wall and causes the endometrium to thicken in preparation
form implantation of zygote.
(d) When the level of oestrogen increases and reaches a particular level, it stimulates the
pituitary gland to secrete LH (luteinising hormone)
(e) The level of LH is at the peak on the day before ovulation, causing ovalution on the 14 th
day. A secondary oocyte is released from the Graafian follicle to the fallopian tube and
lastly to the uterus.
Corpus luteum stage (15th day to 28th day)
After ovulation, the Graafian follicle that remains in the ovary will form a corpus luteum .
Corpus luteum secretes progesterone.
Progesterone thickens the endometrium and stimulates the development of blood
vessels for implantation of zygote.
(d) If fertilization occurs, the embryonic tissue will release human chorionic gonadotropin
(hCG) to stimulate the corpus luteum continues to secrete progesterone that will
maintain the thickness of the endometrium.
(e) Progesterone also inhibits the secretion of FSH and LH, thus preventing further
development of follicle and ovulation during pregnancy.
(f) If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum will degenerate. The progesterone level
and oestrogen level will decrease. The endometrium of the uterus begins to break down
and slough off, resulting menstruation.
3.
(a)
(b)
(c)

4.

Effects of hormonal imbalance in the menstrual cycle on woman:

(a) Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

PMS is a combination of physical and emotional symptoms that are related to the
menstrual cycle.
It occurs in the week before menstruation
Symptoms:
(i)
Emotional and mental symptoms:
Irritability
Tension
Depression
low self-esteem
lack of concentration
(ii)

Physical symptoms:
Headaches
Fatigue
Feeling bloated
Breast tenderness
Abdominal pain
Sleep disturbances

 Appetite change
(b) Miscarriage
Cause: Failure in the production of progesterone, causing the thickness of the
endometrium to be reduced
Result: The embryo cannot be embedded securely in the endometrium and miscarriage
occurs.
(c) Menopause
Cause: The ovary becomes inactive and stop producing ovum, causing less FSH and LH
to be produced. Thus, the ovary produces less progesterone and oestrogen. Ovulation
and the menstrual cycle become irregular and finally stop.
Symptoms:
Hot flushes
Night sweats
Sleeping disorder
Osteoporosis
Mood changes
Weight gain
Hair loss
Treatment: Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)
4.3 EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF A HUMAN ZYGOTE
Zygote is formed as a result of fertilization between an ovum and a sperm.
4.3.1 Fertilisation
a.

During sexual intercourse, about 500 million sperms will be ejaculated into the vagina in
the form of semen.
b. Through the vagina, the sperms move into the uterus and towards the Fallopian tube.
c. When the sperms reach the Fallopian tube, there are only a few hundred of sperms left.
Of all the sperms that managed to move towards the secondary oocyte, only one sperm will
fertilise the secondary oocyte.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
4.3.2

In the Fallopian tube, the first sperm that reaches the secondary oocyte will penetrate
into the egg membrane with its head.
Upon entry of the sperm, the secondary oocyte is stimulated to undergo meiosis II. An
ovum and a polar body are formed.
The nucleus of the sperm then fuses with the nucleus of ovum to form a zygote. This
process is called fertilization.
The middle piece and the tail of the sperm will be left behind outside the ovum.
The newly fertilized ovum (zygote) will form a fertilization membrane around itself so
that other sperms will not be able to penetrate it.
Development of zygote

a.

After fertilization, the zygote moves down the Fallopian tube and attaches to the uterine
wall.
b. The zygote takes about 3 to 4 days to reach the uterus.
c. As the zygote moves down the Fallopian tube, it divides repeatedly through mitosis to
form a blastocyst.
The zygote undergoes mitosis to form a zygote with two cells.
Both cells then divide to form a zygote with four cells
Subsequently, mitosis occurs to form a zygote with eight cells, sixteen cells, and finally a
zygote with a few hundred cells.
When the zygote reaches the uterus, it has become a solid ball with hundreds of cells,
called morula.

