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INDEX...................................................................................................................................................................... 2
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1.
MOTIVATION ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.
OBJECTIVES .......................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.
2.1.1.
BRICKWORK ................................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.2.
STRUCTURE .................................................................................................................................. 8
2.1.3.
MONOLITHIC ............................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.
2.3.
2.3.1.
DEFINITIONS............................................................................................................................... 27
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
2.3.4.
2.3.5.
COMMENTS ................................................................................................................................ 38
2.3.6.
3. DISCUSION ABOUT RAMMED EARTH AS THE BEST earth building tecnique ............................................. 40
3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.5.1.
PREFABRICATION ...................................................................................................................... 47
3.5.2.
4.2.
5.1.2.
5.1.3.
5.2.
5.2.1.
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 76
5.2.2.
5.2.3.
5.3.
ADDITIVES .......................................................................................................................................... 78
5.3.1.
5.3.2.
5.4.
5.4.1.
Tests tables................................................................................................................................ 81
5.4.2.
5.5.
5.5.1.
5.5.2.
5.6.
5.6.1.
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 84
5.6.2.
Tests tables................................................................................................................................ 85
5.6.3.
5.7.
5.7.1.
5.7.2.
5.8.
5.8.1.
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 89
5.8.2.
5.8.3.
AKNOWDLEGEMENTS
This work symbolizes the end of an era in my life. Besides its intrinsic value for the hours and effort spent,
it is the final seal of my first university degree. For this, first I have to thank the people who made it possible
to reach this far, morally and economically: my family. They have given me the opportunity to be trained as
a professional in one of the most prestigious universities in the country and also in my final year, and they
have made possible an unforgettable experience as an Erasmus student in the wonderful city of Warsaw.
And most importantly, to have a happy life full of opportunities and dreams fulfilled.
To all my friends from Valencia, Paiporta, classmates, high school and university.
Emancipate adventure in a new country, it is one of the most interesting experiences that a student can do
because, with the role of student life always has a learning perspective, hungry to know and understand
that let you absorb every moment that life gives you as if it were your last day.
In this adventure I have met wonderful people, I have never felt alone, always wrapped by a large family of
friends from many different parts of the world, supporting each other. And even, many great friends that
have given to me more than I could never give to them back.
I do not forget my teachers, those people we take example and wisdom and gradually shape our way of
seeing the world. In particular I have to mention M Jess Ferrando, my professor of philosophy at 2nd year
of Bachillerato, which helped me to understand the world and realize the path I wanted to take in life.
Although this has been maturing in my head over the years, I'm sure she planted many seeds. Also Pep
Ballester, my math teacher also in 2nd year of Bachillerato: civil engineer, great teacher admirable for their
professionalism and dedication to students, and a person with a big heart. Also the great Armando, a
professor at the academy that helped me overcome two of the most difficult subjects of the degree,
besides having one of the best attitudes to life that a person can have.
At the Universitat Politcnica de Valncia I have had very good teachers: Joaqun Cerver Montalva, Carmona
Miguel Angel Carrin, Eduardo Hernandez Albentosa, Nacho Paya, Boquera Pascual, Miguel Angel Egubar,
and so on. But I must mention especially MTeresa Pellicer, for being my mentor in the project and Pedro
Calderon, also always willing to help me with this work.
At the University Politechnika Warszawska I had a warm welcome since the first moment. I must especially
thank the attention given by Dr. Pawe, Erasmus coordinator, and his secretary Natalia Mochtak, both have
helped us in our adaptation to the new university. To my English teacher Mrs. Wiesawa Barnas, a lovely
and great professor. Finally and most importantly, my project cotutor Professor Piotr Narloch, that opened
my eyes to the possibilities of sustainable construction and has constantly been helping and supervising my
work.
I must also thank my student colleagues in the foreign university, the laboratory technicians and library
workers.
I hope this study will be useful to the work of Professor Narloch in his arduous task of drafting a standard
on rammed earth for Poland as well as being useful for anyone interested in the subject, trying to contribute
their grain of sand in the field of sustainable construction, which is definitely the way forward for civil
engineering and architecture unless we want to condemn us to extinction.
PROLOGUE
In the South, more than one billion people do not have a close to minimum housing standards. They also
have only the import of most known technologies and materials from developed world, which result in
unaffordable costs of materials and construction methods. In fact, in some African countries, it is estimated
that 90% of payments for the provision of construction materials are imported. This excess means paying
exorbitant amounts of foreign currency that countries cannot cope in almost complete state of economic
ruin. Besides, we think that the laying of different materials and construction methods require auxiliary
tools and machines that must also be imported. From the social point of view, this situation alienates the
masses of any housing solution with minimal living conditions, which is the true tragic dimension of the
problem, thus complying huge pockets of marginalization in the belts of large cities, planned and built
according to the model of North countries. This is evident in many cities in Latin America, for example. [1]
Although slums and informal urban areas provide a crucial mechanism for the dwelling of many of the urban
poor and disadvantaged, they pose a range of serious humanitarian and environmental problems for both
present and future generations, including:
Through both of these functions, housing represents a system of social and material relationships, which is
simultaneously arranged at the different spatial scales (homes, surrounding neighbourhoods, settlements,
regions, countries) and which, therefore, requires a corresponding hierarchy of policy interventions. [2]
But, what if this countries have already got the properly materials and simply need to acquire new
construction methods that allow them to move forward in good quality housing with their own resources?
Earth construction have been the first building material around the world. But we just cannot keep
constructing big cities like we used to do 10.000 years ago. We have already achieved great advances in
earth construction methods to adapt it to the current quality of life, and we have to share them, especially
with this poor countries which need it, furthermore, we owe them because of the ecological debt.
The ecological debt is the debt accumulated by the North to the South for two reasons. First, by exports of
primary products at very low prices, i.e. excluding environmental damage at the site of the extraction and
processing, and global pollution. Secondly, for free or very cheap occupation of environmental space-the
air, water, the earth to deposit the waste produced by the North.
Ecological Debt has originated under colonialism and continues to be generated each day. The concept of
ecological debt is based on the idea of environmental justice: if all the world's inhabitants are entitled to
the same amount of resources and the same share of environmental space, which use more resources and
take more space have a debt to the other. [3]
II
Do not forget to mention some large construction programs that embrace these principles promoted by
governments, especially in Latin America (Peru, Mexico, Colombia, Cuba ...) or activity groups in developed
countries as CRATerre in France, the Agency for Cooperation (GTC) in Germany and the University of Kassel;
and the Instituto Eduardo Torroja in Spain with his very low cost Housing Projec, or the program Proterra
by CYTEC. Likewise, we must also highlight the efforts of many non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
and the interest of professionals in architecture running many construction projects with unbaked earth
and performing this research and dissemination of the material.
The grotesque dimension of the problem arises when in countries suddenly enriched by oil, for example,
the materials and construction methods used always disappear quickly, as happened with our vernacular
architecture, to make way for the ineffable copy of archetypes and technologies imported outside that,
despite their obvious climate maladjustment, willingly they use as a sign of social distinction. Technology
transfer has always existed, but whereas in the past was carried out by slow adaptation processes currently
acquires unmistakable features of speed, massive and unidirectional. We must therefore encourage a
selective transfer, but not indiscriminate, which serve mainly to help an autonomous technology research
policy. [1]
On the other hand, the lack of regulation in our country often makes that building with earth, especially the
technique of rammed earth, has a minority use in heritage restoration, always resorting to the easy from
the point of legally in new buildings, leading to the widespread use of the most damaging environmental
techniques.
Despite this is out of the reach of this work, we also may mention that taking care about the environment
has a lot of fields to be treated as well as construction techniques. The use of renewable energies has to
increase, moreover the economic barriers. And far more important is the fact that the agriculture system is
failing to feed the entire population of the world. It is destroying ecosystems while we need to plant grain
and soya to feed this farm animals over the native woods and flora. It is also contributing to increase the
level of greenhouse gases in greater level than oil industry, and many other facts that are putting under risk
our planet [4].
In conclusion, what Bio-Construction means is more than we could think in first instance. The model of EcoVillage should include unless three factors: sustainable construction, sustainable agriculture and
sustainable energy sources.
III
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.
MOTIVATION
I never found a true vocation for engineering during school. I liked the challenge posed to study a difficult
degree, with a lot of mathematical and physical subjects, which are the subjects I most enjoyed during my
high school studies.
Over the years I realized that engineering was losing its pure mathematics component and was
transformed into a pragmatic science, full of approximate models, assumptions or "magic formulas". This
disenchanted me even more and got to wonder seriously quit university and focus on other fields such as
music, one of my great passions in life.
But the inertia and stubbornness allowed me to reach the end of the road. I like to finish things I start, and
I knew that engineering could open up a thousand doors to different types of work in many different areas.
