1

THE APPLICABILITY OF LOGOTHERAPY AS AN ORGANISATION

DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION
by
DANIEL HENDRIK BURGER
THESIS
Submitted in the fulfillment of the requirements of the degree
DOCTOR LITTERARUM ET PHILOSOPHIAE
in
INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
in the
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
at the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
Supervisor: Professor Freddie Crous
Co-supervisor: Professor Gert Roodt
October 2007

STATEMENT
I certify that the dissertation submitted by me for the degree Doctor
Litterarum et
Philosophiae (Industrial Psychology) at the University of Johannesburg,
is my independent
work and has not been submitted by me for a degree at another faculty or
university.

DANIEL HENDRIK BURGER

OCTOBER 2007
ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Throughout this study, I was fortunate enough to gain support from so
many great people, without whom the completion of this thesis would not
have been possible. I would like to extend my sincerest gratitude and
appreciation to each of the following individuals, in no particular order
of importance:
To my dearest love, my inspiration, my companion, my best and sweetest
friend you came into my life at a time when I had lost faith in a
great many things that most people take for granted. You understand me in
ways that I have failed to, you accept me for things that others dare not
know, and you inspire me to be so much more than what would have been
enough for me. For all the late nights that you virtually held my
hand, all the days that you showed me how easy it can be to be who I am,
and all the countless moments that you being you helped me to understand
what is meant by purpose I owe you so much. I adore you.
A special thank you is extended to my supervisors, Professors Freddie
Crous and Gert Roodt:
- To Freddie: For introducing me to Frankl (!!!!) and for encouraging me
to develop this idea I had into my Doctorate. For endless hours of
philosophical discussions on Frankl and countless other theorists from my
honours year until now. For showing me the value of considering the
airy-fairy and esoteric. For countering my endless cynicism with
your own particular approach of appreciative inquiry. And most of all,
for serving as an embodiment of Frankls work a real inspiration
and a living example of how you can overcome real adversity.
- To Professor Roodt: For promoting my interest in the changing
organisation. For sacrificing many hours for impromptu tutorial-like
discussions on everything from
statistics to organisational variables. For having my study in mind for
so long and
constantly asking the right questions at the right time. And for
instilling in me the
value of pragmatism and the importance of business considerations, while
still
encouraging me to follow my philosophical pursuits.
To Dr Teria Shantall: Without whose help Logo-OD would not have been
possible. Thank
you so much for your time and patience in bringing Frankls work to
life in my study.
iii

To Ritte Eiselen and Robert Crawford from STATKON: Not only for
conducting every

3
single statistical test that I asked for (and more!), but also for being
supportive,
interested, understanding, and most of all, good friends.
To Dr Johann Burden: you stepped in when my hopes of finishing this
were bleak. Thank
you for making this study possible, and for the support, understanding
and insights
provided.
To Dr Harry Swart: for spending so much of your time to help me
someone you didnt
even know to capture my questionnaires, and for sharing with me your
inspiring stories.
To all my lecturers, colleagues, and friends at the Programme in
Industrial Psychology at
Rau/UJ, with special mention of:
- Professor Johann Schepers: Your wisdom, determination, and passion for
life serve as
a great motivation to me. Thank you for not only the help with my
statistics, but also
for being a mentor and a role model to me in psychology and in life.
- Leon van Vuuren: For being more than a lecturer, and even more than a
friend. Thank
you for being like an older brother that is always there for insight,
advice, and
support, as well as a few laughs, over the past eight years.
- The late Conrad Schmidt (RIP): Not only for inspiring me to pursue a
career in this
great field in my second year, but also for introducing me to Kurt Lewin
and the other
great change masters, teaching me the value of reflection-in-practice,
and encouraging
my interest in psychometrics. We miss you very much, old friend.
I am grateful to each and every one of my friends, but a very special
mention has to go to:
- My five brothers closest to me Willie, Floris, Rudi, Raymond
and Steve
- Tanya, Mari-Lize, Hildegard and Liesel
some of you were there when this started, some of you were there when
this ended, but all
were there at times when it mattered
- Candida and Eugene for being great friends since the day I met you,
for many hours
of great company, and for making things so much easier not only
finishing this, but
also all the other little things I had to deal with

iv

To my colleagues and friends at Resolve, with a special thanks to

Tamera Campbell and
Justine Neke. Without your continuous support and endless understanding I
would never
have been able to finish the last and most difficult stretch of this
study. Thank you so
much for giving me the time I needed to make this happen!
To my baby sister, Liezl, who not only stood
on more than one
occasion when I started this study, but also provided
and support that
only a sister can give. Not many people have siblings
much that
everyone around them need to remind them continuously
much.