 Eventually, the mass of hundreds of cells changes into a fluid-filled sphere called
blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of an outer layer of cells and an inner cell mass.
The outer layer of cells will later develop into a placenta and the inner cell mass will
develop to form an embryo.
b. About seven days after fertilization, the blastocyst is fully formed and attached itself to
the endometrium of uterus and is embedded in it. This process is called implanation.
4.3.3 Implantation of Blastocyst
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

During implantation, the outer layer of blastocyst attaches to the endometrium using its
extended projections called trophoblast viili.
The villi secrete enzymes to dissolve the cells in the uterine wall, forming a cavity that
allows the blastocyst to be embedded into the wall.
The villi with rich supply of blood capillaries extend into the endometrium to implant the
blastocyst.
In the endometrium, the inner cell mass in the blastocyst will develop to form the
embryo.
The villi from the embryonic tissues and the cells of the uterine wall will form the
placenta.
The embryo will develop to form a foetus within two months
The foetus will then develop throughout the whole term and is then born as a baby.
4.3.4 The Formation of Twins

1.
2.
3.
-

Formation of identical twins

One sperm fertilized one ovum to form one zygote.
The zygote divides into two cells to form two separate embryos.
Two embryo develop into two foetuses.
Each foetus has its own umbilical cord but shares the same placenta.
Both twins are at the same sex.
They have same genetic content and look alike.
Formation of fraternal twins
Two separate sperms fertilized two ova that released at the same time to form two
separate zygotes.
The two zygotes develop to form two separate embryos.
Two embryos develop into two foetuses.
Each foetus has its own umbilical cord and individual placenta.
Both twins are at the same sex or different.
They have different genetic content and appearance.
Formation of siamese twins
One sperm fertilized one ovum to form one zygote.
The zygote divides into two cells but incompletely.
The two embryos formed are stilled joined to each other at certain parts.
The two foetuses share one placenta.
Comparison between identical twins and fraternal twins

1.
2.

SIMILARITIES
Both involve the fertilization of sperm with ovum.
Both involve mitosis in the development of zygote.
DIFFERENCES
One ovum is fertilized by one
Two ova are fertilized by two
sperm.
separate sperms.
The zygote divide after fertilization The zygote does not divide after

Both foetus share one placenta

Both twins are of the same sex.
Both twins look alike

fertilization
Each foetus has its own placenta
Both twins may or may not be the
same sex.
Both twins have some similar and
some different characteristics as
present among siblings.

4.3.5 The Structure And The Role Of Placenta

1.

Placenta = an organ by which the embryo is attached to the uterus wall.

2. It is made of:
(a) embryonic tissues (formed by the chorionic villi)
(b) maternal tissues (formed by the uterine lining)
3.

During implantation, trophoblast villi from the blastocyst are extended into the uterine
wall to form placenta. Each villus has a network of blood capillaries that are separated
from the mother.

4.
-

The placenta joined to foetus by umbilical cord.

The umbilical cord has two blood vessels to transport the substances between the
placenta and the foetus
(a) Umbilical vein: transport oxygen and nutrients that diffuse from the mothers blood into
the placenta to the foetal blood.
(b) Umbilical artery: transport carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste from foetal blood out of
the placenta to the mothers blood.
5.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

The function of placenta:

Forms a selective barrier between the mothers blood and the foetals blood.
Allows exchange of substances between the mothers blood and the foetals blood.
Allows the embryo of foetus to attach to the uterine wall.
Transports antibodies from the mother to the foetus.
Secretes hormone progesterone and oestrogen to maintain the thickness of
endometrium so that the embryo is firmly attached to the uterine wall in the uterus.

6. Adaptation of placenta for its function:

(a) Numeous villi in placenta:
to increase the surface area for diffusion.
(b) Thin membrane which separate the foetals blood capillaries from the mothers blood
capillaries
to facilitate diffusion
(c) Both the uterine wall and the placenta are supplied with a network of blood capillaries
to increase the chances of diffusion.
4.4 APPRECIATING THE CONTRIBUTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO HUMAN
REPRODUCTION
4.4.1 Birth control techniques
There are 5 ways to prevent pregnancy:
(1) Natural methods:
-

(i) The calendar technique / Rhythm method

The couple should not have sexual intercourse on the days when the female is fertile.