Therefore, there was no point leaving, and less after spending the first three years of college that are really
hard.
Finally, in the fifth grade I chose the specialty of civil constructions. Again by inertia, as required by yourself
and not by vocation. Because as I say, I never had a real engineering vocation.
However, everything changed when I came to Poland. I started my Erasmus in Warsaw in late September
2014. I arrived at the Technical University of Warsaw and after the first few weeks of adaptation to the
classes and the new environment my mission was to find a theme and a mentor for my final project.
I've always been an ardent defender of the environment and human rights, so with some idea in my head
about it, I started talking to Dr. Pawe Nowak, the Erasmus coordinator who did the welcome speech. I
mentioned my concerns and he borrowed me a book written by him: Sustainability in Construction, plus
recommended me some teachers to talk about these issues, as they were more stuck in this field than he
at that time.
With great enthusiasm I read the book and that's when I found a light at the end of the tunnel. An
engineering path that led me to destinations that really motivated me and where I could enjoy applying
what I have learned during my studies. And this was the bio-construction (also known as eco-construction,
green building, etc.). I didnt have in mind any particular type of bioconstruction, just a general idea of
sustainable construction, recyclable materials, etc. I knew this was what I had to search for the topic of my
project.
And finally, thanks to the list of teachers that Dr. Nowak gave me, I contacted Professor Piotr Narloch, who
introduced me in the fascinating world of rammed earth. He gladly accepted to be my tutor in the project
and invited me to collaborate with student groups that were carrying out interesting research in the
laboratories of the university with this material.
Finally, to realize the theme of my project, I had to find a tutor at the Polytechnic University of Valencia and
thank Professor Ignacio Pay I came to Professor Maria Teresa Pellicer, who had worked in several
restoration projects with rammed earth buildings in Valencia. She agreed to be my PFC tutor in the UPV and
gave me several bibliographical references of interest. Its important to note the book "Arquitecturas de
Tapia" by F. Font and P. Hidalgo, who was my coffee table book practically all Erasmus.
So, I finally found my engineering vocation, an area in engineering with a great future and that gives me
great personal satisfaction on helping either other people and the environment, with the experience gained
in the Valencia School of Civil Engineering and in the Warsaw School of Civil Engineering (Wydziau Inynierii
Ldowej).
1.2. OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this paper is to analyse how is the procedure in simple compression tests on
specimens of rammed earth in laboratories around the world. This analysis is intended to serve as a basis
for discussion of the best technique to proceed with this type of test that is one of the most important ones
for building with any material.
This work will help the creation of standards for the technique of rammed earth in Poland that is being
developed at the University Politechnika Warszawska under the supervision of Professor Piotr Narloch.
As secondary objectives, this document aims to raise awareness to any interested reader about the
possibilities of this construction technique, the possible lines of research and the need to continue working
and improving this building technique.
It also aims to raise awareness of the need for change in the production model that prevails in our world,
both in the field of construction and in the field of energy and agriculture, leading each of these points
towards absolute sustainability in harmony with the planet on which we live.
2.1.1. BRICKWORK
2.1.1.1. Pressed bloks or compressed earth
The soil, raw or stabilized, is slightly moistened, poured into a steel press (with or without stabilizer) and then
compressed either with a manual or motorized press. It is a development from traditional rammed earth. It
seems that the first attempts at Compressed Earth Blocks (CEB) were tried in France, in the first years of the 19th
century: the architect Mr. Francois Cointreaux tried around 1803 to pre-cast small blocks of rammed earth. He
used hand rammers to compress humid soil into small wooden moulds which were held with the feet.
One had to wait till 1950 in Colombia for a housing research programme to improve the hand-moulded adobe.
The result of this research and development (R&D) was the Cinvaram, the ancestor of the steel manual presses,
which could make very regular blocks in shape and size, denser, stronger and more water resistant than the
common adobe. CEB technology has been a great mean for the worldwide renaissance and promotion of earth
construction in the 20th century.
FIG. 2 CINVARAM - THE FIRST PRESS FOR COMPRESSED EARTH BLOCKS [5]
Soft soils, which will harden when exposed to air due to chemical reaction of the soil constituent with
the air (carbonation reaction). This natural reaction is called induration. Such soils can be found on the
west coast of India, from Kerala to Goa.
Hard crust which was long ago a soil and has already hardened (indured) through the ages. Burkina Faso
in Africa and Orissa in India show wonderful examples of such soils and blocks.
Since a while the name laterite has been replaced by two more specific names: plinthite instead of laterite soft
soil and petroplinthite for the hard crust laterite.
FIG. 6 EGYPT, THEBES, TOMB OF REKHMIRE - 15TH CENTURY BC - ADOBE MAKING (DRAWING OF THE ENTIRE FRESCO) [5]
2.1.2. STRUCTURE
2.1.2.1. Earth sheltered space (or covered earth)
Soil has been traditionally used to cover roofs in different parts of the world. In arid climates, either very hot or
very cold, it regulates the inside temperature, due to heavy thermal mass. In Scandinavia, the earth to cover
roofs was taken with grass, so as to hold the soil and give cohesion to it through their roots. This method gave
also more thermal mass and allowed the inside temperature to be more even.
In Nordic countries but also in the Himalayas regions, waterproofing was done long ago with the bark of birch
trees. The bark peeled from the tree was very thin and it was applied in several layers to get a waterproof effect.
Nowadays, waterproofing is done with PVC or bitumen sheets.
Green roofs are today a modern development of the technique of covered earth. Green roofs, also known as
vegetated roof covers or eco-roofs are multi-beneficial structural components that help to mitigate the effects
of urbanization on water quality by filtering, absorbing or detaining rainfall.
2.1.2.2. Fill-in
Humid soil was traditionally poured into wooden lattice works. Thus, it gave some thermal mass to light
structures as well as some acoustic insulation. In recent times, dry soil has been poured into synthetic textiles
which are hold outside by wooden poles driven into the ground.
Dry soil is also being poured into long synthetic tubes, which are staked upon each other. Cal-Earth (The
California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture) www.calearth.org which was founded and headed by the
architect Nader Khalili does an extensive use of filled in technique. They call it Superadobe construction and they
are building what is called Eco-domes. Superadobe structures are an excellent example of green building
techniques. They use Tubular roll of sandbag-type material which are filled with earth. A barbed wire is use to
bind the earth tube together. Later on the earth tubes are plastered with stabilised earth plaster. [5]
FIG. 13 IN ORDER OF APPEARENCE: STRAW CLAY CONSTRUCTION IN BELGIUM, STRAW CLAY HOUSE IN GERMANY AND CLOSE STRAW
CLAY PHOTO [5]
10
FIG. 14 NON-STRUCTURAL DAUBED EARTH WALL IN A STORE STRUCTURE, CALATAAZOR, SORIA, CASTILLA Y LEN.
(PHOTO: VALENTINA CRISTINI WITH JOS RAMN RUIZ CHECA) [9]
11
2.1.3. MONOLITHIC
2.1.3.1. Dug out
The earth is dug out to create shelters. In most of cases dwellings are dug out in soft soils, tuffs, loess or porous
lava in areas with hot and dry climate. Depending on the morphology of the site, the earth is either dug in depth
or on a hillside.
The horizontal dug out create caves on the side of the hills, which are accessed by staircases and galleries, such
as in China for the school of Fenghuo in the Xiang region.
The vertical dug out are created in areas such as plateaus or plains. A kind of open courtyard is dug out a few
meters deep and then room are dug out like caves on the side of this courtyard. Access to the dwelling is done
by a staircase, often very steep. Beautiful examples are found in China, in the provinces of Hunnan, Shanxi, and
Gansu, where more than 10 million people live in homes dug out of the loess layer. In Tunisia too, one can find
interesting achievements.
In Turkey, Cappadocia show exceptional creations where people combined vertical and horizontal dug out. [5]
FIG. 15 SCHOOL OF FENGHUO, REGION OF XIANG, CHINA (PHOTO BY J.P. LOUBES) [5]
12
2.1.3.3. Cob
Plastic soil is usually formed in balls, which are freshly stacked upon each other. This technique has been used a
lot long ago in Europe, where it was named cob in England and bauge in France.
This technique is still used a lot in Africa, India and in Saudi Arabia, where beautiful examples can be seen. The
most beautiful examples are encountered in Yemen with Shibam. This old historic capital of Southern Yemen has
been named The Manhattan of the Desert. Shibam was recorded by UNESCO as a world heritage site. In fact
Shibam was built with a combination of cob and with adobe.
Since a while, cob is getting known again with some development in USA, as well as in other parts of the world.
We show hereafter only worldwide traditional developments.