in as ad hoc typist
me with the love
that love them so
thank you so

To my nephew, Schalk. I will do my best to always be the kind of big

brother to you that
your daddy was to me. Thank you for being quiet on the Playstation
wanneer Danie
werk, and for always offering that smile, laugh, or that little hug
when the pressure was
high and the energy low.
Finally, a very special thank you goes to my parents. I have endless
gratitude for your
extended love, tolerance and support through all of my 29+ years
especially in the last
few months of finishing this study. Thank you for understanding my
impatience, my
absence, my (many) poor decisions, and my moods in my search to find and
be who I am.
No words can express my appreciation, but perhaps I can try by saying
that without you,
this thesis would never have been possible. My determination in
completing this only
reflects that which you have instilled in me. Ek is baie lief vir julle!

For my brother, Alwyn. Daar gaan nie een dag verby wat ek jou nie mis
nie, Ouboet.

D.H. Burger
October 2007
v

ABSTRACT

5
THE APPLICABILITY OF LOGOTHERAPY AS AN ORGANISATION
DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION
By
Daniel Hendrik Burger
SUPERVISOR: Professor Freddie Crous
CO-SUPERVISOR: Professor Gert Roodt
DEPARTMENT: Department of Human Resource Management
Faculty of Humanities
University of Johannesburg
DEGREE: D. Litt. et Phil.
DATE: November 2007
Background
Whereas the success of organisational change initiatives is largely
dependent on the support of employees, the threat that such changes
represent to the meaning individuals experience in the work context often
results in resistance to change. The effectiveness with which changes
are implemented may thus be enhanced through an intervention aimed at
addressing the individualss experience of meaning amidst such
organisational initiatives. The point of departure of this study is that
Logo-OD, or the application of logotherapy as an organization development
(OD) intervention, may constitute such an approach.
Literature survey
The primary objective of the literature review was to provide research
evidence for the applicability of logotherapy as an OD intervention. The
four secondary objectives encapsulated discussions of organizational
change, OD and logotherapy, as well as the vi
integration of the conclusions made relating to these fields, in
demonstrating the potential role that Logo-OD may play in facilitating
organisational change.
Whereas achieving a competitive advantage becomes increasingly dependent
on the ability of organisations to adapt to the catalysts of change in
their internal and external environments, organisational change
initiatives often result in a major constraint to such adaptation:
resistance to change. One potential reason for this attitudinal response
of employees, then, lies in the threat that such changes represent to the
meaning employees find in the organisational context. Consequently, the
effective facilitation of change may thus be dependent on the extent to
which organisations can address the meaning individuals experience amidst
such changes.
Whereas the field of OD encapsulates a number of established
interventions, each with its own unique foci and potential value-add to
the change process, none of these were found to sufficiently address the
implications of organisational change for the individual employees
search for meaning in life in general, and in work in particular. This
gap in the OD literature and practice thus signifies the need for a novel
OD intervention that focuses on this uniquely human experience.

