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Chapter 7
Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms
Which of the following is the slip system for the simple cubic crystal
structure? Why?
{100}110
{110}110
{100}010
{110}111
(Note: A unit cell for the simple cubic crystal structure is shown in Figure 3.3.)
Answer: The slip system for some crystal structure corresponds to the most densely
packed crystallographic plane, and, in that plane, the most closely packed crystallographic
direction. For simple cubic, the most densely packed atomic plane is the {100}-type plane; the
most densely packed direction within this plane is a 010 type direction. Therefore, the slip
system for simple cubic is {100}010.
compressive) stress resolved along a slip plane that is other than perpendicular or parallel to the
stress axis. The critical resolved shear stress is the value of resolved shear stress at which
yielding begins; it is a property of the material.
In order to
experience recrystallization, a material must first be plastically deformed, and ceramic materials
are too brittle to plastically deform.
Chapter 8
Failure
max
min
This is to say that the stress remains constant (or does not fluctuate) with time, or the stressversus-time plot would appear as
min = R max
Furthermore, Equation 8.16 is
min
a = max
2
Substitution of min from the former expression into the latter gives
R max max
a = max
=
(1 R)
2
2
Therefore, as the magnitude of R increases (or becomes more positive) the magnitude of a
decreases.
With increasing time, the constant load curve becomes progressively higher than the constant
stress curve. Since these tests are tensile ones, the cross-sectional area diminishes as deformation
progresses. Thus, in order to maintain a constant stress, the applied load must correspondingly be
diminished since stress = load/area.
Chapter 9
Phase Diagrams
metastability?
Answer: For the condition of phase equilibrium the free energy is a minimumthe
system is completely stable, meaning that over time the phase characteristics are constant. For
metastability, the system is not at equilibrium, and there are very slight (and often imperceptible)
changes of the phase characteristics with time.
(a) Using this diagram, briefly explain how spreading salt on ice that is at a temperature
below 0C (32F) can cause the ice to melt.
(b) At what temperature is salt no longer useful in causing ice to melt?
Solution: (a) Spreading salt on ice will lower the melting temperature, since the liquidus
line decreases from 0C (at 100% H 20) to the eutectic temperature at about 21C (23 wt%
NaCl). Thus, ice at a temperature below 0C (and above 21C) can be made to form a liquid
phase by the addition of salt.
(b) At 21C and below ice is no longer useful in causing ice to melt because this is the
lowest temperature at which a liquid phase forms (i.e., it is the eutectic temperature for this
system).
Answer: There are two eutectics on this phase diagram. One exists at 18 wt% V-82 wt%
Hf and 1455C. The reaction upon cooling is
L Hf + HfV2
The other eutectic exists at 39 wt% V-61 wt% Hf and 1520 C. This reaction upon cooling is
Hf Hf HfV2
There is one congruent melting point at 36 wt% V-64 wt% Hf and 1550 C. The
reaction upon cooling is
L HfV2
No peritectics are present.
Chapter 10
Phase Transformations in Metals
(b) The line for the higher temperature (labeled TH) will lie above the one at the lower
temperature (labeled TL) because the Fe3C particles in tempered martensite will grow faster at the
higher temperature; thus, at some given tempering time they will be larger at the higher
temperature. The alloy tempered at the higher temperature will be more ductile because there
will be fewer -Fe3C phase boundaries (due to the larger Fe3C particles) that may impede
dislocation motion.
Chapter 11
Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys
Briefly explain why ferritic and austenitic stainless steels are not heat
treatable. Hint: you may want to consult the first portion of Section 11.3.
Answer:
Ferritic and austenitic stainless steels are not heat treatable since "heat
treatable" is taken to mean that martensite may be made to form with relative ease upon
quenching austenite from an elevated temperature.
For ferritic stainless steels, austenite does not form upon heating, and, therefore, the
austenite-to-martensite transformation is not possible.
For austenitic stainless steels, the austenite phase field extends to such low temperatures
that the martensitic transformation does not occur.
Chapter 12
Structures and Properties of Ceramics
K+
O2-
0.138 nm
0.986
0.140 nm
temperature be achieved?
Answer: (a) According to Figure 12.25 this maximum temperature is 1890 10 C, (b)
which is possible for compositions between about 77 wt% Al 2O3 and virtually 100 wt% Al2O3.