13
14
15
Soil identification
Like any other earth building technique, one should select the best soil, according to the requirements. Knowing
that the best soil for rammed earth is preferably sandy or gravely rather than clayey, one should take a lot of
care about the clay content. Worldwide, the skill and knowledge of people has led them to choose rammed earth
when the soil was more sandy or gravely. When the local soil was more silty or clayey they chose other
techniques like Adobe, Cob or Wattle and Daub.
Preparation
After being excavated, the soil is thoroughly sieved, to break the lumps and make it lighter. Big rocks should be
removed but some stones could be kept. If the natural soil is too dry, it should moistened and mixed so as to get
a uniform humid mix.
Formwork types
Two techniques have traditionally been developed. They used either horizontal or vertical formworks.
The horizontal technique was used in many parts of the world. Strips of walls were built horizontally and their
height varied from 30 to 90 cm.
The formwork consisted of 2 wooden panels held together with wooden clamps and keys, which were tightened
with ropes. Once one portion of a wall was completed, the formwork was immediately dismantled and moved
further along the side of the wall, as showed here in Morocco or China.
16
The vertical technique was used in a few places in the world: mainly in Tibet, China and one region of France
(Bugey).
The walls were built vertically to their full height at once. Long poles were anchored in the ground to hold side
panels, which were made of wood and tightened with rope. The entire height of the wall was built course after
course. Once a course was completed, the side panel was raised to ram a next course and the process went on
till the entire height of the wall was completed.
Humid soil was evenly poured into the formwork to get a regular course of about 12-15 cm thickness. The soil is
first rammed along the sides of the panels and the central portion of the wall is rammed immediately after that.
Every course is rammed till the rammer hitting the soil gives a clear sharp sound and the rammer is not doing
anymore marks on the course.
17
Once a course has been completed, the process goes on in the same way for the following courses till the
maximum height of the panels. Immediately after completion, the formwork is removed and shifted either
sideways in the case of the horizontal technique or lifted up for the vertical technique.
2.1.3.4.2. Modern
Soil stabilization gave a great input to rammed earth as well as mechanization. The traditional wooden rammer
has been replaced by pneumatic rammers. Heavy wooden formworks evolved into light composite ones, made
of plywood, wood and steel or sometimes aluminium. Pneumatic rammers, dumpy loaders, mixers, ban
conveyors, etc. allowed to build faster and get a better quality finish. Structures are most of the time built with
pier walls, meaning that walls are built up to their full height at once. This way of building changed totally the
design pattern of structures.
Australia and Western USA have seen the widest development. David Easton in California
http://www.rammedearthworks.com does wonderful works. More and more development happens also in
Canada, and other countries of Europe such as UK with Earth structure Europe
http://www.earthstructures.co.uk and Austria with Martin Rauch http://www.lehmtonerde.at. Since a few years
stabilised rammed earth is being more and more used, furthermore new standards are being created. [5]
FIG. 32 MIX SUPPLY, PNEUMATIC RAMMING AND VERTICAL FORM (IN ORDER OF APPEARANCE) [5]
18
19
20
21
NAME
Municipal swimming
pool
FUNCTION
EARTH
BUILDING
TECHNIQUE
Public
Yes
Yes
CLIMATE ZONE
Mediterranean
Mediterranean
STOREYS
ADDITIVES
CITY
(COUNTRY)
Zamora (Spain)
Vinars (Spain)
LOAD-BEARING
EARTH
DATE
FIG. 37 [1]
2010
FIG. 36 [1]
s. XII
PHOTO
22
FIG. 41 [13]
The vaults
are plastered with an earth plaster, which
is covered by an elastic acrylic waterproof
paint
1
No
25 m
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Handmade
adobes
Earth-filled rammed sacks
Rammed Earth
No
Residence
Country house
Public and
Commercial
Building
Hot Mediterranean
climate
National wine
center
FIG. 40 [12]
Tabiya
(muslim Rammed Earth)
Highlands
Semiarid
Military
Villena (Spain)
La Paz (Bolivia)
Moab, Utah (USA)
Adelaide
(Australia)
Honey House
FIG. 39 [12]
Semiarid
s. XII-XV
1999
1998
FIG. 38 [1]
2002
Castillo de la Atalaya
23
5
Well-lit, well-ventilated, wind-proof,
earthquake-proof, warm in winter and cold
in summer
Rammed Earth
Straw
Residence
Residence
Yes
Semitropical
Humid Continental
No
Fujian (China)
FIG. 43 [12]
Turku (Finland)
s. XIII-XX
FIG. 42 [14]
1999
Toulous
24
10
Casita Nuanarpoq
Residence
Yes
Cowdung
Yes
Highlands
Desert
Semiarid
FIG. 46 [12]
11
2001
FIG. 45 [12]
2004
FIG. 44 [12]
2004
9
It displays several features of
environment-conscious design: solar
heating, thermal chimney, photovoltaic
system and water harvesting system
25
Nursery
Mediterranean
No
Yes
FIG. 47 [15]
Barcelona (Spain)
2010
Santa Eullia de
Ronana school
12
There is also a curved rammed earth wall
26
Technical standards, including those for building, can also be classified into different groups
according to the geographic area and corresponding issuing organisation:
International standards
These are issued by the International Organisation for Standardization (ISO) in
Geneva with about 150 members represented by the national organisations for
standardisation.
Regional standards
These are issued in Europe by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) in
Geneva as European Standards EN. Members of the CEN are all member states of
the EU as well as Switzerland and Norway. In addition, there are also European
Building Codes (Eurocodes EC) that describe uniform standards for the design,
measurement and construction of buildings in the EU, e.g. the measurement and
construction of brickwork (EC 6).
Earth blocks do not feature in this building code.
27
National standards
These are issued by the National Standards Bodies (NSB), in Germany the Deutsches
Institut fr Normung e.V. (DIN), which in turn are members of the CEN or ISO.
National standards can also be issued by special (building) organisations or
associations acting on a national level if they follow a predefined process of
approval to acquire legal status.
Local standards
In the USA several regional standards bodies exist that are responsible for issuing
local building codes for a specific federal state, county or even a city. [8]
28
In Central Europe the history of technical rules in the field of earth building is closely related
to the development of cities in the 14th and 15th centuries. As a result of their rapid growth,
the availability of timber as primary building material became scarce. Moreover, timber
structures were susceptible to fire damage, and fires were responsible for wiping out entire
portions of cities, either by accident or as a result of war.
Both problems led to the drawing up of the first mandatory building codes across several
German states. The Ernestine Building Code, introduced in
1556 in the state of Thuringia, did not permit houses to be solely constructed of timber but
only as timber frame structures in combination with fired bricks, adobe or natural stone, or
alternatively as Weller-structures, the German variant of cob. The Saxony Forester Code
drawn up in 1575 permitted the use of timber for new house constructions only when the
first floor could not be built of stone or cob. Two hundred years later, other building codes
for Saxony (1786), Prussia (1764) and Austria (1753) (called Egyptian stones) for wall
construction. For hundreds of years building codes enforced the use of earth for building
purposes by restricting the use of timber for house constructions. [8]
In France, the rammed earth technique, called terre pis, was widespread from the 15th to
the 19th centuries. Near the city of Lyon, there are several buildings that are more than 300
years old and are still inhabited. The technique came to be known all over Germany and in
neighbouring countries. In Germany, the oldest inhabited house with rammed earth walls
dates from 1795. Its owner, the director of the fire department, claimed that fire-resistant
houses could be built more economically using this technique, as opposed to the usual timber
frame houses with earth infill. The tallest house with solid earth walls in Europe is at Weilburg
(Fig. 49), Germany. Completed in 1828, it still stands. All ceilings and the entire roof structure
rest on the solid rammed earth walls that are 75 cm thick at the bottom and 40 cm thick at
the top floor (the compressive force at the bottom of the walls reaches 7.5 kg/cm2. [12]
29
In Germany, earth experienced a brief revival after each of the world wars. As a consequence
of industrialization, building standards or regulations for building with earth were developed
in just a few countries.
The German Earth Building Code (the Lehmbauordnung), drawn up in 1944, was the first
contemporary technical standard in Europe dedicated to earth as a building material. The
code summarized the entire technical knowledge of building with earth available at the time.
In 1944, a year before the end of the Second World War, the industrial basis had been
destroyed along with vast numbers of houses: millions of people were homeless and urgently
needed new shelter. Very often earth was the only locally available building material.
30
The German State Building Authoritys intention was to regulate the use of earth as a building
material for the period of reconstruction after the war.
However, as a result of post-war reorganization, the code could only be put into effect seven
years later in 1951 as DIN 18951. In the five years that followed its issue, a number of further
DIN-codes were drafted, dedicated to different fields of building with earth. Of these only
the first, DIN 18951, came into force all the others did not progress beyond draft status.