Viktor Frankls logotherapy provides the theoretical principles and

practical foundation for the abovementioned approach to OD. Logotherapy
is a distinct movement within psychology that focuses on the
individuals experience of meaning in life, and as such provides
assistance in fulfilling this primary human motivation. This study then
proposes that this logotherapy- based OD intervention denoted as
Logo-OD may play a significant role in facilitating organisational
change. As a general lack of empirical research to this effect is
apparent in the literature, the focus of this study then constitutes one
of its primary contributions to the field of industrial psychology.
However, Logo-OD is in no way proposed to be a comprehensive solution to
either ensuring that individuals experience meaning in work, or reducing
resistance to change. Rather, the role of this approach to
organisational change and development is that of acting as a positive
trigger event for organisational change. Sustainable changes in
behaviour, however, will depend on the Logo-OD intervention being
supported by initiatives to create a positive
vii

organisational context, and that change interventions are framed in

accordance with the principles underlying Logo-OD.
Empirical research objectives
The primary objective of the empirical study was to determine whether a
logotherapy intervention would result in differences on the resistance to
changereadiness for change dimension for individuals faced with
organisational change. Such differences would be indicative of the
effectiveness of Logo-OD in facilitating organisational change.
The secondary empirical objectives of the study related to whether a
logotherapeutic intervention will result in statistically significant
differences firstly between pre- and post-test
measures on the resistancereadiness dimension, and secondly between
the resistance readiness measures of a group that receives a
logotherapeutic intervention and a control group that does not. Thus,
the study was to determine whether the Logo-OD intervention would result
in reduced resistance to change on the part of employees.
An investigation was also undertaken to determine whether there is a
difference between the meaning and biographical profiles of those
individuals closer to the resistance pole and those closer to the
readiness pole. Thus, an effort was made to ascertain whether individual
employees meaning and biographical profiles could serve as predictors
of the likelihood that they would display resistance to change.
Participants
A primary data set was obtained from a sample drawn from a large
information and communication technology organisation in the private
sector. For the pre-test, a stratified random sample of 1 120

7
individuals was drawn from the sampling frame of 1 637 individuals, which
yielded 193 completed questionnaires. Thus, a response rate of
approximately 17% was obtained. Respondents here were mostly white,
male, with tenure of five years or more and a post-matric qualification.
They were between 30 and 50 years old, and at a management level in the
organisation.
viii

The post-test sample, in turn, consisted of 78 individuals, thus

indicating substantial attrition between the pre- and post-tests. These
78 individuals were categorised into two groups, namely the experimental
group, which consisted of 32 participants, and the control group, which
consisted of the remaining 46 employees. The demographic characteristics
of the post- test sample were largely consistent with those of the pretest sample.
The measuring instruments
Two questionnaires were utilised in this study. Whereas the resistance
to changereadiness for change dimension was operationalised by means
of the Change Readiness Inventory (CRI), the Personal Meaning Profile
(PMP) was applied in measuring the meaning seeking construct.
The research procedure
The CRI and PMP were sent to the pre-test sample, as well as the control
group in the post- test, in electronic format.
Participants in the
experimental group were requested to complete the post-test
questionnaires at the conclusion of the Logo-OD workshop. Participation
was voluntary, which compromised random assignment. As a result, the
research design utilized is regarded as quasi-experimental.
Statistical analysis
The selection of the particular statistical procedures was based on their
suitability in testing the hypotheses of the study. These procedures
included descriptive statistics, factor and reliability analyses, a
canonical correlation analysis, t-tests for both related and independent
samples, Mann-Whitney tests, power and effect size analyses, and a
logistic regression analysis. All statistical analyses were conducted by
the Statistical Consultation Service (STATKON) of the University of
Johannesburg, using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS) 14.0.2 computer software package of SPSS International.
ix

Conclusions and recommendations

The evidence found in the empirical study largely supported the

conclusions emanating from the literature review. Firstly, the
relationship between the constructs of resistance to readiness for
change was empirically verified, which has significant implications for
the role of meaning in managing organisational change. Secondly, and
consistent with the proposed role of Logo-OD as a positive trigger event
for organisational change, limited support was found regarding the direct
effect of Logo-OD on individuals likelihood of displaying of
resistance to change.
Various conclusions were drawn on a theoretical, empirical and
methodological level. These conclusions illustrated the unique
contribution this study made to the field of industrial psychology in
that it addressed the apparent gap in the literature pertaining to the
role of meaning in facilitating organisational change. Furthermore,
recommendations were made that may potentially increase the value added
by this study in the theoretical, practical and methodological spheres of
research pertaining to organisational change. Central here is the role
that creating a positive organisational context and the framing of
organisational change initiatives based on the principles underlying
Logo-OD may play in ensuring long-term sustainable change. Finally, an
overview of the limitations of the study, as well as suggestions for
future research, was provided.
Key words:
Change management; change readiness inventory (CRI); existential
psychology; humanistic
psychology; inferential statistics; logotherapy; meaning in life; meaning
in work; meaning of work;
organisation development (OD); organisational change; personal meaning
profile (PMP); positive
psychology; positive trigger event; quasi-experimental research;
readiness for change; resistance to
change; Viktor Frankl.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Statement
...
. ii
Acknowledgements

