MBA SeafoodWatch FarmedBarramundiReport

Seafood Watch
Seafood Report
Farmed Barramundi
Lates calcarifer
(Illustration Scandinavian Fishing Yearbook/www.scandfish.com)
Final Report
December 19, 2006
Corey Peet
Aquaculture Research Analyst
Monterey Bay Aquarium
MBA_SeafoodWatch_FarmedBarramundi_FinalReport
December 19, 2006
About Seafood Watch and the Seafood Reports

Monterey Bay Aquariums Seafood Watch program evaluates the ecological sustainability of
wild-caught and farmed seafood commonly found in the United States marketplace. Seafood
Watch defines sustainable seafood as originating from sources, whether wild-caught or farmed,
which can maintain or increase production in the long-term without jeopardizing the structure or
function of affected ecosystems. Seafood Watch makes its science-based recommendations
available to the public in the form of regional pocket guides that can be downloaded from the
Internet (seafoodwatch.org) or obtained from the Seafood Watch program by emailing
seafoodwatch@mbayaq.org. The programs goals are to raise awareness of important ocean
conservation issues and empower seafood consumers and businesses to make choices for healthy
oceans.
Each sustainability recommendation on the regional pocket guides is supported by a Seafood
Report. Each report synthesizes and analyzes the most current ecological, fisheries and
ecosystem science on a species, then evaluates this information against the programs
conservation ethic to arrive at a recommendation of Best Choices, Good Alternatives, or
Avoid. The detailed evaluation methodology is available upon request. In producing the
Seafood Reports, Seafood Watch seeks out research published in academic, peer-reviewed
journals whenever possible. Other sources of information include government technical
publications, fishery management plans and supporting documents, and other scientific reviews
of ecological sustainability. Seafood Watch Research Analysts also communicate regularly
with ecologists, fisheries and aquaculture scientists, and members of industry and conservation
organizations when evaluating fisheries and aquaculture practices. Capture fisheries and
aquaculture practices are highly dynamic; as the scientific information on each species changes,
Seafood Watchs sustainability recommendations and the underlying Seafood Reports will be
updated to reflect these changes.
Parties interested in capture fisheries, aquaculture practices and the sustainability of ocean
ecosystems are welcome to use Seafood Reports in any way they find useful. For more
information about Seafood Watch and Seafood Reports, please contact the Seafood Watch
program at Monterey Bay Aquarium by calling (831) 647-6873 or emailing
seafoodwatch@mbayaq.org.
Disclaimer
Seafood Watch strives to have all Seafood Reports reviewed for accuracy and completeness by
external scientists with expertise in ecology, fisheries science, and aquaculture. Scientific
review, however, does not constitute an endorsement of the Seafood Watch program or its
recommendations on the part of the reviewing scientists. Seafood Watch is solely responsible
for the conclusions reached in this report.
Seafood Watch and Seafood Reports are made possible through a grant from the David and
Lucile Packard Foundation.
1
December 19, 2006
Table of Contents
I.
Executive Summary....3
II.
Introduction.........................4
i. Production....5
ii. Production Methods.............6
iii. Scope of the recommendation..8
iv. Availability of Science.8
v. Market Availability..8
III.
Analysis of Seafood Watch Sustainability Criteria for Farmed Species

Criterion 1: Use of Marine Resources...9
Criterion 2: Risk of Escaped Fish to Wild Stocks...16
Criterion 3: Risk of Disease and Parasite Transfer to Wild Stocks.........18
Criterion 4: Risk of Pollution and Habitat Effects...21
Criterion 5: Effectiveness of the Management Regime...23
IV.
Overall Recommendation and Seafood Evaluation..................25
V.
References..27
December 19, 2006
I. Executive Summary
Barramundi (Lates calcarifer) or the Asian sea bass is native to the tropical waters of northern
Australia, Southeast Asia, and southern China. Barramundi are a prize sport fish in Australia and
are widely known for their good taste and texture. Farmed barramundi has been produced in
Southeast Asia since the late 1960s and in Australia since the early 1980s. Barramundi is not yet
listed as an import by NOAA, but has been rising in popularity as a United States (U.S.)
seafood item since the late 1990s. Domestic production of barramundi in the U.S. began in 2005
and is currently twice that of barramundi imports. In the U.S. and parts of Australia, barramundi
are farmed in closed recirculating systems, while in Southeast Asia, Taiwan, and other parts of
Australia, barramundi are farmed in open net pens that are located in freshwater lakes or coastal
marine areas. Enclosed ponds are also used for production in Southeast Asia, Taiwan, and
Australia but will not be addressed in this report because barramundi imported to the U.S. is
mainly produced in open systems.
Barramundi farmed in closed recirculating systems in the U.S. ranks as a Best Choice
according to Seafood Watch criteria. Barramundi require less fishmeal (<30%) and fish oil
(<15%) than other cultured carnivores such as salmon; U.S. operations carefully control factors
affecting feed use, resulting in very low Feed Conversion Ratios (FCR) for barramundi (0.8-1);
and U.S. operations include fisheries byproducts in their feed which helps reduce their use of
marine resources. Australian closed recirculating operations rank as a Good Alternative
because they do not incorporate fisheries byproducts into their feed, which results in a higher use
of marine resources. The use of closed systems can substantially reduce the risk of escapes and
disease transfer so long as the facilities incorporate sound preventive measures such as multiple
sequential screens and disinfection of their effluent. Production of tropical species in climates
colder than their temperature tolerances further mitigates the risk of escape. Similarly, closed
systems can substantially reduce the risk of nutrient pollution and negative habitat effects. In
both the U.S. and Australia, the management of closed systems is deemed highly effective.
Seafood Watch is aware that energy concerns for closed recirculating systems may become a
sustainability issue in the future; however, this issue was not considered in this report.
Barramundi farmed in open net pens or cages rank as Avoid according to Seafood Watch
criteria. Minimal control over temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen generally result in a
higher use of marine resources (25-35% fishmeal, 5-15% fish oil, FCR 1.5) for barramundi
farmed in open net systems. In addition, the presence of predators and weather events has led to
documented cases of escapes in Australian open net farms, releasing thousands of farmed
barramundi into their native waters where the potential for them to interact with wild barramundi
and other species is high. The open nature of net pen systems also creates risks of disease and
parasite transfer, as well as potential problems with pollution and habitat effects. Detailed
information on the management of barramundi net pens operating in Southeast Asia and Taiwan
was unavailable when this report was produced, and thus Seafood Watch concludes that
management is a moderate conservation concern. The production of barramundi in open systems
is expected to increase in Australia and other Southeast Asian countries, which may increase
exports to the U.S.. There is also a risk that barramundi will be transferred to other, non-native
tropical environments for aquaculture production. Such transfer would pose additional,
December 19, 2006
potentially significant ecological risks. Seafood Watch will be monitoring this expansion as
well as any new developments in barramundi farming both in the U.S. and overseas.
Table of Sustainability Ranks

Sustainability Criteria
Low
Use of Marine Resources
Closed Recirc.
(U.S.)
Risk of Escaped Fish to

Wild Stocks
Risk of Disease and
Parasite Transfer to Wild
Stocks
Risk of Pollution and
Habitat Effects
Management Effectiveness
Conservation Concern
Moderate
High
Open Net Pen,
Closed Recirc.
(Australia)
Closed Recirc.
Open Net Pen
Closed Recirc.
Open Net Pen
Closed Recirc.
Open Net Pen
Closed Recirc.
Open Net Pen
Critical
Overall Seafood Recommendation:

Seafood Watch
Recommendation
Where Farmed and Technique Used
Best Choice
Closed Recirculating (U.S.)
Good Alternative
Closed Recirculating (Australia)
Open Net Pen / Cage

