Biology

250

Human Anatomy and Physiology

Instructor: Dr. Frank Sauer

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy: studies the structure of body parts
and their rela:onships to one another.
Physiology: concerns the func:on of the body.
How do body parts work and carry out their
life-sustaining ac:vi:es.

Topics of Anatomy
Gross-Anatomy:
Study of large body structures visible to the
naked eye.

Microscopic anatomy:
Study of structures too small to be observed
with the naked eye.

Developmental anatomy:
Study of structural changes during the en:re life
cycle of an organism.

Topics of Anatomy
Gross-Anatomy: Gross or macroscopic
anatomy.
Dierent approaches:
Regional anatomy: all structures in a parEcular region of the
body are examined at the same Eme (e.g., leg).
Systemic anatomy: body structures are studies system by
system (e.g., cardiovascular system).
Surface anatomy: study of internal structures as they relate
to the overlying skin (e.g., idenEfy muscles under skin).

Topics of Anatomy

Microscopic anatomy:
Cytology (cells).
Histology (:ssues).

Developmental anatomy:
Study of structural changes during the en:re life
cycle of an organism.
Embryogenesis: Study of structural changes
occurring in the embryo before birth.

Topics of Physiology
Dierent subdivisions: Most of them study the acEvity/operaEon
of specic organs.

Renal physiology = kidney funcEon and urine producEon
Neurophysiology = funcEons of nervous system
Cardiovascular physiology = heart and blood vessel
Physiology oRen focuses on cellular and molecular level. The
bodys abiliEes/acEviEes depend on individual cells and the
chemical reacEons that occur in the cells.
Physiology rests on the principles of physics, molecular biology, cell
biology and (bio-)chemistry.

Principle of complementarity of structure and funcEon

Anatomy and Physiology are closely connected

because
funcEon always reects structure

OrganizaEon of the Body

Range: From atom to the enEre organisms.

Dierent levels of structural organizaEon:
Chemical level: Atoms, combine to form molecules that associate
in specic ways to form cell organelles.
Cellular level: Cells are basic building blocks (units) of living things.
All cells have common func:on and organiza:on but dier in size,
shape, and func:on to full-ll specic role in the body.

OrganizaEon of the Body

Tissue level: Tissue = groups of similar cells that have a common func:on.
Four basic types of :ssue: Epithelium, muscle, connec:ve :ssue, and
nervous :ssue.
Organ level: Organ = discrete structure composed of at least two :ssue
types that performs a specic func:on for the body (e.g., liver, brain, blood
vessel. At the organ level, extremely complex func:ons become possible.
Stomach: lining is composed of epithelium, the wall of muscle, and nerve
bers increase diges:ve ac:vity by s:mula:ng muscles.)

Organ system level: Organs that work together to accomplish a common
task/purpose make up an organ system, e.g., heart and blood vessels of the
cardiovascular system.
Organismal level: sum of all structural levels working together to keep
organism (us) alive.

Which are the necessary life funcEons ??

Necessary life funcEons

Humans maintain their boundaries, move, respond to

environmental changes, take in and digest nutrients, carry out
metabolisms, dispose of waste, reproduce, and grow.

Maintaining Boundaries
Every living organism must maintain its boundaries so that internal the
environment remains dierent from the external environment.
Single-celled organisms: cell membrane.
Organisms: integumentary system (skin): protects internal organs from
drying out, bacteria, heat and sunlight.

integumentary system

Movement
Muscular system: running, swimming, and when blood, food, and urine are
propelled through internal organs of cardiovascular, diges:ve, and urinary
systems.
Skeletal System: provides bony framework that the muscles pull on.

Cellular level: muscle cells ability to move by shortening is termed:

contrac:lity.

Skeletal System

Muscular system

Responsiveness
Ability to sense changes in the environment and then respond
to them.
Nervous system (all cells are excitable).

DigesEon

Diges:on (breakdown) of food to single molecules that are

absorbed into the blood.
Diges:ve system (all cells are excitable).
Single-celled (e.g., amoeba) = diges:on factory.

Metabolism
Term that describes all chemical reacEons within body cells.
Diges:ve system (all cells are excitable).
Single-celled (e.g., amoeba) = diges:on factory
Catabolism: breakdown of substances into simpler building
blocks
Anabolism: synthesis of complex cellular structures from
building blocks.
Cellualr respira:on: cellular combus:on of nutrients with
oxygen to produce cellular energy in form of ATP.
Metabolism involves: diges:ve, respiratory, cardiovascular,
and endocrine system.

ExcreEon

Removing wastes (or excreta) from body.

Diges:ve system.
Urinary system.
Respiratory system

ReproducEon

Reproduc:on:
Cellular: cell division.

Human:
Reproduc:ve system (male/female).
Endocrine (hormone) system.

Growth

Growth: Increase in size of a body part or the organism as a

whole.

Generally achieved by increasing the number of cells.

Cell growth: size of individual cells can increase.

