PREPARATIONS OF

THE MID TERM

NOTES
ENCIK ROSLI ISMAIL – PRO 528
IPR , 28 FEBRUARY 2010
Applications for this cultural Learning for IPR

- International business (to learn the cultural differences how they behave)
- Primary role of IPR in developing the nations’ image and enhancing public diplomacy and
other current related issues
- We need to learn the world views, mindsets and habits if the global publics is imperative
in practicing International PR
- We need to learn culture so we do not make mistake – Fauz Pas - in French (false step)
- Apply the multicultural aspect of IPR practice and cross cultural communication and
political viewpoint and in the workforce
- Culture – set of beliefs and expectations from a society that how should the people
behave, think and lives
- Cultures refers to multiple perspective of a group has on the world and worldly
phenomenon
- Culture is learned
- We thought people are all the same, but they are not, be careful
- We need to learn their culture , if not our business will face failure because there will
always be miscommunications and misunderstandings.

- Hofstede’s gave us insights when we are interacting with other people in other country

- -If we fully understood and applied properly , it can reduce our frustration , anxiety and
concern

-
Generally..

Individualism recognizes that each person has free will, his own mind and the capacity to think
and act independently. This means that each person is ultimately self-responsible and the master
of his or her own destiny.

Collectivism holds that only groups truly exist, such as races, nationalities, economic classes,
tribes, etc. Only groups think and act, according to collectivism. This means that an individual's
actions are not his or her own, but are the actions of a group.

collectivism is the cultural dimensions, represents the extents to which members of culture value
the inrest of the individual over that of the collectivity.The value given to comunes in china.Foe
example, is a clear indicator of a society that stress the welfare of the group.In collectivist
societies, organizational employeestend to have greater loyalty to the organization because they
are acculturated to think more term of group goals than individual accomplishments.On the contry
indiviadualistic cultures create more calculative relationships between the individual and the
organization where employees primarily think about their own development and may consider the
interests of the organization only as a secondary issue.

To apply in the situations of Public Relations, we should learn one culture of their values in
applying their lifestyle of individualism compare to collectivism.

It is discuss and agreed that a nation that practice collectivism in their country will not make fast
judgement or result if our representative from Malaysia is trying to do their business there.

In learning their culture and lifestyle, we need to know the approach when we how to win the
negotiations in doing business.

We know in Individualism country, they do not seek others to make decision, it is easy for us to
focus on the main person to make the decision and normally it will fast.

On the otherhand , if the country practice collectivism in their business, we need to apply the
correct strategy and be patient when they need to have many meetings before they can agree to
the business negotiations.

This is an example on how to make business in international culture.

China, Arab Saudi, Malaysia,Indonesia and several other countries is among others that have low
individualism according to PDI.

In individualistic society ties within individual are loose. Everyone is expected to look after
him/herself and his/her immediate family.

On the collectivist side we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated
into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and
grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.

I individualistic country such as US and Germany, people stress on personal achievements and
individual rights. Germans expect from each other to fulfil their own needs. Group work is
important, but everybody has the right of his own opinion an is expected to reflect those. In an
individual country like Us and Germany people tend to have more loose relationships than
countries where there is a collectivism where people have large extended families.

COLLECTIVISM

COLLECTIVISM: Collectivism is defined as the theory and practice that makes some sort of
group rather than the individual the fundamental unit of political, social, and economic concern. In
theory, collectivists insist that the claims of groups, associations, or the state must normally
supersede the claims of individuals.

INDIVIDUALISM

"Individualism is at once an ethical-psychological concept and an ethical-political one. As an

ethical-psychological concept, individualism holds that a human being should think and judge
independently, respecting nothing more than the sovereignty of his or her mind; thus, it is
intimately connected with the concept of autonomy. As an ethical-political concept, individualism
upholds the supremacy of individual rights .