This method assumes that ovulation takes place 14 days before menstruation, so
sexual intercourse should not take place 3 days before and 3 days after ovulation.
(ii) The temperature technique
This method is based on the fact that a womans body temperature drops a bit before
ovulation and becomes higher after ovulation.
The body temperature needs to be recorded everyday at the same time with an
ovulation thermometer.
It is safe to have sexual intercourse after the body temperature has increased
continuously after 3 days.
(iii) The mucous technique
This method is used to determine the fertile period by observing and recording the
quantity and thickness of mucus that is discharged from the cervix during the menstrual
cycle.
After menstruation, the mucus is dry and thick.
Nearing ovulation, the mucus becomes thinner, elastic and flow easily.
A few days after ovulation, the mucus becomes thick again.
The sexual intercourse should be avoided as soon as watery mucus is seen until 4 days
after the last day of watery mucus.
(iv) The withdrawal technique
In this method, the penis is removed from the vagina during sexual intercourse before
the sperms are ejaculated.
(2) Physical methods

(i) The condom

A rubber device that is used on penis to prevent sperms from entering the uterus
during ejaculation.

(ii) The diaphragm

A rubber device worn by a woman at the cervix to prevent sperms from entering
fallopian tube.

(iii) The intrauterine device (IUD)

A device that is made from plastic or metal and is shaped in the form of a T, twisted or
rolled.
The IUD is placed inside the uterus of the woman by doctor.
The IUD can prevent the embryo from attaching itself to the wall of uterus.
(3) Chemical methods

(i) The contraceptive pile

Contraceptive pills contain hormone oestrogen and progesterone to prevent formation
of follicle and ovulation.
A contraceptive pill is taken every day for 21 days. The intake is stopped for seven
days. During this period, menstruation occurs.
After menstruation, the intake of the pill is resumed.
(ii) Spermicide
Spermicides are used to kill sperms that are ejaculated into the vagina.
Spermicides can be in the form of jelly, cream or spray and are applied in the vagina
before sexual intercourse.
(4) Sterilisation methods
(i) Tubal ligation

In woman, both fallopian tubes are blocked or cut so that the sperm can no longer
reach the ova.
(ii) Vasectomy
The sperm ducts are cut and tied so that the sperms do not enter the penis.
Sperms are stilled being produced by testes but are unable to reach the urethra. They
are disintegrate and are eventually reabsorbed. Seminal fluid is still produced but does
not contain sperms.
(5) Abortion
- The elimination of the embryo of the foetus before the 24th week.

4.4.2 Overcoming infertility

1. Causes of sterility problem
(a) In Women:
(i) No ovulation due to hormone imbalances.
(ii) No implantation due to damages or abnormality in the uterus.
(iii) Blacked fallopian tubes
(b) In men:
(i) Low sperm count
(ii) Blocked sperm duct
(iii) Impotence
(iv) Inactive or abnormal sperms
2. Techniques to overcome sterility
-

(a) Sperm bank

This technique is used for a woman whose husband suffers from infertility, sterility or
suffers from a genetic disease.
Sperms from a donor are frozen and kept in a sperm bank (in liquid nitrogen at -172 0C).
The profile of the donor is recorded.
The sperms from the sperm bank is injected into the fallopian tube of a woman during
avulation.
(b) Artificial insemination
This technique is used if the mans sperms are unable to function or if the sperm count
is low.
Sperms are taken from the husband and transferred into the vagina of the wife during
her ovulation period.
(c) In Vitro fertilization (IVF)
This technique is used if the fallopian tubes are blocked or damaged.
Woman is treated with high dose of FSH to stimulate the development of a large
number of follicles.
Laparoscope is used to remove a number of secondary oocytes from ovaries through
abdomen before ovulation.
Sperms from the husband are placed in a test tube filled with a culture solution that is
similar to the fluid in the fallopian tube.
The secondary oocytes are then placed in the laboratory dish that contains the sperms.
Fertilization occurs in the dish.
The fertilized eggs (zygotes) formed are allowed to develop in the laboratory dish.
After 12 hours, zygotes are transferred into a different culture medium which supplies
nutrients for further development.
At the eight cells stage, one zygote is placed inside the uterus via cervix.
The zygote the gets attached to the endometrium wall and continue to develop
normally in the uterus.