What does the human body need to survive?

Survival Needs
Nutrients (food, diet), oxygen, water, appropriate temperature,
and atmospheric pressure.
Nutrients (diet): contains chemical substances for energy and cell
building.
Carbohydrates (sugars): energy source.
Proteins: building block for cell structures.
Fat: emergency energy source and essen:al for cell structure.
Minerals: e.g., calcium (bone).
Oxygen: Essen:al for energy produc:on in cellular respira:on.

Water: 50-60% of body weight. Provides environment of cellular

reac:ons and a uid base for secre:ons and excre:ons.

Survival Needs
Temperature: normal (human) 37oC (98.6oF). Op:mized for all
metabolic reac:ons.
Too high or too low = death.
Muscular system generates most body heat.
Atmospheric pressure: force that air exerts on surface of
body.
Breathing and gas exchange depend on appropriate
atmospheric pressure.
High al:tude (Mount Everest) pressure is too low to support
adequate gas exchange.

Homeostasis
Ability of the body to maintain relaEvely stable internal
condiEons in the presence of constantly changing
environmental condiEons

All organ systems are involved in homeostasis.

Communica:on within the body is essen:al for homeostasis:
nervous system and endocrine system.

All homeosta:c control mechanisms regulate event or factor

(termed variable) and contain three components:
Receptor
Control center
Eector

Homeostasis

Homeosta:c control mechanisms:

Receptor: some type of sensor that monitors the environment
and responds to changes (s:muli) by sending informa:on to
the control center via aerent pathway.
Control center: determines the set point, which is the level or
range at which a variable (e.g., blood oxygen) is to be
maintained. Analyzes input received from receptor.
Sends informa:on to eector via eerent pathway.
Eector: provides means to control control centers response.
Results feed back to inuence the eect of s:mulus (either
shut o/reduc:on or enhancement)

NegaEve feedback mechanisms

Nega:ve feedback: output (eector) shuts-o or reduces eect of

the original s:mulus. Variable changes in the direc:on opposite to
that of the ini:al change (s:mulus) to return to set value.

NegaEve feedback mechanisms

NegaEve feedback
mechanisms

PosiEve feedback mechanisms

Posi:ve feedback: output (eector) enhances original

s:mulus. Posi:ve because changes enhance original eect and
proceed in the same direc:on as the ini:al change (s:mulus).
Variable deviates further and further from set value or range.

PosiEve feedback
mechanisms

Anatomical Terms

Anatomical posi:ons describe body direc:on, regions, and planes.

Standard anatomical posi:on (anatomical reference point):

standing at aden:on: body erect, with feet slightly apart.

Lef right refer to sides of the person or the cadaver being viewed
not those of the observer.
Direc:onal terms: allow us to explain where one body structure is
in rela:on to another. (ears are lateral to the nose; instead of ears
are on each site of the head and lef and right of the nose).

Anatomical Terms

Anatomical Terms

Anatomical Terms

Regional Terms

Axial Part:
main axis of the human body
includes head, neck and trunk

Appendicular Part:
includes appendages or limbs, which are
adached to the bodys axis.

Regional Terms
Figure 1.7 Regional terms used to designate specific body areas.
Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Oral
Mental
Cervical

Cephalic
Otic
Occipital (back
of head)
Upper limb
Acromial
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Olecranal
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)

Thoracic
Sternal
Axillary
Mammary
Abdominal
Umbilical

Back (dorsal)
Scapular
Vertebral
Lumbar

Manus (hand)
Metacarpal
Palmar
Pollex
Digital

Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin)

Sacral
Gluteal
Perineal (between
anus and external
genitalia)

Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Popliteal
Crural (leg)
Sural (calf)
Fibular or peroneal

Pubic (genital)

Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)

(a) Anterior/Ventral
2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cervical

Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Calcaneal
Metatarsal
Digital
Plantar
Hallux
(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Human Anatomy and Physiology, Tenth Edition, by Elaine N. Marieb and Katja Hoehn

Body Planes and SecEons

For anatomical studies, the body is ofen cut
(sec:oned) along a at surface

Flat surface = plane
Most frequent planes: sagi]al, frontal, and
transverse planes, which lie in right angles to one
Sec:ons are named for the plane along which they
are cut.

Sagi]al Plane
Sagi]al plane: ver:cal plane that divides body into
lef and right parts.

Median plane: Sagidal plane exactly in the middle

Parasagi]al planes (para = near): all other sagidal
planes that oset from the midline.

Frontal Plane
Frontal (coronal) plane: ver:cal plane that divides
body into anterior and posterior parts.

Transverse or horizontal plane

Transverse or horizontal plane: divides body into
inferior and superior parts.

Transverse secEon = cross secEon

Body Planes

Dierent sec:ons reveal dierent structures and

details.

