Boundary Tension

and Wettability

Immiscible Phases
Earlier discussions have considered only a
single fluid in the pores
porosity
permeability
Saturation: fraction of pore space
occupied by a particular fluid (immiscible
phases)

Sw+So+Sg=1
When more than a single phase is present,
the fluids interact with the rock, and with
each other

DEFINITION OF INTERFACIAL
TENSION
Interfacial (boundary) tension is the energy
per unit area (force per unit distance) at the
surface between phases
Commonly expressed in milliNewtons/meter (also, dynes/cm)

BOUNDARY (INTERFACIAL) TENSION

GAS

Imbalanced molecular forces at phase boundaries

Boundary contracts to minimize size
Cohesive vs. adhesion forces

LIQUID

GAS
SOLID
Cohesive force
Adhesion force

Molecular
Interface
(imbalance
of forces)

LIQUID
(dense phase)

Modified from PETE

311 Notes

DEFINITION OF WETTABILITY
Wettability is the tendency of one fluid
to spread on or adhere to a solid
surface in the presence of other
immiscible fluids.
Wettability refers to interaction between
fluid and solid phases.
Reservoir rocks (sandstone, limestone, dolomite, etc.)
are the solid surfaces
Oil, water, and/or gas are the fluids

WHY STUDY WETTABILITY?

Understand physical and chemical interactions between
Individual fluids and reservoir rocks
Different fluids with in a reservoir
Individual fluids and reservoir rocks when multiple
fluids are present
Petroleum reservoirs commonly have 2 3 fluids
(multiphase systems)
When 2 or more fluids are present, there are at least 3 sets
of forces acting on the fluids and affecting HC recovery

DEFINITION OF
ADHESION TENSION
Adhesion tension is expressed as the
difference between two solid-fluid
interfacial tensions.

AT os ws ow cos
A negative adhesion tension indicates that the denser phase (water)
preferentially wets the solid surface (and vice versa).
An adhesion tension of 0 indicates that both phases have equal affinity
for the solid surface

CONTACT ANGLE
ow

Oil

os

Oil

ow
Water

Oil

ws

os

The contact angle, , measured through

the denser liquid phase,
defines which fluid wets the solid
AT = adhesion tension, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm) surface.

Solid

= contact angle between the oil/water/solid interface measured through the water, degrees
os = interfacial energy between the oil and solid, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm
ws = interfacial energy between the water and solid, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm
ow = interfacial energy (interfacial tension) between the oil and water, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm

WETTING PHASE FLUID

Wetting phase fluid preferentially wets the
solid rock surface.
Attractive forces between rock and fluid draw
the wetting phase into small pores.
Wetting phase fluid often has low mobile.
Attractive forces limit reduction in wetting
phase saturation to an irreducible value
(irreducible wetting phase saturation).
Many hydrocarbon reservoirs are either totally
or partially water-wet.

NONWETTING PHASE FLUID

Nonwetting phase does not preferentially wet the
solid rock surface
Repulsive forces between rock and fluid cause
nonwetting phase to occupy largest pores
Nonwetting phase fluid is often the most mobile
fluid, especially at large nonwetting phase
saturations

Natural gas is never the wetting phase in

hydrocarbon reservoirs

WATER-WET RESERVOIR ROCK

Reservoir rock is water - wet if water preferentially
wets the rock surfaces
The rock is water- wet under the following
conditions:
ws > os
AT < 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is negative)
0 < < 90
If is close to 0, the rock is considered
to be strongly water-wet

WATER-WET ROCK
ow
Oil

os

Water

ws

Solid

os

0 < < 90

Adhesive tension between water and the

rock surface exceeds that between oil and
the rock surface.

OIL-WET RESERVOIR ROCK

Reservoir rock is oil-wet if oil preferentially
wets the rock surfaces.
The rock is oil-wet under the following
conditions:
os > ws
AT > 0 (i.e., the adhesion tension is positive)
90 < < 180
If is close to 180, the rock is considered to
be strongly oil-wet

OIL-WET ROCK
ow
Water
Oil

os

ws

os Solid

90 < < 180

The adhesion tension between water and the
rock surface is less than that between oil and the
rock surface.

INTERFACIAL CONTACT ANGLES,

VARIOUS ORGANIC LIQUID IN
CONTACT WITH SILICA AND CALCITE
WATER

SILICA

SURFACE

WATER

CALCITE

SURFACE

From Amyx Bass and Whiting, 1960; modified from Benner and Bartel, 1941

GENERALLY,
Silicate minerals have acidic surfaces
Repel acidic fluids such as major polar
organic compounds present in some crude oils
Attract basic compounds
Neutral to oil-wet surfaces
Carbonate minerals have basic surfaces
Attract acidic compounds of crude oils
Neutral to oil-wet surfaces
Tiab and Donaldson, 1996
Caution: these are very general statements and relations
that are debated and disputed by petrophysicists.