(i)

(ii)
-

(d) Intrafallopian transfer

This technique involves in the transfer of gamete or zygote into the Fallopian tubes.
Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)
transfer of gametes (sperms and secondary oocytes) into the fallopian tubes.
Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT)
sperms and secondary oocytes are placed in the laboratory dish where fertilization
occurs.
The zygote is transferred into the fallopian tubes.

(e) Surrogate mother

This technique is used when the wife cannot conceive.
The sperms and ova are contributed by the parents or the sperms may obtain from the
sperm bank and the ova from the surrogate mother.
Either sperms or an embryo is transferred to the uterus of the surrogate mother.
The surrogate mother pregnant and once the baby is born, the baby will be handed over to
the couple.
-

4.5 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

4.5

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

The flower is the reproductive organ of a flowering plant.

1.
(a)
(i)
(ii)
(b)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

A flower contains four basic parts:

Stamens: The male reproductive structures.
consists of:
An anther: The structure that produces pollen grains that contain the male gametes.
A filament: a long stalk which supports the anther
Carpels: The female reproductive structures.
Several carpels fuse together to form a pistil. A pistil consists of:
A stigma: a sticky structure at the apex of the style to which pollen grains adhere.
A style: a stalk that joins the stigma to the ovary
An ovary: a structure that contains the ovule.

(c) Sepals: Sepals are modified leaves which enclose and protect the other parts of the
flower in the bud stage.
(d) Petals: Petals are modified leaves which forming the conspicuous part of a flower. They
are bright coloured to attract insects for pollination.
2.

Type of flowers:

(a) Bisexual or hermaphrodite flower

Possesses both the stamens and the pistil

(b) Unisexual flower

Has either the stamens or the pistil
The formation of pollen grains in the anther

1.

1.

An anther has four pollen sacs.

Each pollen sacs contains hundreds of cells called pollen mother cells (2n)
Each pollen mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid microspores (n)
The nucleus of each microspore divides once by mitosis to produce a tube nucleus and
a generative nucleus.
The microspores develop into pollen grains.
The tube nucleus enables the pollen tube to grow down the style of the flower to the
ovule.
The generative nucleus then divides mitotically to form 2 haploid sperm.
The formation of the embryo sac in the ovule

In the ovule of the ovary, the embryo sac mother cell or megaspore mother cell (2n)
divides meitotically to produce 4 haploid megaspores(n).
Three of these 4 megaspores disintegrate, leaving one in the ovule.
The nucleus of the megaspore undergoes 3 cycles of mitosis to form 8 haploid nuclei.
Three of the 8 nuclei migrate to one end of the cell to form antipodal cells. Another
two nuclei, called the polar nuclei move to the center.
One of the three nuclei nearest the opening of the ovule develops into an egg cell,
flanked by two synergid cells.
Formation of the pollen tube, zygote and the triploid nucleus

During pollination, a pollen grain lands on the stigma where the pollen will germinate
producing a pollen tube that grows through the style and reaches the ovary. It penetrates
the ovule through the micropyle to the egg in the ovule.
One of the 2 sperm nucleus / male nucleus arising from the generative cell will fertilize
the egg resulting in a diploid zygote. This is fertilization.
The other sperm nucleus / male nucleus fertilizes the 2 polar nuclei, each haploid,
resulting in a triploid (3n) endosperm, a nutritive tissue for the embryo.
A seed coat, which is not a product of fertilization, forms around the endosperm. The
result is a seed composed of the seed coat, the nutritive endosperm, and the embryo.
Double fertilization
The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and ruptures.
One sperm nucleus fuses with the egg forming the diploid zygote.
The other sperm nucleus fuses with the polar nuclei forming the triploid endosperm
(3n).