Oblique secEons

Sec:ons based on cuts made diagonally between

horizontal and ver:cal planes
Seldom used, because sec:ons are dicult to
interpret

Membrane-lined body caviEes

Two sets of internal body cavi:es
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Cavi:es are closed to the outside and provide
dierent degrees of protec:on to the organs within
them.
Dorsal and ventral cavity dier in developmental
origin and lining.
Dorsal cavity is not recognized in many anatomical
references.

Dorsal body cavity

Dorsal Cavity protects the fragile nervous system
organs.

Two subdivisions:
Cranial cavity: located in the skull, encases the
brain.
Vertebral (spinal) cavity: runs within the bony
vertebral column and encloses the spinal cord.

Cranial and vertebral caviEes are conEnuous
(connected).
Brain and spinal cord are covered by membranes
called meninges.

Ventral body cavity

Ventral Cavity protects internal organs.

Two subdivisions:
Thoracic cavity: located in the skull, encases the
brain
Abdominopelvic cavity: runs within the bony
vertebral column and encloses the spinal cord.

Ventral body cavity houses viscera or visceral
organs = Internal organs in a body cavity.

Ventral body cavity: the thoracic cavity

Thoracic cavity is surrounded by ribs and muscles of the
chest.
Thoracic cavity is subdivided into:
Lateral pleural caviEes, which house the lungs.
Medial mediasEnum:
Contains pericardial cavity, which encloses the heart
and surrounds thoracic organs (e.g., esophagus,
trachea).

Ventral body cavity: the abdominopelvic cavity

Abdominopelvic and thoracic cavi:es are separated by

diaphragm (dome-shaped muscle involved in breathing).

Abdominopelvic cavity is subdivided into two parts, which

are not physically separated by muscle or membrane:

Superior porEon = Abdominal cavity: contains e.g.,
stomach, intes:nes, spleen, liver.
Inferior porEon = Pelvic cavity: located in bony pelvis
and contains urinary bladder, reproduc:ve organs, and
the rectum.

Membranes of the the Ventral body cavity

Walls of ventral body cavity and outer surfaces of
organs covered with thin, double-layered membrane, the
serosa (or serous membrane).

Part of membrane lining the cavity walls is called the parietal

serosa.

Part of membrane lining the organs is called the visceral
serosa.

Membranes of the the Ventral body cavity

Parietal serosa folds on itself to form visceral serosa.

Note: Parietal serosa always fused to cavity wall .

Parietal and visceral serosa are separated by uid,

called serous uid
Serous uid allows the organs to slide without fric:on
across cavity wall and one another.
Especially important for moving organs, e.g., heart and
stomach.

Naming serous membranes

Parietal pericardium lines the pericardial cavity.
Folds back to form visceral pericardium.

Parietal pleurae line walls of thoracic cavity, visceral pleurae cover the lungs
Parietal peritoneum associated with walls of the abdominopelvic cavity,
visceral peritoneum covers most organs within the cavity.

Naming serous membranes

Parietal pleurae line walls of thoracic cavity,
visceral pleurae cover the lungs



Parietal peritoneum
associated with walls of the
abdominopelvic cavity,
visceral peritoneum covers
most organs
within the cavity.

Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

Abdominopelvic cavity is large and contains several organs.

Medical personnel use scheme

consis:ng of a transverse
and ver:cal plane
passing through
the umbilicus
at right angles.

Abdominopelvic Regions: Nine Regions

Anatomists use scheme consis:ng of two transverse
and two parasagidal planes.

Abdominopelvic Regions: Nine Regions

Anatomists use scheme consis:ng of two transverse
and two parasagidal planes.

epi = upon
Gastri = belly
Hypo = below
Iliac = superior part of the hip bone
Lumbus = loin
Chondro = car:lage

Abdominopelvic Regions: Nine Regions

Umbilical region: centermost region deep to and surrounding
the umbilicus.

Epigastric region: superior to umbilical region.

Hypogastric (pubic) region: located inferior to the umbilical region
Right and lef iliac, or inguinal regions: located lateral to the
hypogastric region.
Right and lef lumbar region: lateral to the umbilical region.
Right and lef hypochandriac region: lateral to the epigastric region
and deep to the rips

Abdominopelvic Regions: Nine Regions

Anatomists use scheme consis:ng of two transverse
and two parasagidal planes.

Other Body CaviEes

Oral (mouth) and digesEve cavity
Oral cavity contains teeth and tongue
Oral cavity con:nuous with Diges:ve cavity, which consists of
diges:ve organs, and opens to the body exterior at the anus.
Nasal cavity: located in the posterior of the nose, part of respiratory system
passageways. Open to exterior.
Orbital caviEes: located in the skull and present eyes to outside.
Middle ear caviEes: located in the skull just medial to eardrum and contain :ny
bones that transmit sound. . Open to exterior.
Synovial caviEes: joint cavi:es, enclosed within brous capsules that surround
freely movable joints (elbow, knee joints).. Membranes surrounding synovial
cavi:es secrete a lubrica:ng uid that reduces fric:on as bones move across
one another.