WATER-WET

OIL-WET
Air

OIL

WATER

< 90

SOLID (ROCK)

FREE WATER

OIL

Oil

WATER

WATER

WATER

> 90

SOLID (ROCK)

OIL
GRAIN

GRAIN

OIL
RIM
BOUND WATER

FREE WATER
Ayers, 2001

WATER-WET

OIL-WET
Oil

Air

WATER

WATER

WETTABILITY IS AFFECTED BY:

Composition of pore-lining minerals
Composition of the fluids
Saturation history

WETTABILITY CLASSIFICATION
Strongly oil- or water-wetting
Neutral wettability no preferential wettability to either water or
oil in the pores
Fractional wettability reservoir that has local areas that
are strongly oil-wet, whereas most of the reservoir is strongly
water-wet
- Occurs where reservoir rock have variable
mineral composition and surface chemistry
Mixed wettability smaller pores area water-wet are filled
with water, whereas larger pores are oil-wet and filled with oil

IMBIBITION
Imbibition is a fluid flow process in which
the saturation of the wetting phase
increases and the nonwetting phase
saturation decreases. (e.g., waterflood of an
oil reservoir that is water-wet).

Mobility of wetting phase increases as

wetting phase saturation increases
mobility is the fraction of total flow capacity for a particular
phase

WATER-WET RESERVOIR,
IMBIBITION
Water will occupy the smallest pores
Water will wet the circumference of most larger pores
In pores having high oil saturation, oil rests on a water film

Imbibition - If a water-wet rock saturated with oil is

placed in water, it will imbibe water into the smallest
pores, displacing oil

OIL-WET RESERVOIR,
IMBIBITION
Oil will occupy the smallest pores
Oil will wet the circumference of most larger pores
In pores having high water saturation, water rests on an
oil film
Imbibition - If an oil-wet rock saturated with water is
placed in oil, it will imbibe oil into the smallest
pores, displacing water
e.g., Oil-wet reservoir accumulation of oil in trap

DRAINAGE
Fluid flow process in which the
saturation of the nonwetting phase
increases
Mobility of nonwetting fluid phase
increases as nonwetting phase
saturation increases
e.g., waterflood of an oil reservoir that is oil-wet
Gas injection in an oil- or water-wet reservoir
Pressure maintenance or gas cycling by gas injection
in a retrograde condensate reservoir
Water-wet reservoir accumulation of oil or gas in trap

IMPLICATIONS OF WETTABILITY
Primary oil recovery is affected by the
wettability of the system.
A water-wet system will exhibit
greater primary oil recovery.

WATER-WET

OIL-WET
Air

OIL

WATER

< 90

SOLID (ROCK)

FREE WATER

OIL

Oil

WATER

WATER

WATER

> 90

SOLID (ROCK)

OIL
GRAIN

GRAIN

OIL
RIM
BOUND WATER

FREE WATER
Ayers, 2001

IMPLICATIONS OF WETTABILITY
Oil recovery under waterflooding is
affected by the wettability of the
system.
A water-wet system will exhibit
greater oil recovery under
waterflooding.

Water-Wet System

Oil-Wet System

Effect on waterflood of an oil reservoir?

From Levorsen, 1967

IMPLICATIONS OF WETTABILITY
Wettability affects the shape of the
relative permeability curves.
Oil moves easier in water-wet rocks
than oil-wet rocks.

Recovery efficiency, percent, Soi

IMPLICATIONS OF WETTABILITY
Core Percent
no silicone Wettability

1
2
3
4
5

80
1

2
3

60

0.00
0.020
0.200
2.00
1.00

0.649
0.176
- 0.222
- 0.250
- 0.333

Curves cut off at Fwd 100

4
40

20
0

10

11

12

Water injected, pore volumes

Lab work4 shows that a strongly water-wet system will have breakthrough of water after
most of the production of oil has taken place, and very little production of oil will occur
after water breakthrough.
For oil-wet systems, water breakthrough occurs earlier in the flood and production
continues for a long period after water breakthrough at a fairly constant water/oil
production ratio.

Recovery efficiency, percent Spi

IMPLICATIONS OF WETTABILITY
Squirrel oil - 0.10 N NaCl - Torpedo core ( 33 O W 663,
K 0945, Swi 21.20%)
Squirrel oil - 0.10 N NaCl Torpedo Sandstone core,
after remaining in oil for 84 days ( 33.0 W 663, K
0.925, Swi 23.28%)

80
60
40
20
0

3
4
5
6
7
8
Water injection, pore volumes

10

Modified from NExT, 1999

WETTABILITY AFFECTS:
Capillary Pressure
Irreducible water saturation
Residual oil and water saturations
Relative permeability
Electrical properties

LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF
WETTABILITY
Most common measurement techniques
Contact angle measurement method
Amott method
United States Bureau of Mines
(USBM) Method

NOMENCLATURE
AT = adhesion tension, milli-Newtons/m or dynes/cm)
= contact angle between the oil/water/solid interface measured through
the water (more dense phase), degrees
os = interfacial tension between the oil and solid, milli-Newtons/m or
dynes/cm
ws = interfacial tension between the water and solid, milli-Newtons/m or
dynes/cm
ow = interfacial tension between the oil and water, milli-Newtons/m or
dynes/cm

References
1. Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M., and Whiting, R.L.: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, McGrow-Hill Book
Company New York, 1960.
2. Tiab, D. and Donaldson, E.C.: Petrophysics, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. 1996.
3. Core Laboratories, Inc. A course in the fundamentals of Core analysis, 1982.
4.

Donaldson, E.C., Thomas, R.D., and Lorenz, P.B.: Wettability Determination and Its Effect
on Recovery Efficiency, SPEJ (March 1969) 13-20.