Chapter 13
Applications and Processing of Ceramics
Chapter 14
Polymer Structures
conformation is that conformation is used in reference to the outline or shape of the chain
molecule, whereas, configuration refers to the arrangement of atom positions along the chain that
are not alterable except by the breaking and reforming of primary bonds.
Chapter 15
Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers
The copolymer tested at 20C will display elastomeric behavior (curve C of Figure 15.1)
inasmuch as it is a random copolymer that is lightly crosslinked; furthermore, the temperature of
testing is above its glass transition temperature. On the other hand, since 85C is below the
glass transition temperature of the other poly(styrene-butadiene) copolymer, the stress-strain
behavior under these conditions is as curve A of Figure 15.1.
Phenol-
Since both polymers are 25% crystalline, they will exhibit behavior similar to curve B in Figure
15.18. However, polystyrene will have higher melting and glass transition temperatures due to
the bulkier side group in its repeat unit structure, and since it has a higher weight-average
molecular weight.
The liquid silicones will have low molecular weights and very little
crosslinking, whereas the molecular weights for the elastomers will be much higher; the
elastomers will also have some crosslinking.
addition polymerization is relatively high, medium, or relatively low for the following situations:
(a) Rapid initiation, slow propagation, and rapid termination
(b) Slow initiation, rapid propagation, and slow termination
(c) Rapid initiation, rapid propagation, and slow termination
(d) Slow initiation, slow propagation, and rapid termination.
Answer:
(a) For rapid initiation, slow propagation, and rapid termination the molecular weight
will be relatively low.
(b) For slow initiation, rapid propagation, and slow termination the molecular weight
will be relatively high.
(c) For rapid initiation, rapid propagation, and slow termination a medium molecular
weight will be achieved.
(d) For slow initiation, slow propagation, and rapid termination the molecular weight
will be low or medium.
Answer: The following represents the reaction between hexamethylene diamine and
adipic acid to produce nylon 6,6 with water as a byproduct:
If the vapor pressure of a plasticizer is not relatively low, the plasticizer may
diminished, inasmuch as the plasticizer molecules fit in between the polymer molecules, which
will cause more misalignment of the latter.
(c) The tensile strength of a polymer will be diminished when a plasticizer is added. As
the plasticizer molecules force the polymer chain molecules apart, the magnitudes of the
secondary interchain bonds are lessened, which weakens the material since strength is a function
of the magnitude of these bonds.
Chapter 16
Composites
Composite
Fiber
Type
Vol. Fraction
Fibers
Fiber
Strength
(MPa)
Ave. Fiber
Length
(mm)
Critical
Length
(mm)
glass
0.20
3.5 10
0.70
glass
0.35
3.5 10
12
0.75
carbon
0.40
5.5 10
0.40
carbon
0.30
5.5 10
0.50
Answer: The ranking from highest to lowest strength in the longitudinal direction is as
follows: C, D, B, and A. Composite C is the strongest inasmuch as the carbon fibers are
continuous and are stronger than glass, and it has the highest fiber volume fraction. Composite D
is of lower strength than C because it has a lower Vf; otherwise the carbon fibers are also
continuous. Material B is next because the glass fibers are weaker than carbon; these fibers are
also continuous. Composite A is the weakest since it is composed of the weaker glass fibers, the
fibers are discontinuous, and Vf is the lowest of all four materials.
characteristic is that the composite is relatively strong and stiff in one direction; a less desirable
characteristic is that the mechanical properties are anisotropic.
For discontinuous- and randomly oriented-fiber-reinforced composites, one desirable
characteristic is that the properties are isotropic; a less desirable characteristic is there is no single
high-strength direction.
Chapter 17
Corrosion and Degradation of Materials
V = V20 V10
RT [M1n ][M 2 ]
ln
nF [M 2n ][M1 ]
reactions because an unlimited supply of metal atoms at the corroding electrode interface will
always be present.
crystallinity of a polymeric material will enhance its resistance to swelling and dissolution.
Would you expect crosslinking or crystallinity to have the greater influence? Justify your choice.
Hint: You may want to consult Sections 14.7 and 14.11.
Answer: During swelling and dissolution of polymeric materials, the solute molecules
diffuse to and occupy positions among the polymer macromolecules, and thereby force the latter
apart. Increasing both the degrees of crosslinking and crystallinity will enhance a polymer's
resistance to these types of degradation since there will be a greater degree of intermolecular
bonding between adjacent chains; this restricts the number of solute molecules that can fit into
these locations.