(Australia, SE Asia, Taiwan)
Avoid
December 19, 2006
II. Introduction
Barramundi or Asian sea bass (Lates calcarifer) is an estuarine species of the family
Centropomidae (Lates: perches). Barramundi is native to the Indo-Pacific region and its range
extends north as far as Taiwan, south to the eastern Australian coast, east to Papua New Guinea,
and as far west as the Persian Gulf (Greenwood 1976; Tucker et al. 2002). Barramundi is both
caught commercially and produced by aquaculture. It is renowned as a prized sport fish in
northern Australia and is capable of reaching up to six and a half feet in length, can live for
twenty years, and can weigh in excess of 50 kilograms (kg) (Shaklee et al. 1993).
Barramundi are catadromous fish (fish that migrate from fresh water to salt water to spawn or
reproduce) and move between fresh and saltwater during the various stages of their life cycle.
Mature barramundi live in estuaries and associated coastal waters or in the lower reaches of
rivers. Barramundi prefer slow-moving water in rivers, creeks, swamps and estuaries, but are
adaptable and may often be found around near shore islands and reefs.
Barramundi are protandrous hermaphrodites (i.e., juveniles develop into males first and then into
females). Most barramundi start life as males and then undergo sexual inversion to become
functional females at around six years of age. Barramundi are highly fecund; a single female
may produce 3040 million eggs per spawning event (Moore 1982). Consequently, only
relatively small numbers of broodstock are necessary to provide adequate numbers of larvae for
hatchery production.
Barramundi are well suited to aquaculture as they are hardy, fast-growing (Boonyaratpalin
1991), and universally regarded as a fine table fish. Additionally, barramundi have the
uncommon ability to synthesize long chain omega-3 fatty acids, whose contribution to human
health has been found to be increasingly important. They can tolerate a wide range of
environmental conditions as well as high population densities. Barramundi can reach 500 grams
(g) within 12 months, but some studies have suggested that 800 g may be possible within the
same time frame at higher temperatures. Large barramundi (2-3 kg) are possible within 18-24
months (Tucker et al. 2002; Barlow 1997).
Production
Worldwide aquaculture production of barramundi began in the late 1960s (FAO 2004).
Barramundi are currently farmed in Australia, Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand,
Brunei Darussalam, Singapore), Taiwan, Israel, and more recently in the United States. In 2004,
the Barramundi aquaculture industry produced 29,856 metric tons (mt) of product, valued at U.S.
$77,733,000. Thailand was the largest producer (14,550 mt), followed by Taiwan (4,985 mt),
Indonesia (4,663 mt), Malaysia (4,001 mt), Australia (1,567 mt), Singapore (77 mt), Brunei
Darussalam (43 mt), and Israel (15 mt) (FIGIS 2006). Vietnam is also producing barramundi;
however, their production is not registered in the FAO database. Until recently, China was a
producer of Barramundi (peak production of 224 mt 1993) but it registered no production in
2004 (FIGIS 2006). Worldwide production of barramundi grew fifteen fold between 1985 and
2000 (1,970 mt 29,856 mt).
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The vast majority of worldwide barramundi production is consumed domestically in producing

countries, with only minor quantities being exported (e.g., Australia: 97% domestic, 3% export).
However, as the profile of barramundi increases worldwide, production for export, mainly in
open systems, is expected to increase in Australia, Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Singapore), and
Taiwan (Goldman pers. comm.).
02
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35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
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Metric Tons
Worldwide Farmed Barramundi Production
Year
Figure 1 Worldwide production of farmed barramundi from 1950 2004 (FIGIS 2006).
Farmed Barramundi Production (by country)
Thailand
Taiwan
Indonesia
Malaysia
Australia
US
Singapore
Israel
Figure 2 Production of farmed barramundi by country from 1950 2004 (FIGIS 2006).
(Note: production for the U.S. is based on 2005 reports from the producer and not FAO).
December 19, 2006
Production methods
Barramundi are farmed within enclosed artificial ponds, closed recirculating systems, and opennet pens in coastal marine areas, estuaries, or freshwater lakes. The bulk of barramundi culture
is currently taking place in closed systems and ponds. In 2004, world barramundi production
was 3,479 mt in freshwater, 24,580 mt in brackish water, and 1,825 mt in salt water (FIGIS
2006).
Open net pens/cages
This type of production mechanism is widely used in the salmon farming industry and is very
attractive to producers as it costs less to construct and may have operational cost advantages
relative to other production systems. Similar to salmon farming, barramundi cage culture in
coastal areas or natural lakes has a broad range of potential environmental issues, including:
escaped fish, disease transfer, waste discharge, chemical pollution, and interactions with other
species. However, the differences in trophic energy levels between tropical and cold-water
systems may result in the potential impacts being lower for barramundi in open systems than for
salmon (Glencross pers. comm.).
Open-net pen barramundi culture operations are currently expanding in Southeast Asia to supply
the demand for export markets (U.S. and Europe). Open net pen production in Southeast Asia
has been growing the fastest of all production systems and can involve culturing a mixture of
species, including barramundi and snappers. Open net cage culture of barramundi was
established in Southeast Asia in the late 1970s and continues to expand rapidly (Tendencia 2002;
Alongi et al. 2003). Open net pens in Southeast Asia are typically poorly constructed and at high
stocking densities (>60 kg/m3) (Glencross pers. comm.).
In contrast, in Australia, cage culture in estuarine waters has been slow given the difficulty of
getting permits for farming in public waters and it is unclear how much open net pen farming of
barramundi will occur in Australian waters. Australian net pens and cages are different from
those in Southeast Asia as stocking density is low to ensure high health (<20 kg/m3), and cages
are larger (~10 m2 or bigger) and made from stronger materials, which makes them less prone to
damage and breakage (Glencross pers.comm.).
Hand-made (enclosed) ponds
The majority of Australian and Southeast Asian aquaculture occurs within enclosed ponds in
either brackish or freshwater. Ponds are approximately 0.08 2 hectares (ha) in size and pond
production can be up to 20 tons / ha (Tucker et al. 2002). This type of production reduces
potential environmental risks because the ponds are not necessarily connected to natural bodies
of water. Barramundi farmed in ponds within their native environment compares well with U.S.
striped bass and catfish production. In this type of system the wastes can be controlled, treated,
and sometimes used for other purposes, such as crop fertilizer.
Recirculating systems
Where barramundi farming is undertaken outside the tropics, recirculation production systems
are often used (e.g., in southern Australia, northeastern U.S., Netherlands, Ireland). For closed
recirculation, constant filtration removes solids and particulate material from the water. The
biological and mechanical filtrations act in concert to reduce water consumption down to 10-
December 19, 2006
20% of standing culture volume per day. Wastewater is treated and can be beneficially reused
for irrigation, and manure solids can be used as fertilizer (ANON 1999).
Scope of the analysis and the ensuing recommendation:
This report focuses on farmed barramundi that is produced or imported into the United States.
U.S. domestic production of barramundi involves the use of closed recirculating systems, while
the majority of imported barramundi comes from open net systems. Although barramundi
produced in enclosed ponds represents a large proportion of worldwide production, it was not
included in this report because of its lack of representation on the U.S. market and limited access
to information on its environmental impacts. Should this type of barramundi become a larger
fraction of the U.S. marketplace, further analysis will be warranted.
This report will focus heavily on closed recirculating systems, which are known to eliminate
many of the environmental concerns associated with open net pen aquaculture. However, closed
recirculating systems are relatively energy intensive, requiring electricity for water recirculation,
thus these systems could fall short of meeting sustainability criteria. Energy use was not
evaluated within the context of this report.
Availability of Science
Limited scientific information is available on the production of farmed barramundi in Southeast
Asia, where production has occurred for over 30 years. The information covers the topics of
feed inputs, escapes, nutrient pollution, disease transfer, and management. However, literature
on the ecological effects of open net pen salmon farming is generally applicable to pen-base
production of barramundi given the similarities of the production systems, and their associated
risk of ecological impacts (genetic diversity, escapes, trophic position, etc.).
Market Availability
Common and market names:
Scientific name: Lates calcarifer
Common names: Asian seabass, barramundi (Australia)
Market names: barra, silver barramundi, giant perch, Asian seabass, seabass, giant seabass, white
seabass, twofin seabass, blind seabass, two finned seabass, giant palmer, narifish, kokop putih,
bekti apahap, palakapong, nokogirihata. In some cases, Nile perch from Africa may be
mislabeled as barramundi.
Seasonal availability:
Farmed barramundi is available year-round.
Product forms:
Most farmed barramundi is sold as either plate-sized fish (1+ lbs) or fillet-sized fish (1 to 5 lbs,
or more). In Asia, barramundi are most frequently marketed at 500900 g, although small
numbers of larger fish (14 kg) are also sold. Barramundi are sold live, whole, gilled and gutted,
chilled, or smoked. Smaller plate-sized barramundi offer some sustainability advantages, since
December 19, 2006
these are most often raised in recirculation systems, and less feed is required to produce smaller
fish than larger ones.
There has been little effort spent on developing value-added products for barramundi. In
Australia, there are a few suppliers of smoked barramundi. Throughout its cultured range, live
barramundi are sold to restaurants that specialize in live seafood products, but this is a relatively
small portion of the total market.
Import and export sources and statistics:
Although production of farmed barramundi began in Southeast Asia in the late 1960s,
barramundi imports into the United States did not begin until the late 1990s. Barramundi
imports have slowly risen to approximately 200 mt per annum (Anonymous pers. comm.,
Goldman pers. comm.).
Domestic production of farmed barramundi began in 2005 in closed recirculating systems in
Massachusetts. Production began at approximately 200 mt and is expected to be at 800 mt by the
end of 2007 (Australis Aquaculture 2006). Other companies have announced their intention to
produce barramundi in the U.S. within the coming years, which will likely result in even larger
domestic consumption of barramundi. Barramundi need to be raised at temperatures ranging
from 25 35 oC (77 95 oF), which necessitates the use of closed recirculating systems in
temperate climates (e.g., U.S., Australiasouthern states).
Around the world, most farmed barramundi is consumed close to the source of production, with
little export (e.g., Australia 97% domestic consumption). Traditionally, Australia has been the
largest exporter to the U.S., followed by Taiwan and Indonesia. However, as the U.S. dollar
declined in value in the early 2000s, importers shifted to sourcing barramundi from open net
systems in Indonesia, Taiwan, and Singapore. The amount of barramundi being produced in
open net systems is increasing and most likely geared towards supplying export markets in
Europe and the United States (Anonymous pers. comm., Goldman pers. comm.).
III. Analysis of Seafood Watch Sustainability Criteria for Farmed Species

