How to weld

duplex stainless steels

How to weld
duplex stainless steels
Austenitic-ferritic stainless steels, usually referred to as duplex
steels, combine many of the good properties of ferritic and
austenitic stainless steels.
Uses

The high chromium content in combination with

nitrogen, and often also molybdenum, gives duplex
steels their superior resistance to both pitting and crevice corrosion. The duplex structure gives very good
strength and, allied with the high corrosion resistance,
very good resistance to stress corrosion.
Thanks to this exceptional combination of strength
and corrosion resistance, duplex steels are widely
used in everything from tanks for corrosive media to
structural components, chemical tankers and offshore
applications.
Duplex steels are primarily intended for applications
where the working temperature is from 40 to +250C.
The weldability of duplex steels is good and all common welding methods can be used.
Outokumpu

EN

ASTM

LDX 2101

1.4162

S32101

2304

1.4362

S32304

2205

1.4462

S32205/31803

SAF 2507

1.4410

S32750

Heat exchangers
Water heaters
Pressure vessels
Storage tanks
Rotors, impellers and shafts
Digesters and other equipment in pulp and paper
production
Cargo tanks in chemical tankers
Desalination plants
Waste gas purifiers
Sea water systems

Chemical compositions
Table 1 shows the chemical compositions (parent and
filler metals) of some duplex steels.
Matching fillers are used for welding. Fillers that are
more highly alloyed can also be used. For example,
LDX 2101, 2304 and 2205 can be welded with 2507/P100.

SAF 2507 is a trademark owed by Sandvik AB

Table 1: Chemical compositions parent and filler metals

Plate*

EN

ASTM/AWS

Cr

Ni

Mo

Other

LDX 2101
2304
2205
SAF 2507

1.4162
1.4362
1.4462
1.4410

S32101
S32304
S32205
S32750

0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02

0.22
0.10
0.17
0.27

21.5
23
22
25

1.4
4.8
5.7
7.0

0.3
0.3
3.1
4.0

5 Mn

LDX 2101
2304
2205
2507/P100

EN 1600

22 9 3 N L R
25 9 4 N L R

A5.4

E2209
E2594

0.04
0.02
0.02
0.03

0.14
0.12
0.15
0.23

23.5
24.5
23.0
25.5

7.0
9.0
9.5
10.0

0.4
<0.3
3.0
3.6

LDX 2101
2304
2205
2507/P100

EN 12072

22 9 3 N L
25 9 4 N L

A5.9

ER2209
ER2594

0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02

0.15
0.15
0.17
0.25

23.5
23.5
23.0
25.0

7.5
7.5
8.5
9.5

0.2
0.2
3.1
4.0

LDX 2101
2304
2205

EN 12073

22 9 3 N L

A5.22

E2209

0.02
0.02
0.03

0.14
0.14
0.13

24.0
24.0
22.5

9.0
9.0
9.0

0.6
0.6
3.2

MMA

Wire**

FCW

* Hot rolled plate, cold rolled plate, bars, pipes, pipe fittings and flanges
** MIG, TIG and SAW wire

Figure 1: Microstructure of a weld in 2205 transition between plate and weld

Microstructure
The chemical composition of duplex steels is balanced
to ensure that, in their solution-annealed states, they
have a structure with approximately equal amounts of
ferrite and austenite.
Duplex steels initially solidify with a completely
ferritic structure. They then undergo a phase transformation in which primary and secondary austenite
grows at the ferrites grain boundaries. The amount of
austenite is strongly dependent on composition and
cooling rate. In the production of plates, coils, pipes,
etc., controlled heat treatment can be used to give a
50-50 balance of austenite and ferrite. However, cooling
conditions when welding are not as good. Cooling is
often very rapid here and, consequently, there is little
time for austenite to form. Thus, to give a balanced
structure, filler metals are always over-alloyed with
nickel. This is strongly austenite stabilising. Nitrogen
is another austenite stabilising element and is of great
importance in the re-forming of austenite. However,
variations of between 20 and 70% ferrite are normal.
Welds with this ferrite content have good corrosion and
mechanical properties. Figure 1 shows the fusion line
in a 2205 joint.
Welding with the wrong filler metal (e.g. plate
analysis), or with no or too little filler metal (e.g.
narrow groove/no root gap), can give a ferrite content
of over 70%. This entails a risk of lower ductility and
reduced corrosion resistance.
When duplex steels are subjected to temperatures
from 350C up to around 950C, secondary precipitates

are formed. Intermetallic phases, e.g. sigma phase, are

formed in the 600950C temperature range. Ferrite
is re-formed at 350525C (embrittlement at 475C).
Ferrite re-formation can have an embrittling effect
and a negative impact on corrosion resistance. Hence,
unnecessary exposure to these temperatures must be
avoided. In normal welding, the hold time at these
temperatures is relatively short. However, there is an
evident risk if the metal has to undergo subsequent
heat treatment.
Table 3 sets out the recommended heat treatments.
At any other temperatures than those given in the table,
stress-relieving annealing results in lower ductility and
reduced corrosion resistance. Consequently, it is to be
avoided.

Mechanical properties
Duplex steels are characterised by high strength. Table 2
shows typical mechanical properties of parent and weld
metals (pure weld metal).
The high tensile strength also means that the fatigue
properties are very good. However, fatigue strength is
highly dependent on the components shape. The fatigue
properties of welded joints are also clearly inferior.
Welding method and joint type are of great significance.
For example, a TIG welded joint has considerably better
properties than one made with covered electrodes.
Because their ductility is lower than that of austenitic
steels, duplex steels are not suitable for use at low
temperatures (< 40C).