iii
Abstract

.. vi

9
Table of contents
....
.. xi
List of figures
...
.. xix
List of tables
.
.. xx
List of annexures
.
. xxiv
List of References
.
. 350
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1. Introduction of the problem
1
1.2. Setting

3
1.3. Rationale for the study
. 7
1.3.1. The relationship between organisational change and meaning in life
7
1.3.2. Logotherapy and Lewins change model
9
1.4. Relevance of the study to the South African context
11
1.5. Problem

. 16
1.6. Objectives of the study
. 16
1.6.1. Literature objectives
17
1.6.2. Empirical objectives
19
1.7. Current levels of knowledge
20
1.8. Proposed value-add of the study
. 22
1.9. Chapter layout
.. 24
1.10. Conclusion
..
26
CHAPTER 2: ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE
2.1. Introduction
..
27

10
2.2. Conceptualising organisational change
.. 28
xi

2.3. Catalysts for organisational change

....... 31
2.3.1. Catalysts for change in the organisations external environment
.
32
2.3.2. Catalysts for change in the organisations internal environment
.. 37
2.4. Organisational responses to catalysts of change
... 39
2.4.1. Downsizing
.. 42
2.4.2. Restructuring
... 46
2.4.3. Business process re-engineering
. 46
2.4.4. Mergers and acquisitions
. 48
2.5. The human consequences of organisational change
. 50
2.5.1. The emotional impact of organisational change
. 51
2.5.1.1. The causes of stress
. 52
2.5.1.2. Moderating variables
... 54
2.5.1.3. The consequences of stress
. 55
2.5.2. The physical impact of organisational change
60
2.5.3. The career plateau
... 61
2.5.4. Obsolescence
... 62
2.5.5. The survivor syndrome
63
2.5.6. The new psychological contract and the new career
. 64
2.5.7. Job insecurity
... 67
2.6. Resistance to change
70
2.6.1. Individual causes of resistance to change
... 78
2.6.2. Organisational causes of resistance to change
84
2.7. Readiness for change
... 86

11
2.8. Conclusion
.
92
CHAPTER 3: ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT (OD)
3.1. Introduction
..
94
3.2. Historical foundations of OD
.. 95
3.3. Conceptualising OD
. 103
3.4. Scope and focus of OD
. 110
xii

3.5. OD interventions
.. 118
3.5.1. Sensitivity training
.. 122
3.5.2. Gestalt OD
... 125
3.5.3. Process consultation
126
3.5.4. Appreciative inquiry
127
3.6. Conclusion
.
128
CHAPTER 4: VIKTOR E. FRANKL AND LOGOTHERAPY
4.1. Introduction
..
131
4.2. Frankl: Biographical notes
.. 132
4.3. Conceptualising logotherapy
... 134
4.4. Logotherapy: principles and foundations
.. 136
4.4.1. The first triad
... 137
4.4.1.1. Freedom of will
137
4.4.1.2. The will to meaning
.. 139
4.4.1.3.The meaning of life
... 143

12
4.4.2. The second triad
.. 144
4.4.3. The third triad the tragic triad
.. 145
4.4.4. Existential frustration, the existential vacuum and nogenic
neurosis 147
4.5. Applied logotherapy and logotherapeutic techniques
... 152
4.6. Conclusion
.
158
CHAPTER 5: LOGOTHERAPY AS AN ORGANISATION DEVELOPMENT
INTERVENTION
5.1. Introduction
..
159
5.2. The importance of meaning in and for the contemporary organisation
160
5.2.1. The organisation and work as a source of meaning in life
.. 160
5.2.1.1. Illustrations of the centrality of organisations in meaning in
life 162
5.2.1.2. The spirituality at work movement
165
5.2.1.3. Organisational implications of meaning in work
. 167
xiii