Criterion 1: Use of Marine Resources1
Worldwide aquaculture production includes a wide variety of species, ranging from autotrophic
seaweeds, to filter-feeding shellfish and finfish, to omnivorous and carnivorous shellfish and
finfish (FAO 2000). Historically, aquaculture has added to global seafood supplies; however, the
culture of carnivorous fish increased by 70% from 1991 to 1998 (FAO 2000) and this trend
threatens to erode this net protein gain (Naylor et al. 1998; Naylor et al. 2000). Leading
scientists have warned about the inherent unsustainability of farming up the food web,
declaring it an inefficient use of marine resources that are already used by humans
(commercially) and other organisms (Pauly et al. 2002; Pauly et al. 2005). The major concern
with farming carnivores is that wild fish inputs are larger than farmed fish outputs (Naylor et al.
1
Parts of this section have been adapted from ONeil 2006

(http://www.mbayaq.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/content/media/MBA_SeafoodWatch_FarmedTroutReport.pdf).
December 19, 2006
2000; Pauly et al. 2002; Weber 2003; Naylor and Burke 2005), which could result in increased
pressure on wild fisheries to make the feeds for farmed carnivores.
While some economists, researchers, and activists have criticized aquaculture of carnivores as an
inefficient use of resources, other researchers and members of the aquaculture industry have
pointed out that aquaculture systems are much more efficient than natural systems (Tidwell and
Allan 2001). In terrestrial systems in nature, conversion efficiency from one trophic level to the
next is believed to be around 10 to 1 and it has become common practice for those defending the
farming of carnivores to favorably compare these seemingly inefficient natural systems with the
feed conversion efficiency of aquaculture, generally in the range of 1-3:1. This may be an oversimplification, however, as it fails to take into account that aquaculture of carnivores is an
industrial system that has externalized many of its costs, while the natural conversion from one
trophic level to another forms an integral part of a functioning ecosystem, providing much more
than food for human consumption. It also may not be a valid comparison because farmed
carnivores often feed at a much higher trophic level than their wild counterparts (for example,
farmed salmon are provided a diet consisting mainly of other fish while in the wild they feed
primarily on low trophic level organisms such as insects and crustaceans). Additionally, little is
known about trophic conversion efficiencies in aquatic systems, though they are believed to be
better than in terrestrial systems. Regardless, it is important to note that aquaculture is a very
efficient means of producing protein, likely far more efficient than most other animal agriculture
systems (Forster and Hardy 2001), though useful comparative measures of ecological efficiency
have rarely been applied.
Much of the protein and fat in feeds for carnivorous fish are sourced from reduction fisheries for
wild fish such as anchovy, herring, menhaden, and mackerel. These fisheries, like many around
the world, are believed to be at their maximum sustainable levels, leading some to question the
sustainability of further development of an industry based on feeding wild-caught fish to farmed
fish (Naylor et al. 2000; Weber 2003; Naylor and Burke 2005). Naylor and Burke (2005) have
suggested that if the farming of carnivorous fish continues to grow at its current rate, the demand
for fish oil is expected to outstrip supply within a decade, with a similar result expected for fish
meal by 2050 (IFFO 2001).
Clearly, the issue of feeding wild fish to farmed animals is not isolated to the aquaculture
industry. Fishmeal and fish oil obtained from these fisheries are in high demand and are used in
many different feed applications, including poultry, pigs, and pet foods (IFFO 2001; Tacon
2005). In 2002, aquaculture used 46% and 81% of the global supplies of fishmeal and fish oil,
respectively, though aquaculture feeds account for a small amount (3% in 2004) of total
industrial feed production (Tacon 2005). Other agricultural uses, such as chickens and pigs, use
a smaller amount of fishmeal and fish oil in their feed formulations, but since the industries are
so large, they still consume a large percentage of the overall supply, especially of fish meal.
Future projections estimate that the aquaculture feed industry, primarily led by increases in
marine production, will use an increasingly large share of the fishmeal and fish oil supply,
possibly as high as 56% of the fishmeal and 97% of the fish oil by 2010 (IFFO 2001).
10
December 19, 2006
Alternative feeds
Protein alternatives, including plant-based proteins and those derived from processing wastes
(e.g., abattoir) (Williams et al. 2003a), will have to be developed if aquaculture production of
organisms requiring fishmeal and fish oil is to expand (Tacon 2005; Hardy and Tacon 2002;
Watanabe 2002). In fact the use of plant proteins and rendered animal products in fish feeds is
now widespread throughout the world (most diets for salmon have 15 30% vegetable products
and 10 40% rendered animal products); however, it is not currently possible to completely
eliminate the use of fish meal and fish oil without negatively impacting fish welfare or their
nutritional profile (i.e., affecting the concentration of omega three fatty acids) (Tacon 2005).
Formulating alternative feeds to a specific nutrient profile has been found to be possible in the
case of fishmeal, but it has been more problematic for fish oil as there are no commercial
alternatives (of sufficient commercial scale of production) currently available (Tacon 2005).
Although research continues into alternative feeds, it will be a major challenge for the
aquaculture industry to continue to grow in the future while reducing its dependence on wild fish
for feeds.
Farmed barramundi feed use
Feeds for barramundi have developed considerably since the inception of the industry. Feed use
initially consisted of baitfish or feed fish (i.e., trash fish) and has progressed to a modern,
extruded high energy pellet, which is used today by farmers in the U.S. and Australia (Glencross
2006). In Australia, floating extruded pellets are preferred by commercial farmers, although
clear waters can inhibit barramundi feeding activities, forcing farmers to utilize the more
traditional sinking pellets (Tucker et al. 2002). In Asia, the use of sinking soft-moist or dry
pellets is increasing, but trash fish is still widely used in areas where it is cheaper or more
available than pellet diets. Barramundi broodstock in Asia are usually fed with trash fish or
commercially available baitfish.
Barramundi larvae can be reared in hatchery tanks or extensively in resized marine ponds. The