Corrosion properties
Duplex steels offer a very wide range of corrosion properties. Thanks to the high chromium content, corrosion
resistance is generally very good in most environments.
This applies to both pitting and crevice corrosion. The
high strength also means that the resistance to stress corrosion is very good. Because of the low carbon content,
intergranular corrosion is rarely a problem.
Generally speaking, corrosion resistance increases with
increased nickel, chromium and nitrogen content. This is
reflected in the resistance ranking of the duplex steels:
LDX 2101; 2304; 2205 ; SAF 2507. The pitting corrosion
resistance is shown in diagram 1.
For the most part, the corrosion resistance of a welded
joint is slightly lower than that of the parent metal. This
is primarily due to: the temperature cycle undergone by
the weld and the heat-affected zone (HAZ); the shape
of the weld surface; and, the contaminants and defects
generated in welding. To achieve the best possible corrosion resistance, the surfaces of the weld and the plate
must be clean and even. After welding, the weld metal
and HAZ must be pickled. Refer also to the Pre-weld
cleaning and Post-weld cleaning sections.

Detailed information on the corrosion properties of

duplex steels is given in the corrosion handbook
published by Outokumpu.

CPT (C)

100

100

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

4404

LDX 2101

Parent metal

2304

2205

SAF 2507 254 SMO

Welded joint

Diagram 1: Typical critical pitting temperatures (CPT) as per ASTM

G48 parent metal and weld, brushed and pickled TIG joint

Table 2: Mechanical properties

Steel grades
LDX 2101
Rp0.2 (MPa)
Rm (MPa)
Elongation A5 (%)
Impact strength (J)
+20C
40C
2304
Rp0.2 (MPa)
Rm (MPa)
Elongation A5 (%)
Impact strength (J)
+20C
40C
2205
Rp0.2 (MPa)
Rm (MPa)
Elongation A5 (%)
Impact strength (J)
+20C
40C
SAF 2507
Rp0.2 (MPa)
Rm (MPa)
Elongation A5 (%)
Impact strength (J)
+20C
40C

Min.-value1)
P
H

Typical values (pure weld metal)

MMA
MIG
TIG
SAW

FCAW

450
650
30

480
680
30

530
700
30

640
800
25

520
710
30

550
730
30

570
750
25

580
760
25

60

60

45
28

150
110

180
180

140
60

50
40

400
630
25

400
600
20

420
600
20

640
780
23

520
710
30

550
730
30

570
750
25

580
760
25

100
80

40
25

150
110

180
180

140
60

50
40

460
640
25

460
660
25

480
660
20

620
810
25

550
770
30

610
805
31

590
800
29

590
810
29

100
80

45
35

150
110

200
170

100
70

55
40

530
730
20

530
750
15

530
750
15

695
895
27

570
830
29

660
860
28

650
870
25

100
80

80
55

140

190
170

80

1) P = hot rolled plate, H = hot rolled coil, C = cold rolled coil

Table 3: Recommended heat treatments

LDX 2101
Hot forming (C)

2304

2205

9001100

9001100

9501150

10251200

Solution heat treatment (C)

10201080

9501050

10201100

10401120

Stress-relieving annealing (C)

10201100

9501050

10201100

10401120

Shaping
Hot forming, if required, must be performed at the
temperatures given in table 3. Duplex steels are prone
to precipitation when they are subjected to temperatures under approximately 900C. Precipitation entails
a lowering of both ductility and corrosion resistance.
To reduce the quantity of precipitates, the workpiece
should undergo solution heat treatment after hot forming. Duplex steels soften considerably at high temperatures. This must be borne in mind during handling
and when tooling up/positioning prior to heat treatment.
Cold forming of duplex steels can be accomplished
using conventional methods. However, because of
the high strength, operations such as deep drawing,
stretch forming and spinning are more difficult than
they are with austenitic steels.
Machining of duplex steels (LDX 2101 excepted) is,
owing to their hardness, slightly more difficult than it
is for austenitic steels. Tools made of high-speed steel
are usually more effective than ceramic tools.

Welding methods
All conventional welding methods such as MMA
(covered electrodes), MIG/MAG, TIG, SAW, FCAW,
plasma and laser can be used to weld duplex steels.
Welding without filler metals is only permitted where
subsequent heat treatment (solution heat treatment) is
possible. If heat treatment is not carried out, there is a
great risk that the ferrite content in the weld metal will
be too high. As a result, ductility and corrosion resistance will be lower.
Property requirements, positional weldability and
productivity usually determine the choice of welding
method.
MMA welding is particularly excellent for position
welding, single-sided welding and where access is limited. Avesta Welding has a very wide range of covered
electrodes for duplex steels:
LDX 2101 AC/DC
2304 AC/DC
2205-3D
2205-4D
2205-2D
2205 Basic
2507/P100 Rutile
2507/P100-4D

SAF 2507

all positions
all positions
all positions
position welding
high metal recovery
high impact strength requirements
all positions
position welding