People in individualistic cultures emphasize their success/achievements in job or private wealth

and aiming up to reach more and/or a better job position. Especially in the USA the fight about
jobs and trying to climb up in the hierarchy ladder is something very common there. It just counts
to get there less caring who will left behind one. In business they try to improve their connections
and to gain more value out of them, not for establishing a good relationship but just to be involved
in a calculative way. Employees are expected to defend their interests and to promote
themselves when ever possible.
Asian – collectivist cultures like China view other companies with less collectivistic philosophy as
cold and not supportive. Collectivistic cultures have a great emphasize on groups and think more
in terms of “we”. Harmony and loyalty within a company is very important and should always be
maintained and confrontation should be avoided. In China it is out of question to disagree with
someone’s opinion in public. You will do that in a more private and personal atmosphere to
protect a person from the “loss of face”. In collectivistic cultures a direct confrontation will be
always avoided. Expressions or phrases are used which describe a disagreement or negative
statement instead of saying no. Saying no would mean to destroy the harmony in the group. The
relationship between employer and employee or business partners is based on trust and harmony
and a deep understanding of moral values. The wealth of the company and the groups inside are
more important than the individual one’s.

Individualism
Individualism cultures support that individual is
most important entity in any social setting
Stress independence
Value of the uniqueness of each individual
Reward individual achievement
High Individualism - Italy, US,
Collectivism
Social system that based in groups and out
outgroups
Stress dependence
Needs and goals of the group are more
important than individual
In marriage the acceptance by the family is
very important
When say me, means the group
Focus more on cooperation than competition
High context communication style
(indirectness not to offend anyone).
Extreme Collectvism – Venezuela, Mexico,
South Korean

Focused on the relationship between biological sex – sex appropriate behaviour

Masculinity Feminity
They used reality biological sex in the creation
of disctinct roles for men and women
Men are expected to be assertive, ambitious Expected to be supportive, nurturing and
and competitive deferent
In work place In work place
To be decisive and assertive Lower wages, no work equality, less stable
work, few opportunities to go advance
Manifest consensus seeking ana a preference
for quality of live of material success
Only few countries eg Sweden – eligibility for
an equal paid maternity and parternity leave

Question. How does masculinity vs feminism related to IPR. As a PR practitioner, very

importantly we need to understand culture in other nations. in understanding culture Geert
Hofstede's has come out with theories.

Masculiniy refers to distribution of roles between the genders. Gender is a fundamental issue for
any society thorugh out the world as men carries different value such as assertive and
competitive. While women on the other hand is modest and caring. The assertive post has been
called "masculine" and the modest caring post as "feminine"

Let me try to share my undestanding. If your organization need to send a representative to work
as one of the top management in Japan where the masculinity Index is high, you either send a
male manager or a female manager that has the assertive or masculine criteria to be accepted
among the poeple working in the organization there.

Masculinity versus its opposite, femininity refers to the distribution of roles between the genders
which is another fundamental issue for any society to which a range of solutions are found. The
IBM studies revealed that (a) women�s values differ less among societies than men�s values;
(b) men�s values from one country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and
competitive and maximally different from women�s values on the one side, to modest and caring
and similar to women�s values on the other. The assertive pole has been called �masculine�
and the modest, caring pole �feminine�.

The Masculinity and Femininity dimension describes how cultures differentiate on not between
gender roles.

Masculine cultures tend to be ambitious and need to excel. Members of these cultures have a
tendency to polarize and consider big and fast to be beautiful. In workplaces employees
emphazize their work to a great extent (live in order to work) and they admire achievers who
accomplished their tasks.

Feminine cultures consider quality of life and helping others to be very important. Working is
basically to earn money which is necessary for living. In business as well as in private life they
strive for consensus and develop sympathy for people who are in trouble. Small and slow are
considered to be beautiful.

Masculinity vs Femininity

What we can elaborate on this cultural dimensions is that Masculinity and Femininity focus on the
relationship between biological sex and is considered sex-appropriate behaviour.

In Masculinity, the countries that belong to this dimensions use the reality of biological sex in the
creation of distinct roles for men and women. For example in Arab countries, women are not
encourage to work in lines where men are majority and they sometimes not allowed to drive a car
(to that extend).