larvae feed on zooplankton, including copepods, rotifers, and brine shrimp (Stickney 2000).
Both rotifers and brine shrimp (Daphnia and Moina) have been used as prey items for
intensively reared barramundi larvae.
Feeding behavior
Food and feeding method are the most important factors affecting growth, health, size variation,
and survival for barramundi larvae and fry. Barramundi larvae have a high feeding efficiency
and a long period from first feeding until yolk and oil are exhausted, which infers relatively high
survival ability (Tucker et al. 2002). Fifty percent survival from hatchling to juvenile is common
for intensive tank rearing.
Cannibalism, however, can be a major cause of mortalities during the nursery phase and during
early grow-out because barramundi will cannibalize fish of up to 61-67% of their own length.
Cannibalism may start during the later stages of larval rearing and is most pronounced in fish
less than 100 mm in length. Cannibalism is reduced by grading the fish at regular intervals
(usually at least every seventen days) to ensure that the fish in each cage are of similar size.
11
December 19, 2006
Inclusion rates
Barramundi are less dependent on fishmeal and fish oil (25-35% and 5-15%, respectively) in
their feed than other farmed carnivores like salmon (30-40% fishmeal and 20-30% fish oil)
(Boonyaratpalin 1991; Tucker et al. 2002; Williams et al. 2003a; Glencross 2006). For U.S.
operations, inclusion rates of fishmeal and fish oil in feed are 30% and 8%, respectively
(Goldman pers. comm.; Levin 2005). Additionally, feed in the U.S. operation contains 1/3
fisheries byproducts, typically from herring fisheries.
The use of open systems in Southeast Asia and Australia are likely to have similar inclusion rates
but are unlikely to use fisheries byproducts in their feeds. For the purpose of this report, the U.S.
and the open systems calculations will be conducted separately. Specific numbers provided by
the U.S. operations (i.e., Goldmann pers. comm. and Levin 2005) will be used, while a range of
possible inclusion rates will be explored for open systems (30-35% fishmeal and 5-15% fish oil).
Feed conversion ratio (FCR)
Feed conversion ratio (FCR), or the ratio of feed inputs (dry weight) to farmed fish output (wet
weight) for barramundi may vary considerably depending on the quality of feed and feeding
practices. FCRs have improved greatly over the past couple of decades, especially with changes
to high-energy feeds. Australian fish feed manufacturers have reported FCRs under
experimental conditions of about 0.7:1; however, FCRs of 1.2:1 to 1.5:1 are more common
throughout the industry. FCRs for barramundi have been found to vary seasonally and can
increase to over 2.0:1 during winter (FIRI 2006).
Reports from the U.S. closed containment operation indicate an FCR for farmed barramundi of
0.8:1 to 1.0:1 (Australis 2006). The ability to achieve low FCRs is driven by a range of factors,
including a nutrient-dense diet (relatively high lipid levels), constant ideal water temperature,
constant ideal salinity, good health management, high dissolved oxygen levels (all of which
reduce the fishs energetic needs), and precise feed management so that sufficient feed is applied
to maximize growth after meeting the fishs energetic needs while avoiding any excess, which
leads to feed loss. Open net systems are unable to control these factors as well as closed
systems, generally produce larger fish; thus, open systems have substantially higher FCRs.
It is important to note that when trash fish are used, very high FCRs of 4:1 to 8:1 have been
recorded, as the use of trash fish increases the use of marine resources substantially. Although
the use of high energy pellets is increasing, the use of trash fish is still occurring in Southeast
Asia operations (FIRI 2006).
For the purpose of this analysis, an FCR of 1.0:1 will used for calculations for U.S. closed
recirculating systems and an FCR of 1.5:1 will be used for calculations involving Australian
closed recirculating systems and open net pen systems, as it represents an average FCR from
published reports (Barlow et al. 1996; ANON 1999; Tucker et al. 2002; FIRI 2006; ANON
2006).
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December 19, 2006
Notes on feed calculations

To avoid double-counting, calculations were performed separately for fishmeal and fish oil, and
the larger of the two final calculations were used to assess the fish-in to fish-out ratio (WI:FO).
Some researchers have added the fishmeal and fish oil inclusion rates together for a total
inclusion rate and then used this figure in calculating the fish-in to fish-out ratio, but this fails to
take into account that reduction fisheries are for both fishmeal and fish oil. In other words, the
same fish are used to produce fishmeal and fish oil, so adding the inclusion rates together ignores
the fact that they are products from the same fisheries and in effect double-counts the amount of
wild fish inputs consumed.
Yield rates
Other important figures for these calculations are the yield rates of fishmeal and fish oil from
reduction fisheries. Yield rates can vary based on the species of fish, season, condition of fish,
and efficiency of the reduction plants (Tyedmers 2000). For this analysis, a fishmeal yield rate
of 22% is used. This has been suggested by Tyedmers (2000) as a reasonable year-round
average yield rate and means that 4.5 units (kg, lb, mt, etc.) of wild fish from reduction fisheries
are needed to produce 1 unit of fishmeal. This analysis also used a fish oil yield rate of 12%, or
8.3 units of wild fish to produce 1 unit of fish oil, suggested by Tyedmers (2000) as a
representative year-round average for Gulf of Mexico menhaden.
Wild fish in:farmed fish out
Formula:
Calculate and enter the larger of two resultant values:
Meal: [Yield Rate] meal x [Inclusion rate] meal x [FCR] = ____
Oil: [Yield Rate] oil x [Inclusion rate] oil x [FCR] = ____
WI:FO = ____
Closed containment (U.S.):
Conversion for fishmeal:
3.0 kg* of wild fish X 0.30 kg fishmeal X 1.0 kg feed = 0.90 kg wild fish / kg of Barra
1 kg fishmeal
1 kg feed
1 kg Barra
Conversion for fish oil:
5.5 kg* of wild fish X 0.08 kg fish oil X 1.0 kg feed = 0.44 kg wild fish / kg of Barra
1 kg of fish oil
1 kg feed
1 kg of Barra
* Amount of wild fish reduced, due to one third inclusion of fishery byproducts in feed
Open net systems (Southeast Asia, Taiwan, Australia); closed containment (Australia):
Conversion for fishmeal:
4.5 kg of wild fish X 0.30-0.35 kg fishmeal X 1.5 kg feed = 2.0-2.4 kg wild fish / kg of Barra
1 kg fishmeal
1 kg feed
1 kg Barra
Conversion for fish oil:
8.3 kg of wild fish X 0.05-0.15 kg fish oil X 1.5 kg feed = 0.6-1.9 kg wild fish / kg of Barra
1 kg of fish oil
1 kg feed
1 kg of Barra
13
December 19, 2006
Alternative feed for barramundi