With all products, direct current (DC+) gives the best

welding results. Nonetheless, all rutile-acid electrodes
can also be used with alternating current. However,
weldability is clearly inferior than it is with direct
current.
A short arc is to be used for welding. This gives the
best stability and reduces the risk of nitrogen pickup. The latter can lead to pore formation and increase
surface oxidation.
MIG welding (really MAG welding is often carried
out with an active component in the shielding gas) is
a particularly good method for welding sheet metal
up to around 6 mm thick. Welding is usually from
two sides, but sheet metal (< 4 mm) can be welded
single-sided with a root backing. A spray arc or pulsed
current is normally used for welding. The advantage
of spray-arc welding is the higher deposition rate.
However, because the weld pool is relatively large,
position welding possibilities are limited. Drop transfer is considerably more sedate and more controlled
with a pulsed arc. The opportunity for position welding, especially vertical-down, is thus very great. As
the stability of a spray arc is relatively poor, a pulsed
arc is particularly important when welding the super
duplex steel, SAF 2507.
The MIG method is especially suited to robot or
automatic welding in all positions.
TIG welding is normally used for thin (up to around
4 mm) workpieces. It is especially common in the welding of pipe joints. The method is also highly suitable
for welding single-sided root beads (both with and
without root backing). Subsequent beads can then be
welded using a method with a higher deposition rate.
SAW is widely used with duplex steels. Its high productivity and beautiful weld finishes are a big plus.
Furthermore, the SAW work environment is considerably better than that of other methods. Both fume generation and radiation are minimal. The disadvantages
of SAW are that it is restricted to the horizontal position
and that the heat input is relatively large. Consequently,
small objects present problems. A basic agglomerated
flux, e.g. Avesta 805, must be used for SAW.

Figure 2: Welding with FCW 2205

FCAW is suitable for material thicknesses above approximately 2.5 mm. Thanks to the slag that is formed,
positional weldability is very good. When FCW is
used, the arc and weld pool are protected by both the
slag and the shielding gas. Drop transfer is even and
finishes are extremely smooth and fine.
FCAW can advantageously be used for single-sided
welding against a ceramic backing. This is fast and
efficient. At the same time, the surface properties
on the root side are very good. For the best results,
the root bead should here be welded using a slightly
lower current intensity.

Flux cored wire is available as LDX 2101, 2304 and

2205 in the following variants:
FCW-2D LDX 2101

FCW-2D 2304

FCW-2D 2205


FCW 2205-PW

welding in the flat and horizontalvertical positions

welding in the flat and horizontalvertical positions
welding in the flat and horizontalvertical positions as well as against
a ceramic backing in all positions
position welding

Table 4: Example welding parameters for different types of joints

Method

Filler

Diam. (mm)

Position EN/ASTM

Bead

MMA

2205

2.50
3.25

PF (3G)

Root*
Cap

MMA

2507/P100

4.00

MIG

2205

1.20

TIG

2205

1.60

H-L 045 (6G)

TIG
FCAW

2205

2.40
1.20

PA (1G)

SAW

2205

3.20

SAW

2507/P100

2.40

FCAW

2205

1.20

PA (1G)

FCAW

2205-PW

1.20

FCAW

LDX 2101

1.20

Current (A)

Voltage (V)

Speed (cm/min)

50 60
80 95

2022
2325

4 6
7 9

PA (1G)

125135

2426

1525

PA (1G)

180200

2830

3040

Root

45 50

910

3 5

Root
Cap

100120
190210

1618
2830

5 8
1722

PA (1G)

400450

3032

4050

PA (1G)

350400

2830

4050

Root*
Cap

135145
200220

2426
2830

2025
3045

PF (3G)

Root
Cap

140150
160180

2325
2426

812
913

PA (1G)

Root
Cap

170190
200220

2628
2729

3040
3045

* Single-sided

Shielding gases
Laser, laser hybrid and plasma welding are high
productivity methods that are very suitable for duplex
steels. However, as previously stated, if a filler metal
is not used, the workpiece should be heat treated after
welding.
Laser hybrid is a particularly interesting method. It
combines keyhole welding (laser) with arc welding
(MIG/MAG, TIG or plasma). The method ensures a
high productivity process that, thanks to the filler metal
and the low heat input, preserves metallurgical properties.
Nowadays, laser hybrid welding is most often performed using a CO2 laser or a Nd:YAG laser. With the
exception of the considerably better penetration, laser
hybrid welding of thin sheets has much in common
with ordinary MIG/MAG welding. Penetration depth
is primarily determined by the laser beams ability to
create a keyhole. The width is dependent on the heat
transferred by the arc.
There are two variants of laser hybrid welding, namely, leading and trailing laser. Whichever is chosen,
it is important that the arc and the beam are sufficiently
close to each other for them to work in the same weld
pool. For better process stability in leading laser
hybrid welding, the angle of the MIG/MAG nozzle
should be as slight as possible (i.e. nozzle in the upright
position). Having the arc in the leading position allows
material from the filler wire to fill any gaps. This means
that the laser beam creates a keyhole in a stable weld
pool. The result is an even weld with good penetration.
In the laser-MIG/MAG process, the following
parameters have proved to be important: torch angle,
offset, stick-out, working distance and focal length.
The effect of torch angle is much the same as in conventional MIG/MAG welding.
Spray and pulsed arcs can advantageously be used.
However, because there is no stabilising of the arc, a
short arc must not be used in laser-MIG/MAG welding.
Table 5: Shielding gases for MIG, TIG, FCAW,
plasma and laser welding
Method