By the 1970s, the use of earth as a building material had all but disappeared as a result of
industrialization, and in 1971 the DIN was withdrawn and not replaced.
At the beginning of the 1980s, after the experience of the oil crisis in 1973 and health scandals
caused by so-called modern building materials, a new way of thinking arose in some
industrialized European countries: alongside traditional economic and technical aspects
such as durability, strength and so on, consumers started to give greater consideration to
ecological aspects such as health, recyclability and low embodied energy as well as aesthetic
and soft design factors such as indoor climate, colour and surface qualities.
These new ecological aspects are now anchored in the European Union framework of
building regulations. The principle of life cycle assessment LCA as a method for evaluating
the sustainability of building materials will lead to a new generation of building standards.
LCA is an objective process to evaluate the environmental loads associated to a product,
process or activity by identifying and quantifying the use of mass and energy and the
discharges to the environment. LCA accounts for all energy inputs and outputs of a building
during its entire life cycle, including manufacturing, use, and demolition phases. [8]
31
The process of quantifying the resource use and environmental releases of products became
known as a Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis (REPA), as practiced in the United
States. In Europe, it was called an Eco-balance. With the formation of public interest groups
encouraging industry to ensure the accuracy of information in the public domain, and with
the oil shortages in the early 1970s, approximately 15 REPAs were performed between 1970
and 1975. Through this period, a protocol or standard research methodology for conducting
these studies was developed. This multistep methodology involves a number of
assumptions. During these years, the assumptions and techniques used underwent
considerable review by EPA and major industry representatives, with the result that
reasonable methodologies were evolved.
In 1991, concerns over the inappropriate use of LCAs to make broad marketing claims made
by product manufacturers resulted in a statement issued by eleven State Attorneys General
in the USA denouncing the use of LCA results to promote products until uniform methods
for conducting such assessments are developed and a consensus reached on how this type
of environmental comparison can be advertised non-deceptively. This action, along with
pressure from other environmental organizations to standardize LCA methodology, led to
the development of the LCA standards in the
International Standards Organization (ISO) 14000 series (1997 through 2002).
In 2002, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) joined forces with the Society
of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) to launch the Life Cycle Initiative, an
international partnership. The three programs of the Initiative aim at putting life cycle
thinking into practice and at improving the supporting tools through better data and
indicators. The Life Cycle Management (LCM) program creates awareness and improves skills
of decision-makers by producing information materials, establishing forums for sharing best
practice, and carrying out training programs in all parts of the world. [20]
32
In the context of these developments, earth as a building material can be seen in a new light.
33
TYPE OF DOCUMENT:
S: STANDARDS ISSUED BY THE
NATIONAL STANDARDS BODIES (NSB)
SOIL:
E: EARTH
ES: EARTH STABILIZED WITH CEMENT
GEOGRAPHICAL LEVEL:
L: LOCAL
N: NATIONAL
R: REGIONAL
BLOCK
PEB: POURED EARTH BLOCKS
EM: EARTH MORTAR
EP: EARTH PLASTER
EMM: EARTH MASONRY MORTAR
ESM: EARTH SPRAY MORTAR
LE: LIGHT EARTH
EP: EARTH PLASTER
C: COB
LC: LIGHT CLAY
CP: CLAY PANNEL
EI: EARTH INFILL
WD: WATTLE AND DAUB
PEI: POURED EARTH INFILL
RE: RAMMED EARTH
CSRE: CEMENT STABILIZED RAMMED
EARTH
EBM: EARTH BLOCK MASONRY
34
Building materials
Building technique
Geographica
l level
EB
EBM
Country
Type
Africa
Germany
Germany
RL 0803 (2004)
ND
EP
Germany
TM 01 (2008)
ND
EP
Germany
TM 02 (2011)
EB
Germany
TM 03 (2011)
EMM
Germany
TM 04 (2011)
EP
Germany
TM 05 (2011)
ND
Australia
ND
RE, EBM
10
Australia
EBAA (2004)
ND
EB, EMM
EBM, RE
11
Brasil
12
Brasil
13
Colombia
RE
N
N
CSEB
N
CSRE
CSEB
N
N
35
14
EEUU
BC
15
EEUU
BC
16
EEUU
17
Spain
ND
18
Spain
CEB
19
France
EB
20
India
21
India
EB
22
India
CSEB
23
Kenya
KS02-1070 (1999)
CSEB
24
Kyrgystan
PCH-2-87 (1988)
25
Nigeria
26
Nigeria
BC
27
28
Peru
EBM
EB, EMM
EBM, RE
EB, EMM
RE
E, ES
E, ES
RE
EBM, RE
RE
CSEB
N
N
EBM, RE
E, EB
RE, EBM, EP
EB
EBM
36
29
Sri Lanka
30
Switzerland
31
Tunisia
CEB
32
Turkey
CSEB
33
Zimbabwe
CSEB
EBM
EB, LE, EM
RE
TABLE 2 STANDARDS ABOUT BUILDING WITH EARTH AROUND THE WORLD. ADAPTED FROM [8] PP: 79-81
37
2.3.5. COMMENTS
Through this table we can see that the most of the earth standards are not about rammed
earth but earth blocks. And the ones which talk about rammed earth are not only focusing
on this technique. Is shown in the table that there are six codes about rammed earth
exclusively (7, 12, 17, 20, 24, 33). One of them is MOPT Tapial (1992) [21] from Spain yet it is
too old and short (only 80 pages). With all the improvements that this technique has suffered
during this last years, what we should have as a standard for rammed earth is a huge standard
as we have for concrete or steel.
We also can notice that this standards have been written in the last twenty years, what
proves that this building technique is in constant development and increasingly used. Thus,
is necessary to work in this direction as it is happening in the University Politechnika
Warszawska, to stablish a Polish standard for rammed earth. On the other hand, the
Universidad Politcnica de Valencia is not working with rammed earth at all, something
incomprehensible for such a good university with one of the best laboratories in Europe for
testing concrete: ICITECH (Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologa del Hormign).
Furthermore, to become useful in the building field, rammed earth requires standards which
will have to take into account the complex hydro-mechanical behaviour of this material. This
means Finite Element Models. Some models such as Boyce take into account an anisotropic
elastic behaviour, and this will be the next improvement of the non-linear elastic model.
Some additional models which take into account the plastic behavior under a large cycle
number, e.g. the Suiker model, the Habibalah-Chazallon model and the Franois model. [22]
38
The first section of the document is a general historical account of rammed earth and adobe.
Section two details the design principles for earth walls, mainly for compression, tension and
buckling. The third section examines the construction methods for rammed earth. The
formwork used is detailed, the ramming methods demonstrated and the ideal construction
sequence is explained. Finally, the construction of earth wall footings and corners is
elaborated. The last section provides guidance on quality control measures in order to ensure
compliance of the constructed earth walls with the design specifications. The guidance
involves information on material testing, additives, reinforcement, formwork and general
construction tolerances. [24]
In 2008 the UNE standard on compressed earth blocks is born. Traditional techniques of
adobe wall and traditional rammed earth joined in the fifties of the last century with the name
of "Compressed Earth Block", known by the acronym CEB (BTC in Spanish). A piece of similar
dimensions to the current brick, made by earth pressed and stabilized with cement, lime or
plant fibres to improve thermal insulation, which is currently marketed in many European
countries, even in Spain.
We could also say that the Housing Ministry there appears to be interested in incorporating
earth building to the current CTE (Cdigo Tcnico de la Edificacin, which currently ignores
earth construction, the material and the traditional techniques associated with it. In addition,
there is coming a UNE standard about rammed earth. These initiatives can be undoubtedly a
significant boost for earth construction and renovation. Hopefully soon materialized. [24]
39
Density [Kg/m3]
2200
1200
2360
2500
1600
670
TABLE 3 COMPARISON ABOUT DENSITY AND EMISSIONS OF SOME BUILDING MATERIALS [25]
Moreover, Portland cement production contributes to the emission of CO2 by burning fossil fuels and in the
process of decarbonisation of limestone in the obtaining clinker. It produces approximately between 886 Kg and
one tone of CO2 per ton of clinker, depending on production process adopted. That is, 13.5 billion tons annually,
or, in other words, it is responsible for the emission of CO2 that varies between 5-8% of global emissions. [26]
Despite the high costs of Portland cement, it is used improperly in many cases, particularly where low resistances
are required, as in foundations, mortar coating and soil stabilization. Only 20% of the uses of cement are
technically adequate [27]. This is why earth construction could be implemented as a co-working building
technique in many concrete structures, decreasing economical cost and environmental impact.