Feed constitutes 40% of the cost of barramundi farming; thus, to lower production costs and help
make the industry more sustainable (i.e., less dependent on wild fish inputs), research into
alternative feeds is ongoing. The Queensland Department of Primary Industries (Australia) has
been investigating alternative diets since 1993 and considerable progress has been made in
reducing fishmeal inclusion rates to below 15% (Barlow et al. 1996).
Soybean meal is considered a promising candidate for partial or total replacement of fishmeal in
fish diets; however, Boonyaratpalin et al. (1998) found the feed to be less palatable to the
barramundi than traditional fish-based diets. Some anti-nutritional issues have also been
reported to be problematic. Experimental studies have shown that meat meal (abatotoir byproducts), on the other hand, is well digested and well liked by barramundi (Williams and
Barlow 1999; Williams et al. 2003b). White cowpea and green mungbean meals have also been
used to replace 18% of the fishmeal in practical diets without affecting the growth of barramundi
(Eusebio and Coloso 2000).
Stock status of reduction fisheries
It is generally believed that populations of fish used in most reduction fisheries are stable (Hardy
and Tacon 2002; Huntington et al. 2004), though concerns have been raised about the potential
for increased demand from expanding industries (Weber 2003), especially given that in most
cases the populations are already classified as fully exploited (Tacon 2005). Additionally,
concerns have been raised about the role of the fisheries in the ecosystem and how their removal
could affect ecosystem dynamics, especially in regard to their importance as prey for predators
such as birds and mammals (Huntington et al. 2004; Tacon 2005). Catches have been stable,
with the exception of El Nino years, when declines in catches, especially in fish off the western
coast of South America, contribute to declines in overall availability of fish used for reduction
(Hardy and Tacon 2002). Worldwide landings of fish for reduction have ranged from 19 million
mt to 28 million mt in the past decade, yielding an annual average of 6-7 million mt of fishmeal
and 1.2 million mt of fish oil (Hardy and Tacon 2002).
For U.S. based barramundi farms, feed is produced from Icelandic capelin, Peruvian anchovy,
and the by products from the eastern Canadian herring roe fishery. Icelandic capelin and
anchovies are caught with purse seines, and to the best of our knowledge they are not being
fished around their Total Allowable Catches (TACs). Additionally, these fisheries cast nets
directly on fish schools, which results in very little bycatch.
Broodstock collection
When the culture of barramundi began in the early 1980s it was common practice to collect wild
fry for stocking in culture systems, but this practice was found to be unreliable and the emphasis
now is to establish and maintain captive broodstock (Tucker et al. 2002). Since that time, the
lifecycle has been closed and spawning can be manipulated using temperature and photoperiod
(Battaglene and Fielder 1997). Barramundi are highly fecunda single female may produce 30
40 million eggs (Moore 1982)thus, only small numbers of broodstock are necessary to provide
adequate numbers of larvae for large-scale hatchery production.
14
December 19, 2006
Today broodstock can be easily spawned and carefully controlled. Broodstock can be kept yearround in reproductive condition through environmental manipulation. The most reliable and
commonly-used method is hormone-induced tank-spawning, in which the fish spawn naturally
following the introduction of reproductive hormones. Hormone treatment appears to be more
necessary as distance from the equator increases. Hormones used in Barramundi broodstock
production include: human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), carp pituitary, barramundi pituitary,
and gonadotropin releasing hormone analog (GnRHa) (Tucker et al. 2002). The risks posed by
the use of hormones in barramundi broodstock production to human consumption and the
environment are unknown.
Synthesis
Farmed barramundi diets contain fishmeal and fish oil that is sourced from wild fisheries.
Inclusion levels of fishmeal and fish oil for barramundi feed are lower than other farmed
carnivores, such as Atlantic salmon, but are higher than other popular farmed fish such as catfish
and tilapia. FCR for farmed barramundi can range from as low as 0.7:1 for closed containment
pellet feed to as high as 4-8:1 for open system trash fish. Barramundi appear to be a good
candidate for using alternative feeds and a great deal of research is being conducted on
alternatives that do not depend on wild fisheries, such as feed grains and abattoir byproducts
(i.e., terrestrial meat production). The overall ratio of wild fish used as feed to farmed fish
produced (see calculations in this criterion section) is 0.90 for closed recirculating systems in the
U.S. (mainly because of their use of fisheries by-products), making U.S. farmers net producers of
fish protein, and 2.0-2.4 for open net systems, making operations of this sort net consumers of
fish protein. The numbers rank U.S. closed recirculating systems as a low conservation concern,
and closed recirculating systems in Australia and open net pens as a high conservation concern
for this criterion.
Use of Marine Resources Rank:
.
Closed recirculating (U.S.):
Low
Moderate
High
Open net pen (Australia, SE Asia, Taiwan);

Closed recirculating (Australia):
Low
Moderate
High
Criterion 2: Risk of Escaped Fish to Wild Stocks2

Aquaculture has become one of the leading vectors of exotic species introduction (Carlton 1992;
Carlton 2001), and concerns have been raised about the ecological impacts of escapes of farmed
fish into the wild (Volpe et al. 2000; Weber 2003; Youngson et al. 2001; Naylor et al. 2001).
Most criticism has been directed at open aquaculture systems, primarily open net pens and cages
used in coastal waters, especially those used to farm Atlantic salmon. Myrick (2002) described
six potential negative impacts of escaped farmed fish: genetic impacts, disease impacts,
competition, predation, habitat alteration, and colonization. Escaped farmed fish can negatively
impact the environment and wild populations of fish whether they are native or exotic to the area
2

15
December 19, 2006
in which they are farmed, and the probability of significant ecological impact increases as the
number of escaped individuals increases (Myrick 2002). Different aquaculture systems carry
different levels of inherent risk of escapes, with open systems (such as net pen salmon farms)
carrying the greatest risk and systems that are more closed having lower risk. The risks of
impact to the environment from escaped farmed organisms can be reduced through proactive
measures such as careful selection of sites, species, and systems; training of personnel; and
development of contingency plans and monitoring systems (Myrick 2002).
Farmed barramundi escapes
The frequency and impact of barramundi escapes is dependent on the type of production facility
and whether or not the production system is located within the native habitat of barramundi.
Escapes from closed production systems are unlikely if multi-staged barriers are employed to
stop fish from escaping from culture tanks. Production utilizing closed systems in cold climates
provides a high degree of safety against escape, as barramundi stop feeding below 20 oC (69 oF)
and death occurs below 13 oC (58 oF) (Tucker et al. 2002). In addition, barramundi larvae and
eggs cannot survive in freshwater. Therefore, even if escapes were to occur from closed
containment sites in the U.S. it would not be possible for barramundi to survive because of the
low temperatures and lack of suitable habitat.
When barramundi culture began in the mid 1980s in Australia, the goal was to develop a farming
industry and supply fingerlings for enhancement of recreational fisheries in lakes and rivers in
the tropical regions of the country (Barlow et al. 1996). Stock enhancement to help mitigate the
apparent decline in Australian recreational barramundi fisheries has received wide support in
Australia. The first attempt at stock enhancement was in 1985 in Queensland and has continued
until the present time. Approximately one million barramundi are stocked per year in Australia,
mostly in Queensland (Tucker et al. 2002). Fish used for enhancement are required to be from
indigenous gene pools and it is important to note that there are more hatchery introductions of
barramundi than aquaculture escapees into Australias coastal waters.
Substantial population differentiation has been found across barramundis natural range in
Australia (Doupe et al. 1999). Research in Queensland and the Northern Territory has identified
at least 14 genetically distinct stocks of barramundi in various major river systems, which it has
been suggested is the result of long-term reproductive isolation between barramundi in the
different regions (Shaklee et al. 1993; Salini and Shaklee 1988). Given this genetic diversity,
researchers have suggested that aquaculture escapes may pose significant threats because wild
and cultured barramundi are likely to interbreed freely (Shaklee et al. 1993; Cross 2000). A
similar situation exists with escaped farmed salmon, which have been documented to have
negative effects on wild salmon through breeding (Krueger and May 1991; Youngson and
Verspoor 1998; Fleming et al. 2000; Einum and Fleming 1997; Einum and Fleming 2001) and
through competitive interactions with other native salmonids (Jacobsen et al. 2001; Volpe and
Anholt 1999; Volpe et al. 2000; Volpe et al. 2001). Doupe and Lymbery (1999) found evidence
that suggested barramundi were escaping from local lake-based barramundi farms and were
interacting with wild populations in Western Australia.
In early 2006, thousands of barramundi escaped from open net pen farms in northern Australia
when extreme tides broke open cages (Francis 2006). Escapes of cultured fish are known to
16
December 19, 2006
occur frequently with the use of open systems due to the effects of weather events or the effects
of predator interactions (e.g., sharks, crocodiles, dolphins, puffer fish, and turtles), which can
make holes in the nets allowing fish to escape (Barlow 1997). Australia has been taking steps to
rectify this problem with the use of steel nets (Glencross pers. comm.).
Some have suggested that escaped or hatchery-introduced barramundi are not a significant
problem because some research suggests that barramundi have low genetic differentiation, have
high levels of gene flow between populations, and show little evidence of adaptation or out
breeding depression in Australia (Keenan 2000). However, Marshall and Gill (2005) recently
found evidence that barramundi populations may have been substantially isolated over long
periods of time and may represent independently-evolving populations, which has implications
for fisheries management and potential aquaculture introductions. Given the history of escape
concerns with open net pens, the direct evidence of the impact of escaped salmon on wild
populations, and the uncertainty surrounding the potential impacts of interactions between
escaped and wild barramundi, Seafood Watch employs the precautionary principle for
assessing the risk of escaped barramundi to wild stocks in Australia and Southeast Asia.
Synthesis
Escapes of farmed barramundi from closed recirculating systems are highly unlikely due to a
lack of connection to local waters, the use of multi-staged barriers that prevent escapes, and the
presence of unsuitable temperatures and habitat in the surrounding environment, which would
prevent survival of any escaped fish. Closed recirculating barramundi farms thus rank as a low
conservation concern for the risk of escaped fish criterion.
Open net pens or cages, on the other hand, have a long history of concerns with escapes due to
their use by the salmon aquaculture industry. Barramundi are farmed in open net pens in their
native habitats in northern Australia, Southeast Asia (Indonesia and Singapore), and Taiwan.
Research from Australia suggests that genetic differentiation may be an important factor in the
biology of barramundi and that potential interbreeding between escaped barramundi and wild
barramundi may affect this diversity. Research has found that escaped barramundi are
interacting with wild barramundi, although the consequences of these interactions have not yet
been quantified.
Although no information is available regarding escapes from open net farms in Southeast Asia
and Taiwan, an experimental farm in Australia has had two major escapes due to weather
events. Given these escapes and the risks posed to the genetic diversity of wild barramundi,
open net pen barramundi farms rank as a high conservation concern for this criterion.
Risk of Escaped Fish to Wild Stocks:
Closed recirculating (U.S., Australia):
Low
Moderate
High
Open net pen (Australia, SE Asia, Taiwan):
Low
Moderate
High
17
December 19, 2006
Criterion 3: Risk of Disease and Parasite Transfer to Wild Stocks3