Grades

Shielding gases

MIG

LDX 2101, 2304, 2205

1. Ar+30%He+13%CO2
2. Ar+12%O2 or Ar+23%CO2

2507/P100

1. Ar+30%He+13%CO2
2. Ar
3. Ar+30%He+12%N2+12%CO2

TIG

LDX 2101, 2304, 2205,

2507/P100

1. Ar+2%N2 +1030%He
2. Ar

FCAW

LDX 2101, 2304, 2205

1. Ar+1625%CO2
2. 100% CO2

Plasma

LDX 2101, 2304, 2205,

2507/P100

1. Ar*
2. Ar+2030%He+12%N2*

Laser

LDX 2101, 2304, 2205,

2507/P100

1. Ar

* Also as plasma gas

MIG welding of duplex steels is possible using the

conventional shielding gases used with stainless steels.
Normally, argon is used with an addition of 2% O2 or
23% CO2. Both of these act as arc stabilisers. An addition of around 30% helium is advantageous. It increases
arc energy which, in turn, increases weld pool fluidity
and enables higher welding speeds.
Using a pulsed arc, a four-component gas (Ar +30%
He + 2.5% CO2 + 0.03% NO) has given very good
results.
Arc stability varies greatly between different arc
types, different steel grades and even between different
welding machines. Table 5 sets out general recommendations for the MIG welding of various duplex grades.
TIG welding is usually performed with pure argon as
the shielding gas. Resistance to, in particular, pitting
corrosion can be considerably raised by the addition of
up to 2% nitrogen. However, because the risk of pores
increases with increased nitrogen content, the latter
should not exceed 2%.
The addition of around 30% helium markedly
increases arc energy and thus enables a considerable
increase (2030%) in welding speed. In the welding
of duplex steels, the addition of hydrogen is not to be
recommended. In combination with the high ferrite
content (over 70%), this can lead to hydrogen embrittlement.
Single-sided root beads must be welded with a
backing gas. This is normally the same as the shielding gas. However, Formier gas (90% N2 + 10% H2)
is a good alternative that also provides first-class root
protection while also being cheaper than pure argon.
Because only a negligible quantity of the hydrogen
penetrates the weld metal, no negative effect has been
demonstrated. A backing gas should also be used for
tack welding all the way up until weld thickness is at
least 8 mm.
FCAW is most suitably performed using argon with
an addition of 1625% carbon dioxide as the shielding
gas. Welding with pure carbon dioxide is also possible,
but arc stability and weld pool control are noticeably
poorer. However, compared with a mixed gas, one
advantage is that penetration is slightly better. Also
compared with a mixed gas, the voltage should be
increased by 23 volts when welding with pure carbon
dioxide. This prevents the arc being too short.
Plasma welding normally uses pure argon, or argon
with an addition of 2030% helium, as both the plasma
and the shielding gas. As with TIG welding, the addition
of 23% nitrogen has a positive effect on corrosion resistance. The addition of hydrogen should be avoided.
Laser welding can be carried out with pure argon,
nitrogen, helium or mixtures of these gases. To ensure
high-quality welds when using a CO2 laser or a

Nd:YAG-laser, a shielding gas is required. Because

interaction between the beam and the shielding gas
affects heat transfer to the workpiece, the choice of
shielding gas in CO2 laser welding is critical. The
normal shielding gases are pure argon or, where high
laser powers (1.52.0 kW) are used, helium. As there
is little or no interaction between shielding gases and
the wavelength of the Nd:YAG laser, argon, which is
relatively cheap, is normally used.
Laser hybrid welding with a CO2 laser has demonstrated that the shielding gas need not be pure helium.
It is sufficient that a minimum of 30% helium is added
via the MIG/MAG nozzle. For Nd:YAG laser hybrid
welding, a mixture of Ar + 3035% He + 25% CO2 can
advantageously be used. The mixture is added via the
MIG/MAG nozzle. The addition of helium improves
process stability and gives even welds.

Edge preparation
When welding stainless steels, meticulous edge
preparation and the correct choice of joint type are
important for good results. This applies even more

particularly to duplex steels.

Because of the weld pools slightly poorer penetration and fluidity (compared with standard austenites),
the joint must be correctly designed to give full penetration without the risk of burn-through. The groove
angle must be sufficiently wide to allow the welder
full control of the arc, weld pool and slag. A groove
angle of around 35 (i.e. somewhat larger than for
austenitic steels) is to be recommended for manual
welding.
General recommendations:
An X-joint can advantageously be used for plate
thicknesses above approximately 15 mm.
For plate thicknesses above approximately 30 mm,
a double U-joint is advantageous.
In single-sided welding, a root gap of 23 mm and
a straight edge of about 01 mm are recommended.
For double-sided welding, the straight edge can be
increased to 1.52 mm.
A wider root gap, 46 mm, should be used when
welding against a ceramic backing.

Figure 3 shows a number of common joint types.

Joint type 1

D = 1.0 2.0 mm
I-joint, t < 2.5 mm
D = 1.02.0 mm
Single-sided, with or without root backing
D = 2.0 2.5 mm
I-joint, t < 4.0 mm
D = 2.02.5 mm
Double-sided without root backing but
with root grinding

Joint type 2
V-joint, t = 416 mm
= 6070
C = 0.51.5 mm
D = 2.04.0 mm (46 mm against abacking)
Single-sided, with or without root backing

A
D
A
D

V-joint, t = 416 mm
= 6070
C = 2.02.5 mm
D = 2.53.5 mm
Double-sided without root backing but
with root grinding

Joint type 3

V-joint, t = 816 mm
= 8090
C = 36 mm
Double-sided welding without root gap,
but with root grinding

1. I-joint
for: single-sided MMA, TIG
MIG
and PAW; and, double-sided welding
using the same methods plus MIG and
MIGSuitable root protection must be
FCAW.
used with single-sided TIG and plasma
welding.

D
A

2. V-joint (t > 4 mm) for: single and

double-sided MMA and TIG welding
as well as double-sided MIG and
FCAW. Single-sided welding is also
possible with FCAW, but a ceramic
backing must then be used.

3. V-joint for SAW. So that full penetra-

tion is possible, the root bead must be
ground precisely.