40
Density [Kg/m3]
1200-1500
1615
1700-2000
1790
1900-2200
TABLE 4 SIMPLE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH ACHIEVED BY SOME EARTH BUILDING TECHNIQUES [25]
In addition, besides their striking beauty and characteristic deep reveals, rammed earth walls have outstanding
thermal and acoustic benefits. They have an ideal thermal transmittance (U-factor) and density or thermal
storage (known as the "thermal flywheel" effect). This unique combination of properties creates a high thermal
mass building, which evens out day/night temperature fluctuations and forms a comfortable building in which
to live all year round. [28]
Earth walls have good sound-absorbing characteristics and can be built to have very high sound attenuation (up
to STC 57) which inhibits noise transfer between rooms extremely effectively. [28]
Measurements taken in a new built house in Germany, all those interior and exterior walls are from earth, over
a period of eight years, showed that the relative humidity in this house was nearly constant throughout the year.
It fluctuated by only 5% to 10%, thereby producing healthy living condition with reduced humidity in summer and
elevated humidity in winter. [12]
41
Strawbale
Feature
Mud-brick
Timber frame
Double brick
Rammed
Earth Wall
(Ramtec)
Wall thickness
600mm
300mm
120mm
270mm
300mm
Impact strength
very low
moderate
very low
moderate
very high
Compressive strength
very low
moderate
moderate
high
high
Durability
vague
75175 yrs.
50100 yrs.
150 yrs+
250 yrs+
Fire resistance
moderate high
moderate
high
very high
Cyclone resistance
very low
moderate
moderate
high
very high
Tremor resistance
very low
moderate
moderate
moderate
high
Termite resistance
low
moderate
low
questionable
very high
Pest resistance
very low
moderate
very low
high
very high
Cavity problems
vague
none
yes
yes
none
Maintenance
vague
low
high
average
very low
Thermal insulation
moderate
moderate
moderate
Embodied energy
low
very low
low
extremely high
low
poor
very good
poor
moderate
very good
good
good
good
very poor
good
Humidity equalisation
poor
excellent
very poor
poor
excellent
Bullet resistance
poor
good
very poor
good
very good
Natural harmony
moderate good
moderate
poor
good
Acoustic properties
poor
moderate
very good
Major lender-approved
vague
vague
reasonable
good
good
Approved by insurers
vague
yes
yes
yes
yes
vague
yes
yes
yes
yes
1,15
1,2
0,9
1,05
Resale value
unclear
moderate
unclear
moderate
good
TABLE 5 COMPARISON OF RAMTEC WITH OTHER COMPLETE WALL SYSTEMS AT 3 METER HEIGHTS [28]
42
The nice textures, the simplicity of the obtained surfaces and the wealth of tonalities that makes the ground
possible seduce in a powerful way. These attractions come to explain why in most of earth constructions the
proper material itself is visualized on the walls. Nevertheless, this option demands that the walls remain
appropriately protected to minimize its erosion for the action of the rainwater, or, at least, that it is possible to
control its degradation. In this sense M. Rauch suggests: "why not to make possible an erosion calculated with
a process of controlled aging, like one more formal element? [29], introducing a new approach with enormous
possibilities to be explored.
In Spain it has been experiencing on the application of water-repellent substances, different types of
consolidation primers and surface treatments that help to satisfy the new demanded requirements. Water
repellents, especially silicone resins, have been the most widely used products in the works carried out. The
consolidation primers have been less used, but they will need experience in this field to improve the response of
walls to erosion.
When the factory must not be visible may extend a continuous coating, either a lime mortar or clay prepared.
Another alternative is the calicostrada wall, but note that this solution, despite assurances of durability and a
beautiful finish, does not enjoy the interest of architects because it requires very rudimentary and expensive
manual methods. However, it is in this way as much of the old walls were built and therefore have to resort to
this method in the monumental restoration. [23]
43
FIG. 52 SIDE-VIEW OF A "CALICOSTRADA" RAMMED EARTH WALL (CASTELL VELL AT CASTELLN DE LA PLANA, SPAIN) [23]
44
Rammed earth building offers the possibility of building or rebuilding with significantly increased resilience in
the wake of the more frequent and devastating natural disasters that are occurring. For example, with the
rebuilding of housing in New Orleans post-Katrina, the wisdom and validity of rebuilding in the same location
with designs, methods and materials that did not withstand previous disasters should be questioned. Rebuilding
with earth containing hydrophobic admixtures is a sustainable, healthy solution.
There are frequent and destructive fires on the coast of California, the inland portions of Washington, Oregon,
Idaho, Wyoming and the Canadian Okanogan. Small communities are repeatedly evacuated and consumed by
fire with only the inorganic parts of the buildings such as chimneys and foundation walls remaining. When they
rebuild, they rebuild with wood. Earth building is non-combustible.
The big earthquake in Haiti left an abundance of rubble and thousands of people without homes and work. The
chosen solution was to clear the rubble and dispose of it in order to build new buildings from imported materials.
45
an opportunity missed was using modern rammed earth to create seismically resistant housing that is more
comfortable and healthy using local labour and materials (rubble run through a concrete recycler), both of which
were in abundance.
Every year twisters touch down in Kansas hurling roofs and entire houses into the air. Every year in the southeastern US, people board up their houses and evacuate in fear of hurricanes. According to a local demolition
specialist, mobile homes (trailer park houses) may weigh as little as a couple of tons, while stick frame houses
weigh 50 tons for a 186m2 unit. If that 186m2 house was rebuilt with modern insulated rammed earth, its weight
would be 150 tons, which is considerably more difficult to blow over.
Every year trailers and houses are destroyed and replaced with identical lightweight units. We can do better.
Many houses are destroyed by termites, carpenter ants, powder post beetles, rot and mold, all of which attack
the wood framing. Organic materials by their nature decompose. Houses destroyed this way are typically rebuilt
with wood framing with an added host of toxins to make the wood less appealing to natures decomposition
agents.
In all of these circumstances the opportunity for modern rammed earth construction is to provide resilient,
durable, healthy and sustainable environments that have a better chance of weathering and surviving extreme
weather and pests. [8]
46
3.5.1.1. Advantages
Prefabrication of rammed earth has decisive advantages over in situ, typical of the rationalized technical work:
The production can be carried out regardless of the weather outside, avoiding interruptions by the
weather.
Enforcement yields can be calculated with great precision, optimizing working methods.
Working time on site is reduced.
Work planning and coordination of interventions in the construction site are improved, reducing delivery
times.
The quality control processes are improved and as the final quality of the piece (dosages, degree of
compaction, final texture, etc.). [31]
47
3.5.1.2. Disadvantages
Disadvantages are, especially, the fact that all should be planned well throughout the construction process to
be performed in workshops prior to the execution of prefabricated rammed earth, a process that use to be
complex and costly.
In one application this disadvantage is offset standardized although individualized leads to design limitations.
One of the difficulties of prefabricated rammed earth is transportation, since the lack of ductility of the material
requires conditions of packaging, storage, loading, unloading and transfer more carefully than for example
require the precast reinforced concrete pieces.
Yet experience has shown that this aspect is not a problem. Prefabricated parts of up to 7000 kg were
transported over long distances beyond of 800 km.
The cost of building with this technique is generally more expensive than executed walls "in situ". The transport
of prefabricated elements, sometimes over long distances, involves extra costs in comparison with
transportation of separately materials in conventional construction.
Transporting materials over great distances poses major ecological concerns, although it is a common practice
in much of the materials commonly used in construction. In the case of rammed earth, transportation is offset
in relation to other conventional materials such as brick or concrete, because the former has a balance of CO2
emissions much lower, one of the good points of this building material.
For the execution of large projects of rammed earth, it is convenient to set a temporary prefabrication workshop
next to the construction site. Thus also exploit local ground, another mentioned advantages of this method of
construction. [31]
48
FIG. 55 INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS ADDITIVES ON THE SHRINKAGE, BINDING FORCE, TENSILE BENDING FORCE AND COMPRESSIVE
FORCE OF A SANDY LOAM [12]
49
The simplest method for reducing shrinkage cracks in earth building elements is to reduce their length and
enhance drying time. While producing mud bricks, for instance, it is important to turn them upright and to shelter
them from direct sunlight and wind to guarantee a slow, even drying process. Another sensible method is to
design shrinkage joints that can be closed separately, and which avoid uncontrolled shrinkage cracks.
50
FIG. 59 EROSION TEST ON GREEN BRICKS. FONT: BUILDING WITH EARTH [12]
51
3.5.2.2.3. Others
Soda waterglass: (Na2O 3-4 SiO2) is a good stabiliser for sandy loam, but it must be thinned with water
in a 1:1 proportion before being added. Otherwise, micro cracks will occur which generate strong water
absorption.
Mineral and animal products: blood, urine, cow dung, manure, casein and animal glue have been used
through the centuries to stabilise loam. In former times, oxblood was commonly used as a binding and
stabilising agent. In Germany, the surfaces of rammed earth floors were treated with oxblood, rendering
them abrasion-and wipe- resistant.