According to Blazer and LaPatra (2002), intensive fish culture, particularly of non-native
species, can and has been involved in the introduction and/or amplification of pathogens and
disease in wild populations. In recent years, increasingly more concern has been raised over the
spread of disease and parasites from aquaculture to wild fish populations, with the spread of
parasitic sea lice from marine salmon farms to wild salmon gaining the most attention as of late
(Krkosek et al. 2005; Weber 2003; Paone 2000; Carr and Whoriskey 2004). Like the issue of
escapes, the risk of the spread of disease appears to be dependent on the type of aquaculture
system used, with open systems carrying the greatest risk. Blazer and LaPatra (2002) identified
three types of potential interactions of cultured and wild fish populations in terms of pathogen
transmission. First, the importation of exotic organisms for culture can introduce pathogens to
an area. Second, movement of cultured fish, native and non-native, can introduce new pathogens
or new strains of pathogens. Lastly, intensive fish culture, which can include crowding, poor
living conditions, and other stressors, can lead to the amplification of pathogens that already
exist in wild populations and their transmission between wild and cultured populations.
Very little is known about the distribution and frequency of diseases in wild fish populations
(Blazer and LaPatra 2002). Unlike aquaculture, where dead or dying fish are easily observed
and diagnosed, sick fish in the wild often go unnoticed since they likely become easy prey for
predators. Without the background knowledge of what diseases exist pre-aquaculture, it is
difficult to determine whether aquaculture is responsible for introducing or transferring a disease
to wild populations. Additionally, as with exotic species introduction, there are other means of
disease introduction besides aquaculture, including ballast water transfer, fish processing, and
fish transport.
Closed and semi-closed aquaculture systems have the lowest potential for releasing pathogens
into the environment (Blazer and LaPatra 2002). Wastewater from these systems can be treated,
and intermediate hosts and carriers (for example birds, snails, and worms) can be excluded from
the culture facility. Pond and flow-through systems, on the other hand, pose some risk in terms
of pathogen transfer to wild populations of fish, as both systems can spread diseases through
discharges of wastewater and escapes of farmed fish. Additionally, these systems are sometimes
open to intermediate hosts (such as birds), which can potentially transport pathogens from one
farm to another and between farms and the wild.
Diseases of farmed barramundi
Like other cultured animals, barramundi is subject to a host of bacterial, fungal, viral and
parasitic diseases usually associated with some sort of stress, such as extremes of temperature,
low dissolved oxygen, poor nutrition, or poor handling of the fish. Bacterial infection is the most
common cause of disease in barramundi aquaculture (Barlow 1997).
Many diseases affect juvenile barramundi during their rearing stages. Columnaris disease is
common in small fingerlings held in water below about 25 oC (Barlow 1997). Viral diseases,
such as the picornalike virus, have also been reported and can cause devastating hatchery losses.
3

18
December 19, 2006
Concerns that the picornalike virus can be transferred to other native fish have led to the current
stringent controls on barramundi farming (Battaglene and Fielder 1997; ANON 1999; Stickney
2000).
The rapid expansion of open net cage culture in Southeast Asia has resulted in several concerns
including infectious diseases (Leong 1992; Tendencia 2002). The bacterium Vibrio harveyi, is
widely distributed in the marine environment in the region and is an opportunistic pathogen that
infects fish when they are stressed and has been reported in cage cultured barramundi (Tendencia
2002). The expansion and concentration of fish farms have also caused severe problems
resulting from parasitic infections in Southeast Asia (Leong 1997). Although parasites often
occur in small numbers on barramundi farms, outbreaks are uncommon; though when they do
occur they must be rapidly assessed and treated if large losses are to be avoided. The most
common parasitic disease is white spot in broodstock held in salt water. It is caused by
Crypotocaryon irritans (Barlow 1997).
Deveney et al. (2001) reported the first outbreak of another parasite, Neobenedenia melleni,
which occurred on barramundi cultivated in northern Australia. The outbreak resulted in the loss
of 200,000 fish and had not been previously documented in either wild or farmed species. The
authors suggest that the disease was from the wild and their study serves as an example of farm
amplification of a native parasite.
The most important bacterial species affecting the culture of barramundi throughout the tropics
in Australia is streptococcus iniae. The bacterium can cause losses between 8-15% of
production per year (although 1% is more common) and has resulted in losses up to 70% of
production (Bromage et al. 1999). This bacterium has grown to be a major limiting agent in the
successful culture of a variety of temperate-water fish species (Bromage et al. 1999; Bromage
and Owens 2002). In Australia, autogenous vaccines for S. iniae are now available and being
used by major farms.
The biggest theoretical risk to wild fish from farmed barramundi would be the nodavirus (viral
encephalopathy and retinopathy), which effects their nervous system and spinal cord. Little
information exists on the prevalence of the nodavirus in wild populations, however, making it
difficult to assess this risk (ANON 1999; Jones pers. comm.).
The use of closed recirculating systems (Australia, U.S.) does not eliminate disease problems and
in fact may exacerbate disease problems for farmed barramundi due to water management
problems. However, as long as the effluent is appropriately treated (e.g., ozonation, etc.), closed
recirculating systems do eliminate the potential transfer or amplification of disease or parasites to
wild stocks. U.S. based operations discharge very little effluent to the external environment.
Effluent that is discharged is treated with ozone, which has been found to be highly effective in
eliminating bacteria and pathogens of carnivorous fish like salmon (Timmons 2002).
Synthesis
Closed containment systems in the U.S. and Australia carry extremely low risks of transferring
and amplifying natural diseases and parasites to wild fish, as they are able to disinfect their
wastewater with the use of ozonation. Based on this information, closed recirculating
19
December 19, 2006
barramundi farms rank as a low conservation concern based on Seafood Watch criteria for risk
of disease transfer.
As is the case with escapes, open net systems, on the other hand, have a long history of
amplifying and transferring natural parasites to wild hosts. Research from Southeast Asia
suggests that intensive culture has led to serious concerns over disease since its inception.
Farming native species creates scenarios whereby natural parasites and diseases are easily
amplified and possibly transferred to wild species migrating in adjacent waters. Although there
is no direct evidence that barramundi farms are transferring disease or parasites to wild fish,
there is some evidence that disease and parasite amplification is occurring on barramundi farms.
Therefore, open net pen barramundi farms rank as a high conservation concern based on Seafood
Watch criteria for risk of disease transfer.
Risk of Disease and Parasite Transfer to Wild Stocks Rank:
Low
Moderate
High
Open net pen (Australia, SE Asia, Taiwan): Low
Moderate
High
Criterion 4: Risk of Pollution and Habitat Effects4