5.2.2. Understanding how meaning is found in the organisation

.. 171
5.2.2.1. Self-enhancement
. 175
5.2.2.2. Openness to change
.. 176
5.2.2.3. Self-transcendence
... 181
5.2.2.4. Conservation
. 183
5.2.3. Meaning and commitment
.. 186
5.2.3.1. Job involvement and occupational commitment
... 188
5.2.3.2.Organisational commitment and job satisfaction
.. 190
5.2.4. Meaninglessness in work: Alienation
199
5.3. The existential vacuum as a consequence of organisational
change
. 203
5.3.1. The deterioration of traditional values in changing organisations
204

13
5.3.2. The increasing diversity of value orientations in changing
organisations

205
5.3.3. The tragic triad in changing organisations
.. 206
5.4. Conceptual similarities between logotherapy and OD
. 208
5.5. Operational similarities between logotherapy and OD
210
5.5.1. Logotherapy and sensitivity training
... 210
5.5.2. Logotherapy and gestalt OD
... 211
5.5.3. Logotherapy and process consultation
211
5.5.4. Logotherapy and appreciative inquiry
. 212
5.6. Logo-OD as a positive trigger event for organisational change
.. 213
5.7. Conclusion
.
217
CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH DESIGN
6.1. Introduction
..
218
6.2. Research approach
... 218
6.3. Hypotheses

221
6.3.1. Hypothesis 1
221
6.3.2. Hypothesis 2
222
6.3.3. Hypothesis 3
222
6.4. Sampling

223
xiv

6.5. Measuring instruments

227
6.5.1. Operationalising the resistance to changereadiness for change
dimension: The Change Readiness Inventory (CRI)
...

14
227
6.5.1.1. Standardisation
. 229
6.5.1.2. Construct validity
. 229
6.5.1.3. Face validity
. 230
6.5.1.4. Content validity
230
6.5.1.5. Reliability
. 231
6.5.2. Operationalising Frankls conceptualisation of meaning: The
Personal Meaning Profile

231
6.5.2.1. Standardisation
. 232
6.5.2.2. Construct validity
. 233
6.5.2.3. Face validity
. 234
6.5.2.4. Predictive validity
235
6.5.2.5. Reliability
. 237
6.6. Process and flow of study
. 237
6.7. The Logo-OD intervention
.. 241
6.8. Statistical analysis
248
6.9. Ethical issues
252
6.9.1. Ethical issues relating to content
. 253
6.9.2. Ethical issues relating to process
. 257
6.10. Conclusion
...
261
CHAPTER 7: RESULTS
7.1. Introduction
..
262
7.2. Descriptive statistics
. 262
7.2.1. Pre-test sample
262
7.2.2. Post-test sample
... 266
7.3. Factor and reliability analysis
. 268

15
7.3.1. Analysis of the CRI
. 268
7.3.2. Analysis of the PMP
272
xv

7.4. The relationship between the CRI and the PMP

... 276
7.4.1. Canonical correlation
.. 276
7.4.2. The impact of CRI group membership on PMP scores
... 277
7.4.3. The impact of PMP group membership on CRI scores
... 280
7.5. Testing hypotheses: Inferential statistics
... 284
7.5.1. Hypothesis 1
284
7.5.1.1. T-tests for related samples in terms of 12 CRI
dimensions
......
284
7.5.1.2. Effect size and power analyses
. 288
7.5.2. Hypothesis 2
... 289
7.5.2.1. T-tests for independent samples on CRI experimental and
control groups

289
7.5.2.2. The Mann-Whitney test
293
7.5.2.3. Effect size and power analyses
. 295
7.5.3. Hypothesis 3
... 297
7.6. Conclusion
.
299
CHAPTER 8: DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATION
8.1. Introduction
..
301
8.2. Review of the study
.. 301
8.2.1. The literature survey
301
8.2.2. The empirical study
. 303