Plant products: Plant juices containing oily and latex and derived from plants such as sisal, agave,
bananas and Euphorbia herea, usually in combination with lime, are used as a stabilising coating with
success in many countries.
Artificial: Synthetic resins, paraffins, synthetic waxes and synthetic latex are all known to have a
stabilising effect on loam. However, they are relatively expensive, prone to ultraviolet degradation, and
because they act as vapour barriers, these stabilisers should be tested before use. [12]
FIG. 60 BALL DROPPING TEST TO DEMONSTRATE DIFFERENT BINDING FORCES. FONT: BUILDING WITH EARTH [12]
52
vibrate. This in turn creates movements that allow the particles to settle into a denser pattern. Furthermore, if
there is sufficient water, clay minerals have the ability to form parallel, denser, and more ordered structures due
to electrical forces, resulting in higher binding and compressive strength. [12]
Loam
Silty
Sandy
Vibration [rpm]
2003
1977
2005
2003
2009
2024
0
1500
3000
0
1500
3000
Compressive Strength
[N/mm2]
3.77
4.11
4.17
2.63
2.91
3.00
TABLE 7 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS AFTER STATI AND DYNAMIC COMPACTION OF SANDY LOAM (CLAY 15%, SILT 29%, SAND 56%) AND
SILTY LOAM (CLAY 12%, SILT 74%, SAND14%) [12]
53
In earth construction, however, the maximum density or compaction, and therefore, the so-called optimum
water content, do not necessarily lead to maximum density or compaction. Therefore the so-called optimum
water content does not necessarily lead to the maximum compressive strength, nor is it the most decisive
parameter. On the contrary, the decisive parameters are workability and binding force; hence it is recommended
that loam should not be used with optimum water content as per DIN 18127, but instead with a water content
somewhat higher than the optimum so derived. In fact, this so-called optimum water content may be treated, in
practice, as a minimum water content. With compressed soil blocks, it has been shown that a water content 10%
higher than the optimum gives better results than the so-called optimum. Therefore, the optimum water content
does not usually result in maximum compressive strength. There is also discovered that if there is lesser
compaction and higher water, then the same compressive strength may be achieved by using higher compaction
and less water [33].
Loam for building normally has a compressive strength of 2 to 5 MPa. The permissible compressive stress for
walls according to the German standard DIN 18954 is 3 to 5 MPa. In practice, it is very seldom required to enhance
compressive strength, this being necessary only in highly stressed elements used in structures taller than two
storeys (which are not permissible by most standards anyway). With earth components, the edge strength
against impact is very important and often needs to be increased. Rigidity of corners against breakage depends
upon compressive as well as bending tensile strength. This edge impact strength is very important during
construction, when bricks or blocks are being transported, moved or stacked. The compressive strength of a
loam type depends mainly upon its soil grain size distribution, water content, the static or dynamic compaction
imparted to it, and the type of clay mineral present. If the sand and gravel particles are distributed so as to give
a minimum packing volume, and the silt and clays are such that the inter-granular spaces of the sand and gravel
are fully filled by them, then maximum density (and hence, compressive strength) has been achieved [12].
54
Using additives as cement, rammed earth may achieve even 30 MPa (value reached at the University Politechnika
Warszawska). However, using cement is one of the things we try to avoid in sustainable construction, although
rammed earth stabilized with cement contains considerably less cement than concrete itself.
3.5.2.5. Fibres
Fibres are added to earth materials mainly to reduce shrinkage and improve tensile strength, although density is
also lowered, reducing weight and compressive strength, and increasing thermal resistance.
Fibres are commonly included in earth bricks and blocks, but rarely added to mortars. Fibres are not always
added to earth bricks, and some proprietary materials do not contain them because their manufacturing
processes involve relatively low moisture contents, leading to little subsequent shrinkage.
The most common fibre in vernacular earth construction is straw, and this is also used in some modern materials.
There is little significant difference in the properties of different cereal straws. Hemp, flax and other plant fibres
are also sometimes used. Although finer and stronger than cereal straws, hemp fibres are harder to process and
have a more significant value. [34]
The oft-mentioned assumption that fibres always increase compressive strength is false. When fine fibres or hair
are added in small amounts, tensile strength and therefore compressive strength is increased slightly. The
addition of cut straw, however, has the opposite effect. Obviously, the length of the straw shoots should be no
greater than the thickness of the building element. [12]
Straw [%/mass]
0
1
2
4
8
Weight [kg/m3]
1882
1701
1571
1247
872
TABLE 8 REDUCTION OF THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF LOAM BY ADDING CUT STRAW (5 CM) [12]
55
Property
Thermal mass
Thermal conductivity
Definition
In building design, thermal mass is a property of the mass of a building
which enables it to store heat, providing "inertia" against temperature
fluctuations.
Scientifically, thermal mass is equivalent to thermal capacitance or heat
capacity, the ability of a body to store thermal energy.
The insulating capability of a material is measured with thermal
conductivity. Low thermal conductivity is equivalent to high insulating
capability (R-value).
SI unit
J/K
The thermal resistance of rammed earth alone is not great enough retain heat in a cold climate building.
Obtaining a meagre R-20 would require a 3.5m wall thickness. Cold climate design thus dictates that rammed
earth should be coupled with thermal insulation to attain higher thermal resistance.
Rammed earths relatively low thermal resistance is countered by its large thermal mass. Thermal mass allows a
material to absorb heat during warm periods and then release this absorbed heat over cooler eriods that follow.
When applied to a building envelope, thermal mass simply mitigates internal temperature fluctuations, as shown
in Fig. 63 Visual explanation of thermal mass transmission effect. large external temperature fluctuations on the
right are moderated to lesser internal fluctuations on the left side. Overall, this increases the effective winter
design temperature and decreases the effective summer design temperature, which reduces the energy
required to condition the internal building space.
FIG. 63 VISUAL EXPLANATION OF THERMAL MASS TRANSMISSION EFFECT. LARGE EXTERNAL TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS ON THE
RIGHT ARE MODERATED TO LESSER INTERNAL FLUCTUATIONS ON THE LEFT SIDE [36]
The thermal insulation of loam can be increased by adding porous substances such as straw, reeds, seaweed,
cork and other light plant matter. Naturally or artificially foamed mineral particles like pumice, lava, expanded
clay, foamed glass, expanded perlite and foamed plant matter like expanded cork can also be added. Waste
56
products like sawdust, wood shavings, and husk of grains can also be used, but given their higher density, they
exhibit inferior insulating properties. The more porous the mixture, the lighter it is and the greater its thermal
insulation.
57
3.5.2.6.3. Additives
In some industrialised countries, expanded clay is a low-cost and easily available additive. It has a bulk density of
about 300 kg/m3, and is produced by burning loam in rotary ovens at temperatures up to 1200C without any
other additive for foaming. Foaming occurs due to the sudden heating, which causes the water of crystallisation
and the pore water to evaporate, creating an expansion in the mass (similar to making pop-corn). The surface of
these expanded clay balls melts and is sintered. Nearly all of the pores in these expanded clay balls are closed,
and are therefore unsusceptible to water and frost. The equilibrium moisture content by volume is only 0.03%.
Foamed glass has characteristics similar to expanded clay, but has a lower bulk density. It can be produced by
recycling glass with additional foaming agents.
Expanded perlite is produced from volcanic rock (found in Europe, on the Greek island of Milos and in Hungary).
It contains 3% to 6% chemically bound water, and when it is heated up suddenly to 1000C, this water evaporates
and enlarges the former value 15 to 20-fold. The bulk density may be as low as 60 kg/m3, the k-value is 0.045
W/mK. The vapour diffusion resistance is about 2.7. The specific heat is 1000 J/KgK. With a material of bulk density
90 kg/m3, a k-value of 0.05 W/mK is achieved.
The thermal insulation properties of lightweight mineral loam depend mainly on its density and are equal to that
of lightweight straw loam if the density is higher than 600 kg/m3. For mixtures below 600 kg/m3, the thermal
insulation properties of lightweight mineral loams are somewhat better than those of lightweight straw loams,
since straw has a higher equilibrium moisture content, and therefore more moisture, which reduces insulation.