Men on the other hand are expected to be assertive, ambitious and competitive. They earn living
by going out working while women are expected to be supportive, nurturing and belong at home
taking care of the families. In this culture, they believe in men to be the leader/manager because
men are suppose to be decisive and assertive. Women will have difficult time choosing the jobs
they like because of workplace inequality, lower wages, less stable work and only few
opportunities to advance in their career. (Kim, 2001)

Femininity cultural dimensions can be seen in the country like Sweden. They practice equality in
both gender and prefer for quality of life over material success. For example their workers are
eligible for equal paid maternity and paternity leave (up to 360 day leave of absence from work).
So which culture do you prefer masculinity or femininity?
Uncertainty Avoidance - People with culture are made nervous by situations which they perceived
unpredictable

Uncertainty expresses the deficit that people tolerate ambiguous situations and need formal rules.
Uncertainty is “the extent to which the members of a culture fell threatened by uncertain or
unknown situations. One of the dimensions of national cultures (from weak to strong)."

In cultures with high uncertainty avoidance emotions are displayed in the way that everything
different is dangerous. They resist in changes and worry about future. Cultures with a low degree
of uncertainty avoidance are open for new things and changes. They don’t have feelings of
uncertainty about future.

To prevent uncertainty societies set up laws and rules like companies do. Duties and rights
(internal and external) are controlled by authorities. Some cultures need to have a strong
uncertainty avoidance like France. In France many strict regulations are used and tasks are
heavily centralized in companies. For meetings it is important to consider that. There will be a
much higher demand for details when creating a contract. This is to avoid any circumstances
which could cause any kind of uncertainty for French business people. Organizing is therefore
rather inflexible concerning changes which occur in business life.

Low Uncertainty Avoidance High Uncertainty Avoidance

Can accept lack of structure more easily or any
ambiguity (tak jelas arahan)
Reject rules and punctuality, need to be taught
and reinforced
Work hard only needed
Cultures that seek to avoid ambiguity
Maintain strict codes of behaviour and support
a belief in absolute truths
Eg – Workplace – Typefied rules,precision, and
punctuality

Power Distance – High and Low Where they can accept it with little power in society consider
inequality normal and acceptable.
“Power distance is the extent to which less powerful members of institutions and organizations
within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.” (Hofstede)

Power distance describes also the extent to which employees accept that superiors have more
power than they have. Furthermore that opinions and decisions are right because of the higher
position some has. In countries with high power distance employees are too afraid to express
their doubts and disagreements with their autocratic and paternalistic bosses. The index for
power distance describes the dependence of relationships in a country.

It is small in countries where bosses and subordinates work close together and consult each
other. Subordinates and superiors consider each other as or less equal even there is a difference
in education level. The hierarchical system can always change depending on the circumstances.
The hierarchies are flat with a decentralized organization and a small number of supervisors who
are expected to be accessible for their subordinates. Within a company the degree for unequal
treatment is reduced to a low level. There is a interdependence between employer and employee.
The salary range is narrow between the top and bottom in companies. Subordinates expect to be
consulted within the decision-making process.

In contrast in large power distance countries the relation between boss and subordinate is strictly
ruled and dependent on the decisions of the boss. In companies with larger power distance which
have a very centralized organization, subordinates expect to be told what to do from their
superiors because they consider each other as unequal. Inequalities are normally expected and
privileges are seen as desirable by superiors. There is a large extend to centralization and the
salary range is wide. People in high power distance cultures positive emotions are expressed to
superiors and negative emotions to subordinates.
Low Power Distance
Value the minimization of power differences
Not necessarily the people in the higher
hierarchy are superior
They believe through motiviation and hard work
they can achieve power
Shared decisions making with subordinates is
regarded as empowering
High Power Distance
Accept power as a scarce resource and power
difference as natural and inevitable
Great importance on status and rank
They have a large number of supervisors a
rigid system
Decision making only among those at the high
end or the hierarchy
Long Term Short Term
Persistence Personal steadiness and stability
Ordering relationships by status and observing Protecting your “face”
this order
Thrift (jimat) Respect or tradition
Having a sense of shame Reciprocation of greetings, favours and gifts

Long Term Orientation

LONG TERM & SHORT TERM ORIENTATION

On the long-term orientation pole we have:

• persistence (perseverance)
• ordering relationships by status
• thrift
• having a sense of shame

On the opposite short-term orientation pole:

• personal steadiness and stability

• protecting your face
• respect for tradition
• reciprocation of greetings, favors, and gifts

All the values are taken straight from the teachings of Confucius, however, the values on the first
pole are orientated towards the future and are more dynamic, while the values on the second
pole are orientated towards the past and present and are more static. Note that one way is not
good and the other way is not bad -- they are simply orientations towards life.
Communication Accomodation Theory
- Description –
- Copy what ever other party is doing, culture, language
- It can be unwelcome especially if it is perceived as copying or being overly familiar
- Reverse – people deliberately assert their identity by speaking and acting and differently
from the other person
- It also known as speech accommodation theory

Face Negotiation Theory

- Interpersonal communication and politeness theory

- Every culture is always fighting for face or the way we want to be treating us
- The theory compares and contrasts high and low context cultures and the different ways
that they use “face”

People from all the theory states that they are very different from each other.
Conflict appears and we need to learn to avoid uneasiness in this relations
More reading , source - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geert_Hofstede
Hofstede's Framework for Assessing Culture

Hofstede has found five dimensions of culture in his study of national work related values.
Replication studies have yielded very similar results, pointing to stability of the dimensions across
time. They are:

Small vs. large power distance -This dimension measures how much the less powerful members
of institutions and organizations expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. In cultures
with small power distance (e.g. Ireland, Austria, Australia, Denmark, New Zealand), people
expect and accept power relations that are more consultative or democratic. People relate to one
another more as equals regardless of formal positions. Subordinates are more comfortable with
and demand the right to contribute to and critique the decisions of those in power. In cultures with
large power distance (e.g. Malaysia), the less powerful accept power relations that are autocratic
or paternalistic. Subordinates acknowledge the power of others based on their formal,
hierarchical positions. Thus, Small vs. Large Power Distance does not measure or attempt to
measure a culture's objective, "real" power distribution, but rather the way people perceive power
differences.

Individualism vs. collectivism - This dimension measures how much members of the culture
define themselves apart from their group memberships. In individualist cultures, people are
expected to develop and display their individual personalities and to choose their own affiliations.
In collectivist cultures, people are defined and act mostly as a member of a long-term group, such
as the family, a religious group, an age cohort, a town, or a profession, among others. This
dimension was found to move towards the individualist end of the spectrum with increasing
national wealth.

Masculinity vs. femininity - This dimension measures the value placed on traditionally male or
female values (as understood in most Western cultures). In so-called 'masculine' cultures, people
(whether male or female) value competitiveness, assertiveness, ambition, and the accumulation
of wealth and material possessions. In so-called 'feminine' cultures, people ( whether male or
female)value relationships and quality of life. This dimension is often renamed by users of
Hofstede's work, e.g. to Quantity of Life vs. Quality of Life. Another reading of the same
dimension holds that in 'M' cultures, the differences between gender roles are more dramatic and
less fluid than in 'F' cultures; but this strongly depends on other dimensions as well.
Weak vs. strong uncertainty avoidance - This dimension measures how much members of a
society are anxious about the unknown, and as a consequence, attempt to cope with anxiety by
minimizing uncertainty. In cultures with strong uncertainty avoidance, people prefer explicit rules
(e.g. about religion and food) and formally structured activities, and employees tend to remain
longer with their present employer. In cultures with weak uncertainty avoidance, people prefer
implicit or flexible rules or guidelines and informal activities. Employees tend to change employers
more frequently.

Michael Harris Bond and his collaborators subsequently found a fifth dimension which was initially
called Confucian dynamism. Hofstede later incorporated this into his framework as:

Long vs. short term orientation - This dimension describes a society's "time horizon," or the
importance attached to the future versus the past and present. In long term oriented societies,
people value actions and attitudes that affect the future: persistence/perseverance, thrift, and
shame. In short term oriented societies, people value actions and attitudes that are affected by
the past or the present: normative statements, immediate stability, protecting one's own face,
respect for tradition, and reciprocation of greetings, favors, and gifts.