Joint type 4
X-joint, t = 1430 mm
= 8090

C = 38 mm (2507/2101 34 mm)
Double-sided welding without root gap,
but with root grinding

4. In SAW, an X-joint is to be recommended

where plate thickness exceeds 16 mm.
To achieve best penetration when welding 2205 and 2304, the straight edge
can be increased up to 8 mm. The torch
must then be slightly angled (around
15) in the direction of welding. In this
way, thicknesses up to 20 mm can be
welded with only two beads. However,
for LDX 2101 and SAF 2507, the straight
edge should not exceed 4 mm.

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t2
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All rough edges must be completely removed by gentle
grinding. Oxides, paints and primers must be entirely
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Tack welding 4)'OR--!CANBEUSEDFORROOTRUNS'RINDINGFROMTHEBACK#MM

 3!7CANBEUSEDFORFILLANDCAPPASSES
So that shrinkage
during welding does not prevent full
burn-through, precise tack welding is extremely imthicknesses up to 6 mm, tack length
portant. For metal
should be 1015 mm. This should be increased to 2025
mm for thicker workpieces. A suitable distance between
tacks is 150200 mm.
In single-sided welding, the entire tack must be
ground away before welding. In double-sided welding,
it is sufficient to grind away the beginning and the end
of the tack. A common alternative in single-sided welding is the use of bridges or distance pieces (see figure 4).
These must be made of, and tacked with, duplex steel.
Note that gap width must be constant throughout the
joint.



Figure 4: Tack welding of thick-walled pipe using distance pieces

10

by,

Starts and stops

striking and extinguishing the arc
It is very important to use the right technique when
striking and extinguishing the arc. As regards metallurgical, mechanical and corrosion properties, each start
and stop is a critical area.
To avoid striking scars, the arc must always be struck
down in the joint. If, despite this, striking scars occur,
they must be carefully repaired by grinding and polishing or, in the worst cases, repair welding.
In MMA welding, the arc must be extinguished carefully by first making several circular movements in
the centre of the weld pool. The electrode is then to be
moved slowly backwards 10 mm through the weld
pool before being gently lifted. If this is done too
quickly, crater cracks and slag inclusions may result.
Modern power sources for MIG and TIG welding
often have a so-called crater filling facility. This gives
smooth and controlled stops.
To remove any crater cracks and slag inclusions, each
start and stop must be carefully ground with a suitable
grinding disc.

Planning the welding sequence

Because it makes burn-through unnecessary, doublesided welding is always to be preferred over singlesided welding. To ensure full burn-through on the last
bead, the root side must be ground to clean metal. A
grinding disc not exceeding 2 mm in width is a suitable tool. If it is difficult to decide whether grinding has
reached the first bead, penetrant testing can be used.
In double-sided MMA welding, electrodes with a
diameter of 3.25 to 4.00 mm can be used from the very
start. Single-sided welding is most simply carried out
against a root backing. Single-sided root beads are
suitably welded with a 2.50 mm diameter electrode.
The joint is then filled using 3.25, 4.00 or 5.00 mm electrodes. The choice of electrode diameter is determined
by welding position. In certain cases (e.g. pipe joints)
single-sided welding without root backing is required.

Figure 5: Single-sided TIG root bead

This is most simply done using MMA or TIG welding

with electrode diameters of 2.50 mm and 1.602.40 mm
respectively. As already stated, a backing gas must be
used in TIG welding. Single-sided welding without
root backing places the severest demands on even and
thorough edge preparation. Figure 5 shows a correctly
executed TIG root bead.
Root beads must satisfy three important
requirements:
Correct metallurgy and structure (right root gap to
ensure sufficient quantity of filler metal).
Correct geometry (no concavity, undercutting or
lack of fusion).
Best possible productivity (always in relation to
weldability).
Filler beads must be deposited with the highest possible productivity. At the same time, structure and
mechanical properties have to be maintained. In many
cases, fill passes use the same filler metal as that used in
root passes. High productivity welding methods may
thus be economical for joint filling. Several common
choices are:
TIG root pass + MMA, MIG or SAW fill passes
MMA root pass + SAW or FCAW fill passes
Generally speaking, welding is carried out with the
highest possible heat input that is still consistent with
maintained properties and weldability. Visual inspection
between the passes is important.
Slag residues and severe welding oxide are removed
before depositing the next layer. Otherwise, there is always the risk of slag inclusions being left behind. A suitable grinding disc must be used. To avoid damaging
adjacent surfaces, grinding should be carried out with
some care. Figure 6 shows deleterious grinding scars.

Figure 6: Grinding scars

11

The cap bead is primarily intended to give the weld

good corrosion protection. Besides structure, surface
geometry can also play a critical role here. Undercutting, unevenness, high crowns, gaps, etc. can all have
a negative impact on corrosion resistance. Aesthetic
considerations are often also important.
When using slag forming welding methods, weld
reinforcements must be cleaned of all slag residues.

Welding techniques
In the flat position, there should be no significant
weaving. However, in the vertical-up position, weaving
of up to 20 mm is advantageous. For the best control of
arc and weld pool, welding is normally carried out with
a torch or electrode angle of around 10 away from the
welding direction, i.e. backhand. In submerged arc
welding, the torch is not normally angled. A torch angle
of 1015 in the welding direction (i.e. forehand) increases penetration. This allows the unbevelled edge to
be increased to up to around 8 mm. However, because
LDX 2101 and SAF 2507 are slightly more sensitive to
the necessary high heat input, this increase must only
be used for 2205 and 2304. Especially when using welding wire, backings are very often ceramic. Backing
shape may vary with joint type. A root gap of 46 mm
most often gives a nicely shaped root bead. Too wide a
gap can result in a too thin root bead that, in the worst
cases, may crack because of the degree of restraint.
Ceramic backings are frequently used for welding
stainless steel cargo tanks in chemical tankers. Here,
welding is often in difficult positions with little access
from both sides.