The equilibrium moisture content of rye straw at a relative humidity of 50% and a temperature of 21C, for
instance, is 13%, whereas under the same conditions, it is only 0.1% in the case of expanded clay. [12]
3.5.2.6.4.Design
Note that thermal mass is only effective at normalizing indoor temperatures when it is exposed to both an
outdoor energy source and the indoor environment. With this in mind, window design size has an opposite effect
on the two systems; increasing window size will increase any internal thermal masss exposure to solar radiation
while it decreases the exposed area of envelope thermal mass. In general, increased window size leads to larger
conductive heat transfer but also large solar gains. Thus, a passive solar home design might focus on using
internal thermal mass to capture solar gains through large, sun-facing windows, sized such that these gains
58
outweigh or balance the loss in envelope efficiency. A rammed earth home design might focus less on solar gains
and more on surface exposure. Deciding which design style is more effective is difficult and likely climate
dependent, though the answer could be found through situation-specific building simulation. [36]
59
4. SOIL TESTING
Whether the aim is to build a single house or to start a production unit for soil blocks or rammed earth, it is
essential to test the soil used, not only in the beginning, but at regular intervals or each time the place of
excavation is changed, as the soil type can vary considerably even over a small area.
Basically there are two types of tests:
Indicator or field tests, which are relatively simple and quickly done.
Laboratory tests, which are more sophisticated and time consuming.
In certain cases, soil identification on the basis of experience can be sufficient for small operations, but normally
some indicator tests are indispensable. They provide valuable information about the need for laboratory tests,
especially if the field tests give contradicting results. Not all the tests need to be carried out, as this can be
tiresome, but just those that give a clear enough picture of the samples, to exclude those that show deficiencies.
This is not only necessary to achieve optimum material quality, but also to economize on costs, material,
stabilizers, manpower and energy input.
It should further be remembered that soil identification alone does not provide assurance of its correct use in
construction. Tests are also necessary to evaluate the mechanical performance of the construction material.
60
Collecting samples
Odour test
Touch test
The soil is best excavated directly at the building site and several holes are dug in an area
that is big enough to supply all the required soil.
First, the topsoil containing vegetable matter and living organisms is removed (unsuitable
for construction).
The soil samples are then taken from a depth of up to about 1.5 m for manual excavation, or
up to 3 m if a machine will be doing the work.
A special device, an auger, is used to extract samples from various depths. Each different
type of soil is put on a different pile.
The thickness of each layer of soil, its colour and the type of soil, as well as an accurate
description of the location of the hole should be recorded on labels attached to each bag of
soil taken for testing.
Equipment: none
Duration: few minutes
Immediately after removal, the soil should be smelt, in order to detect organic matter (musty
smell, which becomes stronger on moistening or heating). Soils containing organic matter
should not be used or tested further.
Equipment: none
Duration: few minutes
After removing the largest particles (gravel), a sample of soil is rubbed between the fingers
and palm of the hand. A sandy soil feels rough and has no cohesion when moist. A silty soil still
feels slightly rough, but has moderate cohesion when moist. Hard lumps that resist crushing
when dry, but become plastic and sticky when moistened indicate a high percentage of clay.
Similar tests can be done by crushing a pinch of soil lightly between the teeth (soils are usually
quite clean!).
61
Equipment: knife
Duration: few minutes
Lustre test
A slightly moist ball of soil, freshly cut with the knife will reveal either a dull surface (indicating
the predominance of silt) or a shiny surface (showing a higher proportion of clay).
FIG. 64 [6]
Adhesion test
Equipment: knife
Duration: few minutes
When the knife easily penetrates a similar ball of soil, the proportion of clay is usually low.
Clayey soils tend to resist penetration and to stick to the knife when pulled out.
FIG. 65 [6]
62
Visual test
Water
retention test
With the help of the screen the dry gravel and sand particles should be separated on a clean
surface to form two heaps. Crushing of clay lumps may be necessary beforehand. By
comparing the sizes of the heaps a rough classification of the soil is possible.
A. The soil is either silty or clayey if the "silt + clay" pile is larger; a more precise classification
requires further tests.
B. Similarly the soil is sandy or gravelly, if the "sand + gravel" pile is larger.
C. and D. Further sieving with a 2 mm mesh screen will reveal whether the soil is gravelly or
sandy.
In the case of sandy or gravelly soil, a handful of the original material (before sieving) should
be moistened, made into a ball and left to dry in the sun. If it falls apart as it dries, it is called
"clean", and thus unsuitable for earth constructions, unless it is mixed with other materials.
If the soil is not "clean", the silt and clay pile should be used for the next tests.
Equipment: none
Duration: 2 minutes
A sample of the fine material is formed into an egg-sized ball, by adding just enough water to
hold it together but not stick to the hands. The ball is gently pressed into the curved palm,
which is vigorously tapped by the other hand, shaking the ball horizontally.
When it takes 5 - 10 taps to bring the water to the surface (smooth, "livery" appearance), it
is called rapid reaction. When pressed, the water disappears and the ball crumbles, indicating a
very fine sand or course silt.
When the same result is achieved with 20 - 30 taps (slow reaction), and the ball does not
crumble, but flattens on pressing, the sample is a slightly plastic silt or silty clay.
Very slow or no reaction, and no change of appearance on pressing indicate a high clay
content.
FIG. 66 [6]
63
Dry strength
test
Thread test
Another moist ball of olive size is rolled on the flat clean surface, forming a thread. If it breaks
before the diameter of the thread is 3 mm, it is too dry and the process is repeated after remoulding it into a ball with more water. This should be repeated until the thread breaks just
when it is 3 mm thick, indicating the correct moisture content. The thread is re-moulded into a
ball and squeezed between thumb and forefinger.
If the ball is hard to crush, does not crack nor crumble, it has a high clay content.
Cracking and crumbling shows low clay content.
If it breaks before forming a ball, it has a high silt or sand content.
A soft spongy feel means organic soil.
FIG. 67 [6]
Equipment: none
Duration: 10 minutes
Ribbon test
With the same moisture content as the thread test, a soil sample is formed into a cigar shape
of 12 to 15 mm thickness. This is then progressively flattened between the thumb and
forefinger to form a ribbon of 3 to 6 mm thickness, taking care to allow it to grow as long as
possible.
A long ribbon of 25 to 30 cm has a high clay content.
A short ribbon of 5 to 10 cm shows low clay content.
No ribbon means a negligible clay content.
FIG. 68 [6]
64
Equipment: cylindrical glass jar of at least 1 litre capacity, with a flat bottom and an opening
that can be just covered with the palm; centimetre scale
Duration: 3 hours
Sedimentation
test
The glass jar is filled quarter full with soil and almost to the top with clean water. The soil is
allowed to soak well for an hour, then with the opening firmly covered, the jar is shaken
vigorously and then placed on a horizontal surface. This is repeated again an hour later and the
jar then left standing undisturbed for at least 45 minutes.
After this time, the solid particles will have settled at the bottom and the relative proportions
of sand (lowest layer), silt and clay can be measured fairly accurately. However, the values will
be slightly distorted, since the silt and clay will have expanded in the presence of water.
FIG. 69 [6]
Laboratory tests
Equipment: long metal or wooden box with internal dimensions 60 x 4 x 4 cm (l x b x h), open
on top; oil or grease; spatula
Duration: 3 to 7 days
Linear
shrinkage test
The inside surfaces of the box are greased to prevent the soil from sticking to them. A sample
of soil with optimum moisture content is prepared (ie when squeezing a lump in the hand, it
retains the shape without soiling the palm, and when dropped from about 1 metre height,
breaks into several smaller lumps). This soil mix is pressed into all corners of the box and
neatly smoothened off with the spatula, so that the soil exactly fills the mould. The filled box is
exposed to the sun for 3 days or left in the shade for 7 days.
After this period, the soil will have dried and shrunk, either as a single piece or forming several
pieces, in which case they are pushed to one end to close the gaps. The length of the dried soil
bar is measured and the linear shrinkage is calculated as follows:
((Length of wet bar) - (Length of dried bar))/(Length of wet bar) x 100
To obtain good results in construction, the soil should shrink or swell as little as possible. The
more the soil shrinks, the larger is the clay content, which can be remedied by adding sand
and/or a stabilizer, preferably lime.
FIG. 70 [6]
65
Equipment: a set of standardized sieves with different meshes (e.g. 6.3 mm, 2.0 mm, 0.425
mm and 0.063 mm); flat water container below the sieves; 2 small buckets, one filled with
water; stove or oven for drying samples; 2 to 5 kg balance with an accuracy of at least 0.1 g
Duration: 1 to 2 hours
Wet sieving
test
A 2 kg soil sample is weighed dry, placed in the empty bucket and mixed with clean water. The
water-soil mix, well stirred, is poured into the sieves, which are placed in descending order one
on top of the other, with the finest mesh at the bottom, below which is the flat container. The
bucket is rinsed clean with the remaining water, which is also poured into the sieves.
Each sieve will have collected a certain amount of material, which is dried by heating on the
stove or in the oven, then weighed accurately and recorded. The fine particles in the
bottommost container is a mixture of silt and clay, which cannot be separated by sieving. This
is carried out by the next test.