Crosslinking will be more effective. For linear polymers that are highly crystalline, the
intermolecular bonds are secondary ones (van der Waals and/or hydrogen), and relatively weak in
comparison to the strong covalent bonds associated with the crosslinks.
List three differences between the corrosion of metals and each of the
following:
(a) the corrosion of ceramics
(b) the degradation of polymers
Answer:
(a) Three differences between the corrosion of metals and the corrosion of ceramics are:
1) Ceramic materials are more corrosion resistant than metals in most environments.
2) Corrosion of ceramic materials is normally just a chemical dissolution process,
whereas for metals it is usually electrochemical.
3) Ceramics are more corrosion resistant at elevated temperatures.
(b) Three differences between the corrosion of metals and the degradation of polymers
are:
1)
2) Degradation mechanisms for polymers are more complex than the corrosion
mechanisms for metals.
3) More types of degradation are possible for polymerse.g., dissolution, swelling,
and bond rupture (by means of radiation, heat, and chemical reactions).
Chapter 18
Electrical Properties
extremely rapid rate, it forms a noncrystalline solid (i.e., a metallic glass). Will the electrical
conductivity of the noncrystalline metal be greater or less than its crystalline counterpart? Why?
Answer:
The electrical conductivity for a metallic glass will be less than for its
crystalline counterpart. The glass will have virtually no periodic atomic structure, and, as a
result, electrons that are involved in the conduction process will experience frequent and repeated
scattering. (There is no electron scattering in a perfect crystal lattice of atoms.)
composition for all compositions between pure lead and pure tin.
(b) On this same graph, schematically plot electrical resistivity versus composition at
150C.
(c) Explain the shapes of these two curves, as well as any differences between them.
Hint: You may want to consult the lead-tin phase diagram, Figure 9.8
Answers: (a) and (b) Below is shown the electrical resistivity versus composition for
lead-tin alloys at both room temperature and 150C.
(c) Upon consultation of the Pb-Sn phase diagram (Figure 9.8) we note upon
extrapolation of the two solvus lines to at room temperature (e.g., 20 C), that the single phase
phase solid solution exists between pure lead and a composition of about 2 wt% of Sn-98 wt%
Pb.
In addition, the composition range over which the phase is stable is between
approximately 99 wt% Sn-1 wt% Pb and pure tin. Within both of these composition regions the
resistivity increases in accordance with Equation 18.11; also, in the above plot, the resistivity of
pure Pb is represented (schematically) as being greater than that for pure Sn, per the problem
statement.
Furthermore, for compositions between these extremes, both and phases coexist,
and alloy resistivity will be a function of the resisitivities the individual phases and their volume
fractions, as described by Equation 18.12. Also, mass fractions of the and phases within
the two-phase region of Figure 9.8 change linearly with changing composition (according to the
lever rule). There is a reasonable disparity between the densities of Pb and Sn (11.35 g/cm 3
versus 7.3 g/cm3). Thus, according to Equation 9.6 phase volume fractions will not exactly equal
mass fractions, which means that the resistivity will not exactly vary linearly with composition.
In the above plot, the curve in this region has been depicted as being linear for the sake of
convenience.
At 150C, the curve has the same general shape, and is shifted to significantly higher
resistivities inasmuch as resistivity increases with rising temperature (Equation 18.10 and Figure
18.8).
approximately 10 wt% Sni.e., the phase field is wider and the increase of resistivity due to
the solid solution effect extends over a greater composition range, which is also noted in the
above figure. The resistivity-temperature behavior is similar on the tin-rich side, where, at
150C, the phase field extends to approximately 2 wt% Pb (98 wt% Sn). And, as with the
room-temperature case, for compositions within the + two-phase region, the plot is
approximately linear, extending between resistivity values found at the maximum solubilities of
the two phases.
On the basis of
discussions of Section 18.5 and the previous section, make a schematic plot of Fermi energy
versus temperature for an n-type semiconductor up to a temperature at which it becomes
intrinsic. Also note on this plot energy positions corresponding to the top of the valence band
and the bottom of the conduction band.
Answer: Below is shown the schematic plot of Fermi temperature versus temperature.