Pollution from fish farming facilities is a concern as waste products from aquaculture have the
potential to impact the surrounding environment (Gowen et al. 1990; Costa-Pierce 1996;
Beveridge 1996). Like other forms of agriculture, aquaculture creates waste that can be released
into the environment; however, wastes from some types of aquaculture systems are released
untreated directly into nearby bodies of water. Pollution from aquaculture can take several
forms, including nutrients, suspended solids, and chemicals. In recent years, biological
pollution, including the release of farmed fish and diseases into the wild (addressed in other
sections of this report), has become recognized as an aspect of waste discharge (Byrd 2003).
The potential for impact from aquaculture waste largely depends on the type of system used
(Costa-Pierce 1996). Intensive systems, especially those that are open to natural bodies of water
(i.e., open net pens), represent the greatest potential for polluting the environment, while there is
little potential impact from closed or semi-closed systems, in which discharges are infrequent
and wastes can be treated and disposed of (Costa-Pierce 1996). High volumes of effluent are
discharged from flow-through aquaculture facilities but the effluent typically contains low
concentrations of pollutants (EPA 2002). The quality of effluents leaving flow-through facilities
can also vary widely depending on the activity that is taking place. During times of cleaning or
other activities waste levels can be higher than under normal conditions. Most aquaculture waste
is the result of excretion or excess feed (Beveridge 1996). The Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) lists several pollutants of concern from aquaculture facilities, including sediments
and solids, nutrients, organic compounds and biological oxygen demand, and metals (EPA
2002).
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20
December 19, 2006
Wastes from barramundi farms

Pollution and habitat impacts associated with marine finfish cage aquaculture derive mainly from
nutrient inputs from uneaten fish feed and fish wastes. For example, a salmon farm of 200,000
fish releases an amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and fecal matter roughly equivalent to the waste
from cities ranging from 20,000 65,000 people in size (Hardy 2000). Studies carried out in
Hong Kong indicate that 85 percent of phosphorus, 8088 percent of carbon, and 5295 percent
of nitrogen inputs to open net cages may be lost through uneaten food and fecal wastes (FIRI
2006). In severe cases, this self pollution can lead to cage farms exceeding the capacity of the
local environment to assimilate wastes and provide inputs such as dissolved oxygen, which in
turn can contribute to fish disease outbreaks.
In tropical regions of Southeast Asia and Australia, where the growth of open net cage culture is
the most rapid, the impacts of fish cages on coastal water quality and planktonic processes is
virtually unknown (DeSilva 1998; Alongi et al. 2003). One study in Malaysia has found
increased concentrations of dissolved inorganic and particulate nutrients around barramundi
farms (Alongi et al. 2003), but no significant impacts on local ecosystem processes. It has been
suggested that the lack of impacts observed may be due to differences between tropical and
temperate systems, as bacterial turnover under tropical conditions may be several orders of
magnitude above that seen in temperate systems (Glencross pers. comm.). Although no direct
evidence of pollution or habitat impacts from open net barramundi farms was available for this
report, there is a vast body of literature documenting for other species, such as farmed salmon,
how open net pens contribute to pollution and alter local habitats. Open net barramundi farms
may have similar effects, with the degree of effect depending on management, feed inputs (e.g.,
the use of trash fish results in high waste loading), farm siting (current flows, etc.), and culture
density. Seafood Watch will continue to monitor data on the effects of open net barramundi
farms on the local environment.
The use of closed recirculating systems enables very high levels of water re-use; in some cases,
these systems discharge less than 1% of the water required by conventional intensive aquaculture
methods per unit fish produced (Australis BMP 2004). In the U.S. and Australia, closed
recirculation facilities also treat effluent water substantially before discharge. Recent
information from the U.S. operation demonstrates discharges containing levels of Biological
Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) greatly below regulated levels. In
some cases, the effluent from recirculating systems can also be used for other purposes, such as
agriculture. In addition, closed systems often occur in developed areas and thus do not impact
areas of high ecological sensitivity. The potential for significant pollution or habitat effects is
very low for closed recirculating systems.
Synthesis
The high re-use of water, low discharges, and effective effluent treatment in closed recirculating
systems result in a very low chance of potential pollution and habitat impacts from farming
barramundi in the U.S. and Australia. Therefore, as it is currently practiced farming barramundi
in closed systems in the U.S. and Australia ranks as a low conservation concern for the nutrient
pollution and habitat impacts criterion.
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December 19, 2006
The lack of assessment of the impacts of open net barramundi farms on the surrounding
environment and the vast amount of literature available documenting the negative effects of
other species cultured in open systems is cause for concern. The risk of pollution and habitat
effects from barramundi farmed in open net pens ranks as a moderate conservation concern
based on Seafood Watch criteria.
Risk of Pollution and Habitat Effects:
Low
Moderate
High
Low
Moderate
High
Criterion 5: Effectiveness of the Management Regime 5

United States
Barramundi farming, like other forms of aquaculture in the United States, falls under a wide
range of regulatory regimes. Regulation, or more specifically over-regulation, has been
identified as one of the main impediments to an expanded aquaculture industry in the United
States and some have called for a clarification of agency roles and regulatory structures (Devoe
1999; Rychlak and Peel 1993). In addition to numerous state permits that are required to operate
a barramundi farm, several federal agencies have some degree of oversight, including:
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
According to the Aquaculture Act of 1980, the USDA has the lead role in federal
aquaculture policy and is responsible for coordinating national aquaculture policy
(Buck and Becker 1993). USDAs role is primarily promotional, providing
assistance to industry through research, information, and extension services.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Under recently established effluent limitation guidelines, the EPA regulates
discharges of wastes from aquaculture facilities (EPA 2004). The rule requires
the implementation of best management practices (BMPs).
Fisheries and Wildlife Service (FWS)
The FWS regulates the introduction and transport of fish and shellfish through the
Lacey Act (Buck and Becker 1993) and assists aquaculturists with the control of
fish-eating birds through the issue of depredation permits (Curtis et al. 1996).