16
8.3. Results of the literature survey
... 303
8.3.1. Organisational change
303
8.3.1.1.Definition of organisational change
.. 304
8.3.1.2. Catalysts of organisational change
... 304
8.3.1.3. Organisational change initiatives
. 305
8.3.1.4. The potential impact of organisational change on employees
...
305
8.3.1.5. Resistance to change
306
8.3.1.6. Readiness for change
307
8.3.2. OD
.
.. 307
8.3.2.1. Historical foundations of OD
... 308
xvi

8.3.2.2. Conceptualising OD
. 308
8.3.2.3. Scope and focus of OD
. 308
8.3.2.4. Established OD interventions that relate to Logo-OD
. 308
8.3.3. Logotherapy
309
8.3.3.1. Historical foundations of logotherapy
.. 309
8.3.3.2. Conceptualising logotherapy
310
8.3.3.3. Principles and foundations underlying logotherapy
. 310
8.3.3.4. Conventional applications of logotherapy
311
8.3.4. Logo-OD: The applicability of logotherapy as an OD intervention
312
8.3.4.1. The importance of meaning in and for the contemporary
organisation
...
312
8.3.4.2. The existential vacuum as a consequence of organisational
change

316

17
8.3.4.3. Conceptual similarities between logotherapy and OD
. 316
8.3.4.4. Operational similarities between logotherapy and OD
316
8.3.4.5. Logo-OD as a positive trigger event for organisational change
317
8.4. Empirical findings
319
8.4.1. Descriptive statistics
319
8.4.2. Factor and reliability analyses
. 322
8.4.2.1. Factor and reliability analyses of the CRI
322
8.4.2.2. Factor and reliability analyses of the PMP
... 323
8.4.3. The relationship between the CRI and the PMP
. 323
8.4.4. Inferential statistics: Testing of the three hypotheses
. 324
8.4.4.1. Hypothesis 1
. 325
8.4.4.2. Hypothesis 2
. 326
8.4.4.3. Hypothesis 3
. 326
8.4.5. Implications of the findings: Logo-OD as a positive trigger event
for
organisational change
..
327
8.5.Conclusion
.
. 329

xvii

CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION
9.1. Introduction
..
330
9.2. Review of research conducted
. 330
9.3. Review of findings: Conclusions
. 333
9.3.1. Theoretical conclusions
... 333

18
9.3.2. Empirical conclusions
. 335
9.3.3. Methodological conclusions
335
9.4. Recommendations
337
9.4.1. Theoretical recommendations
. 337
9.4.1.1. Organisational practices to address meaning in and at work:
creating a positive organisational context
.
337
9.4.1.2. Giving meaning to organisational change and development
initiatives through framing

339
9.4.2. Practical recommendations
. 341
9.4.3. Methodological recommendations
.. 342
9.5. Value add of the study
. 342
9.5.1. Value add in terms of practice
. 343
9.5.2. Value add in terms of theory
... 344
9.5.3. Value add in terms of methodology
344
9.6. Limitations of the study
... 345
9.7. Suggestions for future research
.. 346
9.8. Conclusion - answering the research problem
.. 349
xviii

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Research objectives (as opposed to current practice)
17
Figure 2.1: A four-tier model of forces for change
.. 32
Figure 2.2: Developmental, transitional and transformational change
42
Figure 2.3: The job stress process
53
Figure 2.4: The burnout process
.. 57

19
Figure 2.5: Forces for organisational inertia
... 75
Figure 2.6: A framework for measuring behavioural intentions to resist
change ... 89
Figure 3.1: Major organisational subsystems
.. 110
Figure 3.2: Lewins Force-Field Analysis
... 114
Figure 3.3: Lewins Change Model
. 115
Figure 4.1: The three triads underlying logotherapy
... 137
Figure 4.2: The will to meaning versus other theories of motivation
.. 141
Figure 5.1: Determinants of how meaning is found in work
... 171
Figure 5.2: An overview of creating meaningfulness in working and at work
... 172
Figure 5.3: The job characteristics model
177
Figure 5.4: A Model for Authentic Leadership Development
. 214
Figure 5.5: Logo-OD as a positive trigger event to facilitate
organisational
change