As noted in the previous section, at low temperatures, the material is extrinsic and the
Fermi energy is located near the top of the band gap, in the vicinity of the donor level for an ntype semiconductor. With increasing temperature, the material eventually becomes intrinsic, and
the Fermi energy resides near the center of the band gap (Section 18.5).
ne
From Figure 18.19a, there is no curve for n = 1021 m-3; however, if one were plotted it would
reside between and have the same general shape as the < 10 20 m-3 and 1022 m-3 curvesthat
is, the logarithm of the electron mobility decreases with increasing temperature. Let us now
consider individually the three regions on the log electron concentration versus temperature plot
of Figure 18.17. For the freeze-out region of the curve (i.e., at low temperatures), the logarithm
of the electron concentration increases significantly with increasing temperature. The product of
this portion of the curve and the region of the curve in Figure 18.19a over the comparable
temperature range results in a net increase in log conductivity with increasing temperature (per
the above plot)the diminishment of log e with temperature is more gradual than the increase
of log n.
Over the extrinsic region of Figure 18.17, log n remains constant with increasing
temperature, whereas log e continues to decrease (per Figure 18.19a). The net result of taking
the product of these two curves is that conductivity will decrease with increasing temperature. It
follows that the log versus temperature curve will necessarily have to pass through a
maximum at some temperature just below the onset of the extrinsic region.
Finally, for the intrinsic region of Figure 18.17, log n increases dramatically with
temperature, and while log e continues to decrease (albeit not as dramatically, Figure 18.19a)
the net result of taking the product of these two curves is an increase of electrical conductivity
with increasing temperature, per the above plot. Furthermore, the log -temperature curve also
passes through a minimum at some temperature near the beginning of the intrinsic region of
Figure 18.17.
Chapter 19
Thermal Properties
Chapter 20
Magnetic Properties
ferrimagnetic materials.
Answer:
The similarities between ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are as follows:
(1) There is a coupling interaction between magnetic moments of adjacent atoms/cations
for both material types.
(2) Both ferromagnets and ferrimagnets form domains.
(3) Hysteresis B-H behavior is displayed for both, and, thus, permanent magnetizations
are possible.
The differences between ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are as follows:
(1) Magnetic moment coupling is parallel for ferromagnetic materials, and antiparallel
for ferrimagnetic.
(2) Ferromagnetics, being metallic materials, are relatively good electrical conductors;
inasmuch as ferrimagnetic materials are ceramics, they are electrically insulative.
(3) Saturation magnetizations are higher for ferromagnetic materials.
What is the difference between the spinel and inverse spinel crystal
tetrahedral positions for both structures. The difference lies in the occupancy for the trivalent
cations (e.g., Fe3+). For spinel, all trivalent ions reside in octahedral sites; whereas, for the
inverse spinel, half are positioned in tetrahedral sites, the other half are located in octahedral sites.
ferromagnetic material
(a) at 0 K,
(b) at a temperature just below its Curie temperature, and
(c) at a temperature just above its Curie temperature. Briefly explain why these curves
have different shapes.
Answer: These B-versus-H behaviors are sketched schematically below.
At 0 K, the saturation magnetization will be a maximum, and the hysteresis loop will have the
largest area.
magnetization will decrease and the size of the hysteresis loop will diminish. Finally, above the
Curie temperature, ferromagnetic behavior ceases, and the material becomes paramagnetic, with
linear B-versus-H behavior; the slope of this line segment is very small.
impurity additions), to control the ease with which domain walls move as the magnetic field is
changed for ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials.
hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic material, and superimpose on this plot the loop alterations
that would occur if domain boundary movement were hindered.
Answer: Hindering domain boundary movement will enhance the coercivity of the
magnetic material, without producing a significant alteration of the saturation flux density. Thus,
schematic B-H behaviors with and without domain boundary obstruction are shown below.
Chapter 21
Optical Properties
Photons are
electromagnetic energy packets that may exist in solid materials, as well as in other
media.
2) There is a considerable disparity between the velocities of photons and phonons. The
velocity of a photon is the same as the velocity of light in the particular medium; for
a phonon, its velocity is that of sound.
visible light? Why or why not? Hint: You may want to consult Table 18.3.
Answer: We want to decide whether or not Si and Ge are transparent to visible light on
the basis of their band gap energies. Table 18.3 cites 1.11 and 0.67 eV, respectively, as the Eg's
for these two semiconductors. According to Equation 21.16b, semiconductors having band gap
energies less than about 1.8 eV are opaque to visible light. Thus, both Si and Ge fall into this
category, and all visible light is absorbed by valence-band-to-conduction-band-electron
transitions across their reasonably narrow band gaps.
wavelengths of the nonabsorbed light radiation that is reflected. The characteristic color of a
transparent nonmetal is determined by the distribution of wavelengths of the nonabsorbed light
radiation that is transmitted through the material.