Distortion
Broadly speaking, the coefficient of expansion of duplex
steels is lower than that of austenitic steels. It is only
slightly higher than that of carbon steels. Consequently,
distortion during the welding of duplex steels is somewhat less than it is with austenitic steels. However, this
does not mean that tack welding can be simplified.

Preheating
On the whole, stainless steels (duplex steels included therein) must not be preheated before welding.
Normally, welding takes place at room temperature.
At lower temperatures, preheating to a maximum of
50C is advisable. This drives off any moisture that
may otherwise lead to pore formation.
When welding castings, or where the workpiece
is thick or where restraint is high, preheating to a
maximum of 150C may be advantageous. This is
particularly true where the welding method has a low
heat input (max. 0.5 kJ/mm). In these cases, a suitable
preheating method is the use of electric blankets or
similar. The use of soot-depositing flames can result in
local carbon pick-up. This reduces resistance to intergranular corrosion.

12

Interpass temperature
The recommended interpass temperature for LDX
2101 is 150C. Both 2304 and 2205 are slightly more
tolerant, but should be welded below 200C. Super
duplex steels such as SAF 2507 have a far more sensitive structure and, because the risk of deleterious
precipitation rises sharply with increased interpass
temperature, should not be welded above 100C.
Thermal conductivity is of the same order as that of
austenitic stainless steels, i.e. considerably lower than
it is for low-alloy and carbon steels. This means that,
compared to carbon steels, it takes longer to reach the
correct interpass temperature. The cooling rate can be
increased by using compressed air. This is most suitably directed at the back of the plate or the inside of the
pipe. Compressed air directed straight into the welded
joint presents the risk of contamination. Cooling can
also be accelerated by intermittent welding or using a
correctly planned welding sequence.
The interpass temperature must be measured. Some
form of thermometer or thermoelement is appropriate
for this. Temperature crayons seldom give good results
and must be avoided.

Heat input
Without negatively affecting microstructure and,
consequently, properties, 2205 can be welded using a
relatively high heat input. Heat inputs above 3 kJ/mm
have been used with no negative effects. Welding
method, radiation, distortion and weld pool size are
most often the limiting factors (rather than heat input).
LDX 2101, 2304 and, in particular, SAF 2507 must be
welded with lower heat inputs.
General recommendations:
2304
max. 2.0 kJ/mm
2205
max. 2.5 kJ/mm
LDX 2101, SAF 2507
max. 1.5 kJ/mm
Duplex steels should not be welded with a too low heat
input. The cooling rate could then be very high, which
might result in a high ferrite content (above 70%). This
is particularly true in the welding of thick workpieces.
Theoretical minimum heat inputs are 0.5 kJ/mm
for 2304 and 2205 and 0.3 kJ/mm for LDX 2101 and
SAF 2507. Especially in automatic welding, heat input
is easy to control.
Although it is always desirable to optimise productivity by increasing the welding parameters, heat
input should never exceed the recommended value.
Heat input =

UxI

V x 1,000

{ }
UxI
= kJ/mm
mm/s x 1,000

U = voltage
I = current
V = speed

Figure 7: Storage tanks are a major end use for duplex stainless steels.

13

Figure 8: Avesta BlueOneTM being used to spray pickle a stainless steel tank.

Post-weld heat treatment

Duplex stainless steels do not normally need post-weld
heat treatment. However, in certain situations, it may
be necessary to subject the workpiece to solution heat
treatment or stress-relieving annealing. The spinning
of dished ends is just such an example. Shaping is here
carried out in stages with intermediate heat treatment.
Table 3 gives the recommended temperatures.
The heat treatment of duplex steels requires very precise control of both time and temperature. It must only
be carried out by qualified personnel using suitable
equipment.

Welding duplex steels to other metals

Duplex or austenitic filler metals such as Avesta P5
(309MoL) or Avesta 309L are used to weld duplex steels
to carbon or low-alloy steels. As austenitic metals
demonstrate a somewhat greater toughness, Avesta
P5 or 309L may be particularly suitable for welding
workpieces where there is a high degree of restraint
(t > 20 mm). A further alternative is to use Avesta P7,

14

which also gives a weld metal that is highly resistant

to cracking.
Welding to other stainless steels such as EN 1.4301
or EN 1.4401 is also fully possible. It can be done with
a duplex filler metal or with Avesta P5 or Avesta 309L
(only stainless steels that are not alloyed with molybdenum).
Welding to fully austenitic steels or nickel base
alloys is suitably carried out using a filler metal that
matches the other metal, for example, Avesta P12
when welding 2205 to 254 SMO.

Post-weld cleaning
Post-weld cleaning is critical in achieving fully satisfactory corrosion resistance. Clearly enough, it is thus
an integral part of the entire stainless steel welding
procedure. Despite this, post-weld cleaning is not
always standard.
The method and extent of cleaning is determined by
the requirements imposed in respect of corrosion resistance, hygiene and appearance.

Generally speaking, one basic requirement is that defects, welding oxide, organic contaminants and carbon
steel contamination must be removed from weld and
parent metal surfaces. This can be done mechanically
(grinding, brushing, polishing, blasting) or chemically
(pickling). An important rule of thumb for grinding
is to always finish with polishing. The risk of harmful
grinding scars is otherwise very great.
The demonstrably most reliable method is a combination of mechanical and chemical cleaning, i.e. brushing
with a stainless steel brush followed by pickling.
Avesta Finishing Chemicals has a complete product
programme for the pickling of stainless steel welds. It
comprises cleaning products, pickling pastes, pickling
sprays, pickling fluids and various items of equipment.
Duplex steels are generally more difficult to pickle than
are austenitic steels such as 1.4401 (308L) and 1.4404
(316L). Thus, Avesta BlueOneTM and Avesta RedOneTM,
which are comparatively strong pickling products,

should be used for pickling duplex grades. Further

details are available at www.avestafinishing.com or can
be obtained directly from Avesta Finishing Chemicals.