The synergid nucleus and the antipodal cells degenerate.

The tube nucleus disintegrates.

The importance of double fertilisation for the survival of the flowering plants
The formation of a diploid zygote ensures that the genetic information of the parent
plants is passed down to the next generation.

The formation of the gamete and the egg cell occurs through meiosis to ensure that
the variation exists in the nest generation for the survival of species.

The endosperm provides food for the developing embryo during germination to
guarantee the germination of a seed into a new plant.

After double fertilization, the seed is surrounded by the ovary which develops into
fruit. The fruit protects the seeds and aids in the dispersal of the seeds to ensure the
survival of the flowering plants in new habitats.
1. The development of seed and fruit after fertilization

Flower parts
Whole ovule
Zygote
Endosperm nucleus
Integuments
Ovule stalk
Ovary
Ovary wall
Stigma and style

Post-fertilisation changes
Seed
Embryo: consisting of the developing shoot
(plumule), developing root (radicle) and
cotyledons
Endosperm: to provide nutrients to the growing
embryo
Testa and tegmen / seed-coat (pericarp): to
protect embryo and its endosperm
Seed stalk
Fruit
Fruit wall
Wither, but in some cases may persist and be

Stamens
Petals
Sepals
4.5

Growth In Multicellular Organisms

1.

Growth = The increase in body size, number of cells and weight producing changes in the
body shape and body functions of an organism in an irreversible way.
2.

(i)

modified to help fruit dispersal

Wither and fall off
Wither and fall off
May persist in some cases and be modified to help
fruit dispersal

Stages in growth:

Cell division
involves mitosis
results in the increase in the number of cell in an organism
in plant cells, the apical meristem contains meristematic cells which divide actively
mitosis to increase the length of the stem.
in animal cells, the increase in the number of the cell through assimilation of food and
water to synthesize protoplasm
-

(ii) Cell enlargement

increases in the size of each cell
in plant cells, cell enlargement involves vacuolation (the increase in the size of cells
takes place by the absorption of water into the cell and then the water is kept in the
vacuole).
(i)

Cell diiferentiation
cell differentiates from a non-specific cell to a specilised, permanent cell with specific
functions.

4.5

THE GROWTH CURVE

1. The parameters to measure growth:
(a) Measurement of dry mass
Shows the accurate measurement of growth but involves the destruction of the
organism
(b) Measurement of fresh mass
Does not destroy the organism but does not show the actual growth of the organism
as the water content in the body of the organisms change daily.
(c) Measurement of length and height
Does not destroy the organism but does not show the actual growth of the organism
as an organism which may nit growth in height, may be growing in diameter or sideway.
2.

The Sigmoid Growth Curve of an organism

The Sigmoid Growth Curve can be divided into five stages:

(a) Lag phase

Initial stage of growth
The rate of growth is slow
Mitotic cell division occurs rapidly
(b) Exponential phase (Rapid growth phase)
The rate of growth is highest
Active cell division and cell elongation occurs

The size of organism increases rapidly

Cells grow due to absorption of water and the increase in the protoplasm

(c) Slow growth phase

The growth rate proceeds at a steady or relatively constant rate
The growth is limited by internal factors (e.g. growth factor) or external factors (e.g.
food storage)
A bit of cell division occur to replace any dead or damage cells
(d) Stationary phase
The rate of growth is zero.
The organism has reached maturity
The size of the organism remain unchanged
Cell division occurs to replace dead or damage cells
(e) Senescence phase
The rate of growth is negative
The organism undergoes the process of aging and eventually death
2.