These cultural differences describe averages or tendencies and not characteristics of individuals.
A Japanese person for example can have a very low 'uncertainty avoidance' compared to a
Filipino even though their 'national' cultures point strongly in a different direction. Consequently, a
country's scores should not be interpreted as deterministic.

Criticism
Hofstede's conceptualization of culture as static and essential has attracted some criticism. In a
recent article in the Academy of Management's flagship journal, The Academy of Management
Review, Galit Ailon deconstructs Hofstede's book Culture's Consequences by mirroring it against
its own assumptions and logic[3]. Ailon finds several inconsistencies at the level of both theory
and methodology and cautions against an uncritical reading of Hofstede's cultural dimensions.

Hofstede's work has also been criticized by researchers who think that he identifies cultures with
nations based on the supposition that within each nation there is a uniform national culture, a
suggestion explicitly denied by Hofstede himself in chapter 1 of 'Cultures and Organizations'. In
modern times, with ever-increasing international mobility, the growing acceptance of, for example,
grounded theory and inductive approaches, Hofstede's ideas are seen as essentialist and
reductionist by some. Furthermore, the quote at the top of his homepage, 'Culture is more often a
source of conflict than of synergy. Cultural differences are a nuisance at best and often a
disaster', is seen by some as 'illustrating the blinkered views he holds about the benefits of
intercultural flows, and the obvious point that cultural phenomena have been swapped, adopted,
adapted, imposed, for millennia and are arguably part or a macro-evolutionary process'. One
wonders why, since this point is explicitly made by Hofstede all through his books. according to
Hofstede, the point about culture is precisely its resilience to change in spite of all this flux.
ref>McSweeney, Brendan (January 2002). "Hofstede's Model Of National Cultural Differences
And Their Consequences: A Triumph Of Faith - A Failure Of Analysis". Human Relations 55

Power Distance and Afghanistan Culture

From Professor Hofstede's book, Culture's Consequences, Power Distance, Individualism,
Masculinity, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Long-Term Orientation may all be particularly relevant
for understanding Afghan culture and Afghanistan business.

What is Power Distance?

PD is the perceived distance between less powerful individuals, families, and organizations and
those with the real power.

It is a measure of the acceptance and expectation of unequal distribution of power. The measure
of PD, no matter the number, really shows the inequality from the perspective of those with less
power.

So how does this impact doing business in Afghanistan as a foreigner?

There are certain expectations Afghans may have of you if you are the boss, certainly because
you are the "wealthy foreigner." There is a certain PD between the average Afghan and a
foreigner, with foreigners often seen as having more power.

Negotiations

In a shame/honor society, the one with the most power wins. Compromise is rare. To attempt to
shame an Afghan will result in you losing, no matter what. Find a way to give the Afghan an
honorable "way out" - even if you are right and he/she is wrong, not shaming the Afghan will
actually win you a grudging measure of respect.
Being the Boss

The boss in Afghan culture is seen to be the patron - the society is based on patronage from the
one most powerful. The boss will be asked for loans for the family of the employee and many
other favors not usually considered appropriate in the west. As the foreign boss, you will have to
decide if you want to participate in the patronage system, or attempt to impose a different system.

The Patronage System

The patronage system as it is in Afghanistan does not probably help Afghans in the long run. It
simply switches their allegiance and reliance on you for the short-term, until you leave and
another foreigner comes along enshallah. This is why we attempt in our company to find creative
ways to empower Afghans to higher positions of leadership and decision making, as much as
possible within the company, so that when the foreigners left, the Afghans could completely take
over in a positive way.

Empower the Afghans to Kindness and Charity

One solution one company who has worked for almost 15 years in Afghanistan offered was an
Afghan committee to oversee the "gift" fund for when Afghan employees came asking for loans.

Those Afghans who had been identified as responsible leaders were on the committee and new
the culture best and were empowered to make the decision of fund dispersal. Those on the
committee were from different ethnic groups to minimize accusations of favoritism to one group or
another within the company.

The boss is the one whom Afghans will not expect to see signs of weakness. Therefore, to admit
wrong or to apologize are opposite Afghan culture. One manager of a large company taught his
Afghan leaders weekly on leadership principles from John Maxwell's The 21 Irrefutable Laws of
Leadership and had fascinating discussions with the Afghans on how they could apply these
leadership principles to the company to make it better.