216
Figure 6.1: The research procedure followed in this study
.. 237
Figure 6.2: Data paradigm for statistical analysis
249
Figure 6.3: Testing the relationship between the CRI and PMP by means of
ttests for independent samples

250
Figure 7.1: Age distribution of pre-test respondents
... 265
Figure 7.2: Level of education distribution of pre-test respondents
265
Figure 7.3: Organisational level distribution of pre-test respondents
.. 266
Figure 8.1: Chapter objectives through which the objective of the
literature
survey was achieved
..
302
Figure 9.1: Organisational practices that foster meaningfulness
. 338

xix

20

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: The primary and secondary literature objectives of the current
study 18
Table 1.2: Potential epicentres and/or catalysts of resistance to change
in
organisations, as measured by the CRI
.
23
Table 2.1: Globalisation and implications for SA organisations
competitiveness 37
Table 2.2: Characteristics of first- versus second-order change
40
Table 2.3: Direct and indirect costs of downsizing
44
Table 2.4: Primary characteristics and causes of and required skills for
BPR
. 47
Table 2.5: Examples of stressors
54
Table 2.6: The old versus the new career
... 65
Table 2.7: Resistance to change behaviours
... 72
Table 2.8: The origins of counterproductive behaviours in organisational
change 73
Table 2.9: Defence mechanisms contributing to resistance to change
... 77
Table 2.10: Factors underlying resistance to change
79
Table 2.11: Organisational elements that may facilitate empowerment and
participation
...
81
Table 2.12: Strategies for dealing with resistance to change
... 85
Table 2.13: The five key components of a transformational message aimed
at
creating readiness for change

88
Table 2.14: Employee responses to organisational change
.. 90
Table 2.15: Factors that impact upon readiness for change
. 91
Table 3.1: Developments in OD: 1960 to 1980
.. 96
Table 3.2: Weberian vs. OD assumptions
.. 99

21
Table 3.3: Core differences between first- and second-order change from
an OD
perspective
.
100
Table 3.4: Theory X vs. Theory Y
. 106
Table 3.5: The basic tenets of humanistic psychology
... 107
Table 3.6: Assumptions and values underlying OD
... 108
Table 3.7: Aspects included in organisational subsystems
111
Table 3.8: OD interventions occurring in the major organisational
subsystems ... 119
xx

Table 3.9: Different types of change and levels of the organisation to

which OD
may be applied
..
120
Table 3.10: What sensitivity training is and what it is not
... 123
Table 4.1: Characteristics of optimal development (that ensue from
finding
meaning)

153
Table 4.2: Guideposts to assisting the individual in finding meaning
during the
Socratic dialogue
...
156
Table 5.1: Categories of values that may serve as sources of
meaning
..... 174
Table 5.2: Four hypotheses on the origins of altruism
... 182
Table 5.3: Scheins career anchors and associated basic individual
values
... 184
Table 6.1: Characteristics central to the empiricalanalytical paradigm
... 219
Table 6.2: Demographic characteristics of the sampling frame
. 226
Table 6.3: Comparison of the target population and sample in terms of
race and

22
gender

227
Table 6.4: Dimensions of the Burke-Litwin Model of Organisational
Performance and Change, utilised to construct the CRI
...
228
Table 6.5: Correlations between the PMP and criterion measures
. 236
Table 6.6: Matching of individuals who declined attendance based on
biographical criteria
...
239
Table 6.7: Criteria set for the Logo-OD intervention
. 244
Table 7.1: Demographic characteristics of the pre-test sample
.. 263
Table 7.2: Comparison of the target population, sample, and respondents
to
questionnaires in terms of race and gender
...
264
Table 7.3: Demographic characteristics of post-test sample
.. 267
Table 7.4: Reliabilities and descriptive statistics of the CRI according
to
theoretical dimensions (first-order factors)
...
269
Table 7.5: KMO and Bartlett's Test for pre- and post test CRI scores
... 270
Table 7.6: Total variance explained in extraction of CRI second-order
factors:
pre-test
...
270
Table 7.7: Total variance explained in extraction of CRI second-order
factors:
post-test
.
271
xxi