Defects
Broadly speaking, duplex steels are no more prone to defects than other stainless steels. However, several factors
require special attention.
The high nitrogen content of duplex steels means
poorer penetration.
Compared to austenitic steels, there is a slightly greater
tendency to pore formation.
Arc stability, fluidity and arc control are also somewhat
poorer than they are for austenitic stainless steels.
Consequently, to avoid incomplete penetration, slag
inclusions and pores, the margins for welding parameters and root gaps are more restricted.

Figure 9: Incomplete penetration, MIG 2205

Figure 10: Slag inclusions, SAW 2205

Figure 11: Pores, FCW LDX 2101

15

Repair welding

results, but is both time-consuming and costly. Hence,

ferrite content is normally determined using a socalled ferritescope such as the Fischer Feritscope
MP30 or by calculations based on the chemical composition. There are a number of calculation methods, e.g.
DeLong and WRC-92. For duplex steels, calculation as
per WRC-92 gives results that are closer to reality than
those obtained using DeLong. Figure 12 shows a WRC92 diagram.
When it is obtained by measurement, ferrite content
is normally expressed as a percentage. Where it is obtained by calculation it is usually expressed as a ferrite
number (FN). A normal range is 2070 (%/FN).

All defects must be suitably repaired. Minor surface

defects such as spatter, slag and oxide islands can easily
be remedied by grinding followed by polishing using
an at least 320 mesh disc. Note that a grinding disc intended for stainless steel must be used. After polishing,
conventional pickling is to be carried out. Pickling paste
is most often the simplest alternative.
Defects must never be repaired by TIG dressing
(remelting using a TIG electrode). This is because TIG
dressing has the same effect as welding without filler
metal, i.e. high ferrite content.
Large defects and subsurface defects require heavier
grinding with a coarser grinding disc. Once the entire
defect has been removed (which can be checked by, for
example, penetrant testing), the ground area is to be filled using a suitable method, most often MMA welding.
A plasma arc can be used to remove deep subsurface
defects in thick workpieces. Because of the resultant
carbonisation, carbon arcs should not be used. The
problem with both plasma and carbon arcs is the
powerful spatter. If care is not taken, this can damage
adjacent surfaces. The latter should be protected using,
for example, Masonite or chalk paint. After gouging,
the area must be ground before welding can start.
G?72# ?PDF  
Repair welding can be carried out at least 5 times
with no negative impact on the parent metal.

Overlay welding
Duplex filler metals can be advantageously used for the
overlay welding of carbon steels. The duplex overlay
is resistant to corrosion and has good wear resistance.
Although all welding methods can be used, those with
a high deposition rate (i.e. SAW, FCAW and MIG) are
normally preferred. Welding with 2205 can be direct
onto carbon steel. However, filler metals such as 309L
or P5 can also be used for the first layer. This is somewhat more cost-efficient, especially when welding with
2507/P100.
In overlay welding, there should be as little mixing
with the parent metal as possible. This can be a particular problem with SAW, FCAW and MIG welding.
Welding parameters and technique are of great importance. Each run is built up on the preceding. The
3TAINLESSSTEELS
arc should never be directed towards the parent metal.

Measuring ferrite content

Ferrite content can be assessed in several ways. Point
counting, which is a standardised method (ASTM
E562), is one of these. This method gives very precise

.ICKELEQUIVALENT
.I#.#U


72# 

































&.













!&




0












&!





,$8





&.


&



















#HROMIUMEQUIVALENT
#R-O.B
Figure
12: WRC-92 diagram
&IGURE72# DIAGRAMFORWELDINGCONSUMABLES

WFERRITECONTENTn&.$E,ONG
16
SAWELDTHATMAYBESLIGHTLYSENSITIVETO
RACKING4OAVOIDTHISAFILLERWIREWITH

ANDTEMPERATURETRANSFORMTOTALLYORPARTLY
INTOSIGMAPHASE4HISREDUCESCORROSION
RESISTANCEANDTOUGHNESS

Table 6. Example chemical compositions of overlay weld metals:

Chemical composition, % by weight
C
Si
Mn
Cr
Ni

Other

Ferrite
FN2 %3

805
805

0.03
0.03

0.7
0.7

1.2
1.2

21.0
22.5

13.0
9.0

Mo 2.3
Mo 2.8

5
35

0.03

0.8

1.1

21.5

13.0

Mo 2.4

0.03

0.8

0.7

22.5

9.5

Mo 2.8

25

35

P52

0.03

0.8

1.1

21.5

13.0

Mo 2.4

2507/P100

0.03

0.6

1.3

24.5

10.5

Mo 3.5

25

35

FCW-2D P5

0.03

0.6

1.4

22.0

12.0

Mo 2.1

15

15

FCW-2D 2205

0.03

0.7

1.1

22.5

9.5

Mo 3.1

30

40

Method

Final layer1

Filler

Layer

SAW

2205

P54
2205

1
2

MMA

2205

P54
2205

MMA
FCW

2207
2205

1. Target analysis of the final layer

2. Ferrite as per Schaeffler-DeLong

Flux

6
45

3. Ferrite in % using a Fischer Feritscope MP30

4. Welding is also possible with 2205 or 2507/P100

How to weld duplex steels of

similar compositions
There are a number of steel grades that have compositions similar to those of the Outokumpu duplex steels
described above. Some general recommendations are
set out below.

measurement using a ferritescope. In ultrasound

testing, it is important that surfaces are ground flat
so that defects such as pores and cracks can be
reliably detected.