Part of a Team

To be part of a team in Afghanistan means that the manager and other expatriates should ensure
that public disagreement does not happen - this would be shameful.
Work to minimize the apparent power distance between foreigners and Afghans. One team
played "get to know you" games at lunch time, where everyone - expat and Afghan - had to
respond to questions about life and themselves. This simple game broke down walls, had
Afghans and expats laughing together, and the productivity of that team for the following year was
astonishing!

It takes a skilled manager to create an environment where the real opinions of Afghan teammates
are shared. The fear always is of saying something others will disagree with or are wrong - this
would be shameful to the individual.

Prioritizing Work

Prioritizing work will take training. In a culture where relationships, politeness, and hospitality are
critical, operating businesses to global standards is challenging.

It requires Afghans who can be open to new methods and ways of doing things, so our
recommendation is to interview, interview, interview, then train, train, train! There are Afghan men
and women of all ages who are increasingly open to learning how to bridge the Afghan-western
divide, to decrease the power distance, and learn how to work within certain time constraints.

This does not mean that an expat can simply impose a complete western way of work. There are
numerous holidays Afghans are obligated to participate in which may interfere with timelines.
Work to get Afghan staff the ability to communicate honestly goals and realistic productivity within
the schedule of family and cultural demands.

Living in Afghanistan takes a herculean effort even to get to work for many Afghans. A number of
expats who live on compounds where they have a cook and every other need taken care of often
demonstrate a clear lack of empathy with what it takes just to make life happen here.

The power distance is great in the above situation, and in this case we have seen Afghans and
expatriates dealing with huge amounts of frustration and inability to bridge the cultural divide.

http://www.about-afghanistan.com/power-distance.html
Geert Hofstede™ Cultural Dimensions

* Description for each of Hofstede's Dimensions listed below

The Geert Hofstede analysis for the Arab World, that includes the countries of Egypt, Iraq,
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, demonstrates the Muslim
faith plays a significant role in the people’s lives.

Large Power Distance (PDI) (80) and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) (68) are predominant
Hofstede Dimension characteristics for the countries in this region. These societies are more
likely to follow a caste system that does not allow significant upward mobility of its citizens. They
are also highly rule-oriented with laws, rules, regulations, and controls in order to reduce the
amount of uncertainty, while inequalities of power and wealth have been allowed to grow within
the society.

When these two Dimensions are combined, it creates a situation where leaders have virtually
ultimate power and authority, and the rules, laws and regulations developed by those in power
reinforce their own leadership and control. It is not unusual for new leadership to arise from
armed insurrection – the ultimate power, rather than from diplomatic or democratic change.

The high Power Distance (PDI) ranking is indicative of a high level of inequality of power and
wealth within the society. These populations have an expectation and acceptance that leaders
will separate themselves from the group and this condition is not necessarily subverted upon the
population, but rather accepted by the society as their cultural heritage.

The high Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) ranking of 68, indicates the society’s low level of
tolerance for uncertainty. In an effort to minimize or reduce this level of uncertainty, strict rules,
laws, policies, and regulations are adopted and implemented. The ultimate goal of these
populations is to control everything in order to eliminate or avoid the unexpected. As a result of
this high Uncertainty Avoidance characteristic, the society does not readily accept change and is
very risk adverse.

The Masculinity index (MAS), the third highest Hofstede Dimension is 52, only slightly higher than
the 50.2 average for all the countries included in the Hofstede MAS Dimension. This would
indicate that while women in the Arab World are limited in their rights, it may be due more to
Muslim religion rather than a cultural paradigm.
The lowest Hofstede Dimension for the Arab World is the Individualism (IDV) ranking at 38,
compared to a world average ranking of 64. This translates into a Collectivist society as
compared to Individualist culture and is manifested in a close long-term commitment to the
member 'group', that being a family, extended family, or extended relationships. Loyalty in a
collectivist culture is paramount, and over-rides most other societal rules.

http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_arab_world.shtml