(http://www.mbayaq.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/content/media/MBA_SeafoodWatch_FarmedTroutReport.pdf)
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December 19, 2006
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

The FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine is responsible for approving and
monitoring the use of drugs and medicated feeds used in the aquaculture industry
(Buck and Becker 1993).
At present, barramundi farmed in the U.S. adheres to all applicable local and federal laws and the
facility has a well developed Best Management Plan that has proven to be very effective. The
use of closed systems in the U.S. eliminates any negative interactions with predators, and
continuous ozonation and fish health monitoring has resulted in no significant disease outbreaks
to date. Additionally, no therapeutics are used for U.S. farmed barramundi.
Australia
In Australia, aquaculture is managed by both state and federal governments. In general,
comprehensive environmental assessment procedures are in place, which, although expensive
and time consuming, are designed to ensure a high level of environmental protection and
improve prospects for the long-term viability of the industry (ANON 1999). All new
aquaculture ventures require an environment impact statement. For closed recirculating systems,
management measures include flood inundation controls and retaining walls to prevent
accidental release into the surrounding environment. Australia also has strict guidelines on the
movement of live organisms. Four areas of concern must be addressed before a permit can be
issued: prevention of fish escape, control of and disposal of effluent, prevention of disease
transfer, and the provision of a sound business plan.
On the issue of predators, major pest problems can occur with fresh water rats and with
predatory birds for inland and marine systems. In open cage systems, significant wildlife
interactions can occur when marine predators (e.g., sharks, crocodiles, dolphins, puffer fish, and
turtles) make holes in the net allowing fish to escape (Barlow 1997). Open net cage barramundi
farms in Australia have recently begun using steel nets, which has improved these predator
interaction issues.
In Australia, an environmental code of practice for freshwater finfish aquaculture has been
prepared and adopted by the Aquaculture Association of Queensland. This code is likely to
provide the basis for a similar code of practice for barramundi farmed in freshwater ponds,
though it has not yet been adopted by the Australian Barramundi Farmers Association. The
Australian Barramundi Farmers Association has, however, developed and adopted a Code of
Practice for Post-Harvest Handling of Farmed Barramundi, aimed at improving product quality
through best post-harvest practices.
Southeast Asia / Taiwan
Very little information is available to assess the management effectiveness of barramundi farms
in Southeast Asia. At this time, Seafood Watch is not in a position to evaluate the management
effectiveness for Southeast Asian and Taiwanese farms but will continue to monitor the region
for new information.
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Synthesis
As currently practiced, closed system barramundi farming in the United States and Australia is
well regulated and management can be deemed highly effective. It therefore ranks as a low
conservation concern based on Seafood Watch criteria.
Management problems have occurred, however, with open net pen operations in Australia, and
information from Southeast Asia and Taiwan operations was unavailable at the time this report
was produced. The management of open net farms in Australia, Southeast Asia, and Taiwan
therefore ranks as a moderate conservation concern based on Seafood Watch criteria.
Effectiveness of Management Rank:
Low
Moderate
High
Low
Moderate
High
24
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IV. Overall Evaluation and Seafood Recommendation

Barramundi farmed in closed recirculating systems in the U.S. ranks as a Best Choice
according to Seafood Watch criteria. Barramundi require less fishmeal (<30%) and fish oil
(<15%) than other cultured carnivores such as salmon; U.S. operations carefully control factors
affecting feed use, resulting in very low Feed Conversion Ratios (FCR) for barramundi (e.g., 0.81); and U.S. operations include fisheries byproducts, typically from herring fisheries, in their
feed, which helps reduce their use of marine resources. The use of closed systems can also
substantially reduce the risk of escapes and disease transfer so long as the facilities incorporate
sound preventive measures such as multiple sequential screens and disinfection of their effluent.
Production of tropical species in climates colder than their temperature tolerances further
mitigates the risk of escape. Similarly, closed systems can substantially reduce the risk of
nutrient pollution and negative habitat effects. In both the U.S. and Australia, the management
of closed systems is deemed highly effective. Australian closed recirculating operations rank as
a Good Alternative because they do not incorporate fisheries byproducts into their feed, which
results in a higher use of marine resources. Seafood Watch is aware that energy concerns for
closed recirculating systems may become a sustainability issue in the future; however, this issue
was not considered in this report.
Barramundi farmed in open net pens or cages rank as Avoid according to Seafood Watch
criteria. These systems lack of control over conditions such as temperature, salinity, and
dissolved oxygen, which results in a high use of marine resources (25-35% fishmeal, 5-15% fish
oil, FCR 1.5). In addition, the presence of predators and weather events has led to documented
cases of escapes in open net Australian farms, releasing thousands of farmed barramundi into
their native waters where the potential for them to interact with wild barramundi is high. The
flow through nature of an open system also creates problems with disease and parasite transfer,
as well as potential problems with pollution and habitat effects. Information on the management
of open net barramundi farms in Southeast Asia and Taiwan was unavailable when this report
was produced; thus, Seafood Watch concludes that management is a moderate conservation
concern in this region. The production of barramundi in open systems is expected to increase in
Australia and other Southeast Asian countries, which may increase exports to the U.S. Seafood
Watch will be monitoring this expansion as well as any new developments in barramundi
farming both in the U.S. and overseas.
25
December 19, 2006
Table of Sustainability Ranks

Sustainability Criteria
Low
Use of Marine Resources
Closed Recirc.
(U.S.)
Risk of Escaped Fish to

Wild Stocks
Risk of Disease and
Parasite Transfer to Wild
Stocks
Risk of Pollution and
Habitat Effects
Management Effectiveness
Conservation Concern
Moderate
High
Open Net Pen,
Closed Recirc.
(Australia)
Closed Recirc.
Open Net Pen
Closed Recirc.
Open Net Pen
Closed Recirc.
Open Net Pen
Closed Recirc.
Open Net Pen
Critical
Overall Seafood Recommendation

Seafood Watch
Recommendation
Where Farmed and Technique Used
Best Choice
Closed Recirculating (U.S.)
Good Alternative
Closed Recirculating (Australia)
Open Net Pen / Cage

(Australia, SE Asia, Taiwan)
Avoid
Acknowledgements
Seafood Watch thanks Brendan ONeil (Independent Consultant), Brett Glencross (University
of Western Australia), and Josh Goldman (Australis Aquaculture, Inc.) for helping with
information and review of this report.
Scientific review does not constitute an endorsement of the Seafood Watch program, or its
seafood recommendations, on the part of the reviewing scientists. Seafood Watch is solely
responsible for the conclusions reached in this report.
26
December 19, 2006
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About Seafood Watch and the Seafood Reports

December 19, 2006

Analysis of Seafood Watch Sustainability Criteria for Farmed Species

Overall Recommendation and Seafood Evaluation..................25

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December 19, 2006

Table of Sustainability Ranks

Use of Marine Resources

Risk of Escaped Fish to

Open Net Pen

Open Net Pen

Open Net Pen

Open Net Pen

Overall Seafood Recommendation:

Where Farmed and Technique Used

Closed Recirculating (U.S.)

Closed Recirculating (Australia)

Open Net Pen / Cage

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The vast majority of worldwide barramundi production is consumed domestically in producing

Worldwide Farmed Barramundi Production

Farmed Barramundi Production (by country)

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III. Analysis of Seafood Watch Sustainability Criteria for Farmed Species

Parts of this section have been adapted from ONeil 2006

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Notes on feed calculations

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Alternative feed for barramundi

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Open net pen (Australia, SE Asia, Taiwan);

Criterion 2: Risk of Escaped Fish to Wild Stocks2

Parts of this section have been adapted from ONeil 2006

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Open net pen (Australia, SE Asia, Taiwan):

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Criterion 3: Risk of Disease and Parasite Transfer to Wild Stocks3

Parts of this section have been adapted from ONeil 2006

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Open net pen (Australia, SE Asia, Taiwan): Low

Closed recirculating (U.S., Australia):

Criterion 4: Risk of Pollution and Habitat Effects4

Parts of this section have been adapted from ONeil 2006

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Wastes from barramundi farms

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Open net pen (Australia, SE Asia, Taiwan):

Criterion 5: Effectiveness of the Management Regime 5

Parts of this section have been adapted from ONeil 2006

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Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

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Open net pen (Australia, SE Asia, Taiwan):