23
Table 7.8: Reliabilities and descriptive statistics of the CRI (secondorder
factors)
...
271
Table 7.9: Factor loadings on second-order factors for pre- and post
test: CRI ... 272
Table 7.10: Reliabilities and descriptive statistics of the PMP according
to
theoretical dimensions (first-order factors)
...
273
Table 7.11: KMO and Bartlett's Test for pre- and post test PMP scores
.. 273
Table 7.12: Total variance explained in extraction of PMP second-order
factors:
pre-test
...
274
Table 7.13: Total variance explained in extraction of PMP second-order
factors:
post-test
.
274
Table 7.14: Reliabilities and descriptive statistics of the PMP (secondorder
factors)
...
275
Table 7.15: Factor loadings on second-order factors of the pre- and post
test: PMP 275
Table 7.16: Statistical details of the canonical correlation between the
CRI and
PMP
...

276
Table 7.17: CRI and PMP factors constituting the canonical correlation
276
Table 7.18: Variance extracted and redundancy indexes
. 277
Table 7.19: Independent samples t-tests on PMP pre-test scores of CRI
Group 2
(high CRI scores) vs. CRI Group 3 (low CRI scores)
...
278
Table 7.20: Independent samples t-tests on PMP post-test scores of CRI
Group 2
(high CRI scores) vs. CRI Group 3 (low CRI scores)
...

24
279
Table 7.21: PMP mean factor scores for Groups 2 and 3
. 280
Table 7.22: Independent samples t-tests on CRI pre-test scores of
individuals who
scored high on the PMP vs. individuals who scored low on the PMP
281
Table 7.23: Independent samples t-tests on CRI post-test scores of
individuals
who scored high on the PMP vs. individuals who scored low on the
PMP
.
..

282
Table 7.24: CRI mean factor scores for individuals who scored high, and
individuals who scored low on the PMP
...
283
Table 7.25: T-tests for related samples for Group 1 (all participants)
(experimental
group only)

285
xxii

Table 7.26: T-tests for related samples for Group 2 (participants with
high CRI
pre-test scores)(experimental group only)
.
286
Table 7.27: T-tests for related samples for Group 3 (participants with
low CRI
pre-test scores) (experimental group only)

287
Table 7.28: Observed power and effect sizes of pre- vs. post test scores
for the
experimental group

288
Table 7.29: T-tests for independent samples for Group 1 (all
participants)
. 290

25
Table 7.30: T-tests for independent samples for Group 2 (participants
with high
CRI pre-test scores)
...
291
Table 7.31: T-tests for independent samples for Group 3 (participants
with low
CRI pre-test scores)
...
292
Table 7.32: Mann-Whitney test for Group 1 (all participants)
. 293
Table 7.33: Mann-Whitney test for Group 2 (participants with high CRI
pre-test
scores)

294
Table 7.34: Mann-Whitney test for Group 3 (participants with low CRI pretest
scores)

294
Table 7.35: Observed power and effect sizes of post-test CRI mean scores
for
experimental vs. control groups

296
Table 7.36: Logistic regression analysis of PMP and biographical factors
as
predictors of CRI scores: Step 0

297
Table 7.37: Logistic regression analysis of PMP and biographical factors
as
predictors of CRI scores: Step 1

298
Table 8.1: Key findings in the descriptive statistics of this study
.. 320
Table 9.1: Organisational practices that foster meaningfulness
. 338
Table 9.2: Framing change based on the principles underlying Logo-OD
340
xxiii

26
xxiv

LIST OF ANNEXURES
Annexure
Annexure
Annexure
PMP
Annexure

A Curriculum Vitae of Dr HM (Teria) Shantall

B Workshop format of Logo-OD intervention
C An exploration of the test-retest reliability of the CRI and
D Additional statistical findings