Handling of filler metals

Table 7. Welding duplex steels of similar
compositions
Steel grades

Filler metal

ASTM 329

Avesta 2205

AL 2003 (UNS S32003)

Avesta 2205

3RE60 (S31500)

Avesta 3RE60 or 2205

URANUS 35N, SAF 2304

Avesta 2304 or 2205

SAF 2205, Uranus 45N, remanit 4462,1903SC,

AF22, VS22, Falc 223, SM 22Cr, NKCr22

Avesta 2205

SAF 2507, Zeron 100, DP-3W, S32760,

Uranus 52N+

Avesta 2507/P100

Inspection and quality assurance

The rules that apply to structural steels apply also to
stainless steels (duplex included therein). The following are some of the relevant international standards:
ISO 5817, which gives guidelines on acceptance
levels for various defects in welded joints.
EN 288 and ASME IX, which describe the approval
of welding procedures.
However, duplex steels are used in applications
where the strength and corrosion requirements are
very severe. There is thus every reason to be extra
careful from beginning to end. Welding oxide, spatter,
striking scars and grinding scars must be removed to
achieve the correct corrosion resistance. For the best
fatigue resistance, the weld surface must be even with
no sharp edges.
Nondestructive testing is an integral part of the
examination of welded joints. Suitable methods are
visual inspection, penetrant testing (PT), radiographic
testing (RT), ultrasound testing (UT) and ferrite content

Stainless steel covered electrodes, flux cored

wires and fluxes can be prone to moisture pickup. Avesta Weldings consumables are supplied
in packages that have been designed to resist
moisture. However, for the best possible results,
the following storage and handling precautions are
still recommended.
Storage of unbroken packages: Covered electrodes, FCWs and fluxes must be stored in their
unbroken, original packaging. Storage in opened
packaging can considerably shorten the products
service life. Following the first in, first out principle, storage time must be kept as short as possible.
Covered electrodes and fluxes should not be stored
longer than 5 years. Products that are over 5 years
old should be redried before use.
Covered electrodes, FCWs and fluxes should
not be stored in direct contact with floors or outer
walls.
Storeroom temperature must be kept as even as
possible ( 5C) and should not fall below 15C.
The relative air humidity should not exceed 50%.
Handling of opened packages: Electrodes that
remain unused at the end of a shift should be
replaced in their packaging and resealed. Alternatively, they can be put in a warm heating cabinet
at 6070C. The relative air humidity should not
exceed 50%.
Flux that has not been used should be stored in a
heating cabinet at 6070C.
Handling during welding: It is an advantage if
welding can be carried out at room temperature
and low relative air humidity. Covered electrodes,

17

Health and safety

FCWs and fluxes should be used at the same rate
as they are unpacked preferably within 24 hours.
During shifts, electrodes must be kept as dry as possible. If the climate so demands, they should be kept
warm in a portable heat-retaining container or similar.
One alternative is to use smaller packs, e.g. half or
quarter capsules.
Rebaking: Electrodes and flux cored wires that have
sustained slight moisture damage can be rebaked for
around 3 hours at, respectively, 250280C and 150C.
Heating and cooling must both be gradual. Items
should not be rebaked any more than three times.
Fluxes can be rebaked for 2 hours at 250300C.
Procedures that have been approved for carbon steel
electrodes are also completely satisfactory for stainless
steel electrodes. This is because the latter are not as
prone to moisture pick-up.
Recycling: Because they can be reused, leftover products and scrap are valuable. Wherever possible, products and packaging must be recycled in accordance
with local regulations.

The fumes and radiation given off during welding can be

hazardous to health. Spatter, molten metal and arcs can
cause burns and fires. Furthermore, electrical equipment is
used. If it is not handled correctly, there is the risk of electrical shock. Thus, it is of the greatest importance that welders and supervisors are aware of all the potential dangers.
Ensure that ventilation is adequate and that the
welding site has an extractor system that removes
fumes and gases from the welders breathing zone.
When welding in confined spaces, use respiratory
protective equipment or a compressed air line
breathing apparatus. Use safety equipment for
hands, eyes and body, e.g.: gloves; helmet or face
mask with filter glass; safety boots; apron; and arm
and shoulder guards.
Keep the workplace and equipment clean and dry.
Regularly check that safety clothing and equipment
are in good condition.
As far as possible, insulate all conducting elements.
Further information on each product group is contained
in Avesta Weldings material safety data sheets. These
can be downloaded from Avesta Weldings website,
www.avestawelding.com, or ordered from Avesta
Weldings distributors and retailers.

Figure 13: Order and tidiness are essential for a good work environment.
Photo: The Karl Kremsmller Welding Academy, Austria

18

Figure 14: Storage tanks in chemical tankers are often made of duplex stainless steels.

All rights reserved. Contents subject to change without warning or notification. Great care has been taken to ensure that the contents of this publication
are correct. However, Avesta Welding and its subsidiaries cannot accept responsibility for errors or for information that is found to be misleading.
Suggestions for, or descriptions of, working methods or of the use, treatment or machining of products are for information only and Avesta Welding
and its subsidiaries can accept no liability in respect thereof. Before using products supplied or manufactured by the company, customers should satisfy
themselves of product suitability.

19

10601EN-GB, Centrum Tryck, Avesta 2006.

Avesta Welding AB
P.O. Box 501, Koppardalen
SE- 774 27 Avesta, sweden
Tel: +46 (0) 226 815 00
Fax: +46 (0) 226 815 75
info@avestawelding.com
www.avestawelding.com