The growth curve of animals with exoskeletons / insects

The growth curve of animals which have exoskeletons is in the form of steps.
The inflexible external skeleton does not facilitate a smooth growth rate. Hence, an
insect undergoes moulting periodically during growth.
Moulting or ecdysis is the process of removing an old exoskeleton and replacing it with
a new larger one.
During ecdysis, atmospherics air is sucked into the body of an insect to expand it and
replace it with a layer of exoskeleton that is new, soft and still elastic.
While the body of the insect is expanding, the existing exoskeleton will break
Before the new exoskeleton hardens, growth takes place actively to increase the size
of the animal.

4.8 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN PLANTS

1. Two type of meristem cells which are involved in the growth of plant:
(a) Apical meristem
Consists of meristem tissue in the tips of shoot and root.
Causes the increase in length
Involves in the primary growth
(b) Lateral meristem
Consists of vascular cambium and cork cambium.
Causes the increase in diameter
Involves in the secondary growth
2. Primary growth
Occurs at the tips of shoot and root of all plants
Importance:
(i)
Increases the height of the shoot and the length of roots
(ii) The primary xylem and phloem involves in transportation in plant
(iii) The primary xylem also provides mechanical support to the plant
3.
(i)
(ii)

Secondary growth
Occurs in woody plants
Importance:
Provide additional support to large woody plants
Produce more xylem and phloem tissues to sustain the transport of water, mineral salt
and products of photosynthesis in plants
(iii) Produce new xylem and phloem to replace old and damaged xylem and phloem tissues

4.

Secondary growth in dicotyledon stems

Activity of vascular cambium:

(a) The vascular cambium in the vascular bundle divides actively through mitosis to form a
cambium ring.
(b) The inner cells of the cambium ring differentiate to form secondary xylem, while the
outer cells produce the secondary phloem.
(c) As a result, the primary xylem is pushed towards the pith while the primary phloem is
push towards the epidermis.

Activity of cork cambium

(a) The cells of the cork cambium divide actively to form an outer layer of cork cells and an
inner secondary cortex.
(b) The walls of the cork cells contain a waxy substance called suberin that makes the cork
waterproof to prevent water loss.
(c) The cork layer forms a protective bark on the surface of the woody stem.
5.

Secondary growth in dicotyledon roots

Activity of vascular cambium:

(a) The vascular cambium in the vascular bundle divides actively through mitosis to form a
cambium ring.
(b) The cells of the cambium ring divide to produce secondary xylem, on the inside and
secondary phloem on the outside.

Activity of cork cambium

(a) Cork cambium produces secondary dermal tissues.
(b) Old root with secondary growth function as an anchor for the plant in the soil and a
transport for the water and mineral salts between the younger roots and the shoot
system.
6.
-

Annual growth rings:

In spring, vascular cambium is more active and forms larger and thinner-walled xylem
vessels. This allows more water to be transported to the new leaves at the start of the
growing season.
In autumn, the cambium is less active and forms narrower xylem vessels. However,
the xylem vessels becomes more lignified to provide additional support to the plant.
The wood formed in spring is lighter in colour while the wood formed in autumn is
darker in colour.
As a result, the cross sections of tree trunks shows a pattern of alternating light and
dark regions (annual growth rings).

7.
(a)
(b)
(c)

The necessity and importance of secondary growth to plants:

To increase the diameter of the plant stems and roots for additional mechanical support.
To produce wood (secondary xylem) to support and strengthen the growing plant.
To produce more secondary xylem and phloem to accommodate the increase in demand
for water, mineral and organic nutrients.
(d) To produce new xylem and phloem tissues to replace the old and damaged ones.
(e) To produce thick and tough bark to reduce water evaporation from the surface of the
stems
(f) To increase the opportunity to produce seed and propagate as plants that undergo
secondary growth live longer.
8. The economic importance of plants that undergo secondary growth:
(a) Have high commercial value as they produce valuable timber.
(b) Have woody parts that are strong and hard that makes them suitable as beams for
buildings.
(c) The presence of the medullary rays is an attractive feature in furniture and decorative
items.

(d) Fruit tress that shows secondary growth bear fruit for several years.
9.

Differences between plants that undergo secondary growth and those that do not.
Plants that undergo secondary
growth

Plants that do not undergo

secondary growth