FIG. 71 [6]
Equipment: a 1-litre graduated glass measuring cylinder, with an inside diameter of about 65
mm; a circular metal disk on a stem, which can be lowered down inside the cylinder; a rubber
tube and heat resistant drying dishes for siphoning; a watch; a pinch of salt; stove or oven and
balance, as in previous test
Duration: 1 to 2 hours
Siphoning test
A dry sample of 100 g of the fine material from the previous test is carefully weighed and put
into the cylinder. A pinch of salt is added, to improve dispersion of the clay particles, and
water is filled up to the 200 mm mark. With the cylinder kept firmly closed with the palm of
the hand, the contents are shaken vigorously until a uniform suspension of the grains is
achieved. The cylinder is placed on a firm level surface and the time taken.
After 20 minutes, the metal disk is carefully lowered down to cover the material that has
settled at the bottom of the cylinder, without disturbing it. The clay, which is still in
suspension, is removed by siphoning off the liquid, which is subsequently dried out and the
residue weighed. The weight in grams is also the percentage of clay in the sample.
FIG. 72 [6]
66
Grain size
distribution
analysis
Atterberg limit
tests
With the results of the wet sieving and siphoning tests of one sample showing the relative
proportions of the various constituents, as defined by their particle sizes, several points can be
plotted on a chart. A curve is then drawn so that it passes through each point successively,
giving the grain size distribution of that particular soil sample. This can tee repealed for other
samples on the same chart, showing the range of soil types analysed.
The chart below shows an example of a gravelly soil (G) and a clay soil type (C). The
horizontally shaded area indicates the types of soils that are suitable for rammed earth
construction, while the vertically shaded area shows appropriate soils for compressed block
production. The overlapping area is thus good for most soil constructions, so that a curve (I)
running through the middle symbolizes a soil of ideal granulation.
The purpose of this exercise is to determine whether the available soil is suitable for building.
If the soil is too gravelly, the gaps between the particles are not properly filled, the soil lacks
cohesion and is consequently very sensitive to erosion. If the soil is too clayey, it lacks the
large grains that give it stability, and is thus sensitive to swelling and shrinkage. An optimum
grain size distribution is one in which the proportion of large and small grains is well balanced,
leaving practically no gaps, and sufficient clay particles are present to facilitate proper
cohesion.
If the tests reveal a poor grain size distribution, it can be corrected to some extent by:
sieving the gravelly fraction, if the soil contains too much coarse material;
partly washing out the clayey fraction, if finer particles are in excess;
mixing soil types of different granular structure.
These tests, developed by the Swedish scientist Atterberg, are needed to find the respective
moisture contents at which the soil changes from a liquid (viscous) to a plastic (mouldable)
state, from a plastic consistency to a soft solid (which breaks apart before changing shape, but
unites if pressed), and from this state to a hard solid. While the previous tests determined the
quantity of each soil constituent, the Atterberg tests show which type of clay mineral is
present. This has an influence on the kind of stabilizer required.
For all practical purposes, the determination of the "liquid limit" and "plastic limit" is
sufficient, the other Atterberg limits are not so important. However, the determination of the
Atterberg limits is usually carried out with the "fine mortar" fraction of the soil, which passes
through a 0.4 mm sieve. This is because water has little effect on the consistency of larger
particles.
FIG. 73 [6]
FIG. 74 [6]
67
FIG. 75 [6]
68
FIG. 76 [6]
69
Other techniques
Tomographic techniques
Endoscopy
Dynamic characterization
Monitoring
Penetration resistance
Sphere impact
Rebound tests
Pull-out test or helix test
TABLE 11 SOME N-MDT TECHNIQUES FOR IN SITU ESTIMATION OF EARTHEN MATERIALS [38]
70
5. SIMPLE COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH TESTS
In this chapter we are going to analyse and compare several compressive strength tests of rammed earth
specimens, which have been made in different years throughout the world. The chosen tests can be found in the
next publications:
Tests N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Name
Arquitecturas de tapia
The strength of unsterilized rammed earth materials
The use of cement stabilised rammed earth for building a
vernacular modern house
Durability for stabilized earth concrete under both laboratory
and climatic conditions exposure
Advances on the assessment of soil suitability for rammed
earth
Rammed earth construction with granitic residual soils: The
case study of northern Portugal
Effect of moisture content on the mechanical characteristics of
rammed earth
In situ mechanical investigation of rammed earth: calibration of
minor destructive testing
Optimization of three new compositions of stabilized rammed
earth incorporating PCM: Thermal properties characterization
and LCA
Source
[1]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
[43]
[44]
[38]
[19]
71
72
In order to compare the particle size distribution of a soil with a model, we might use an empiric parable as
Fullers parable. Then its easier to notice which sizes are in either excess or lack.
FIG. 80 GRADING CURVE OF THE SOIL USED IN THE SIMPLE COMPRESSIVE TEST AT TEST NUMBER 1 (DISCONTINUOUS LINE). FULLER
PARABLES (CONTINUOUS LINE) OF MAXIMUM COMPACITY FOR GRAIN SIZE BETWEEN 40 AND 20 MILLIMIETRES [1]
In addition, we can give a "name" to the soil type according to its grain, following the methodology of USCS
(Unified Soil Classification System) [46]:
For granular soils, acronyms are G (gravel), S (sand), W (well graded) and P (poorly graded).
For fine soils nomenclature is M (silt), C (clay), H (high compressibility) and L (low compressibility).
73
And for organic soils they are OH (organic soil of high compressibility), OL (organic soil of low plasticity) and Pt
(peat).
In our case, we used an Excel spreadsheet made by Jordi Gonzlez Boada (www.jordigonzalezboada.com) to
classify soils in which this classification had not been given. Despite in some tests there was lack of data.
FIG. 81 CASAGRANDE'S PLASTICITY CHART, SHOWING SEVERAL REPRESENTATIVE SOIL TYPES (DEVELOPED FROM CASAGRANDE,
1948, AND HOWARD, 1977)
The distribution of fractions between significant sizes (diameters), with characteristic properties is as follows:
GRAVEL 63mm>d>2mm
SAND 2mm>d>0.063mm
SILT 0.063mm>d>0.002mm
CLAY d<0.002mm
FIG. 82 SIGNIFICANT DIAMETERS [47]
IPxM
According to Michel [48], the best earth soils for stabilization are those with low plasticity index (PI) and the
product (PI x M) in the vicinity of 500800, where M is the percentage of the mortar (%clay).
HB195 [49]
45-75
10-30
5-20
4-12
TABLE 13 SUMMARY OF THE MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FROM SOME REFERENCE BOOKS IN EARTH CONSTRUCTION [42]
74
%
SILT
%
SAND
%
GRAVEL
Tests N
Soil
1.1
2.1
10
17
53
20
3
4
3.1
4.1
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
33
18
5
30
15
30
40
10
10
20
30
5
6
5
4
12
5
4
9
10
10
26,2
4
42,5
42
18
25
0
15
20
20
15
5
0
10
25
14
15
14
12
30
35
38
30
22
25
64
50
50
50
20
20
50
40
60
20
50
45
59
60
53
49
59
50
12
43
0
20
20
20
20
20
25
45
20
40
20
35
21
22
23
16
2
3
48
25
9,28
64,48
50
7,5
8.1
9.1
PI x M
Standard
USCS
NLT 104/72
GP
GM
SM
644
15.5
414
145.5
402
736
53
79
242
699
20
LNEC E 196 [13]
132
SM
SM
SM
SC
TABLE 14 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN PERCENTAGE, PIM AND USCS NOMENCLATURE OF THE ANALYSED TESTS
75
It is underlined in most tests that a soil classification is not used, such as SUCS, and moreover, insufficient data
exist to get it ourselves (only 3 of the 9 tests studied offer this classification). It is important for the future of the
standardization of the earth construction, to obtain a simple classification which leads us to the rules and tests
necessary for any particular soil. This is because, as has been repeated many times, the fundamental problem of
regulating the earth building is that each soil is different and needs a different treatment and preliminary tests.
Thus, a soil that could be suitable for the construction of compressed earth blocks or cob, to give some examples,
may not be suitable for the technique of rammed earth.
The PIxM indicator is not always a good indicator of the suitability of a soil for stabilization, because although it
gives us a good result in 4.1 with a compressive strength of 15.4 MPa, gives us a score of 2.6 MPa for 5.9 soil (see
Table 26). There is a remarkable difference between the two soils: the 4.1 does not contain gravel and 5.9 is 40%
gravel. On the other hand, they have either similar Atterberg limits (Table 16), densities and storage conditions.
We do not know the mineralogical composition of the soil 5 which may be also a decisive factor for this
compressive strength result.
60
10
[1]
Its used to measure and assess the degree of distribution of particle sizes of a soil. The smaller is the coefficient,
the more "uniform" or "bad graduate" will be the soil.
Where Di is the particle size for which the (i%) by weight of the soil is smaller than it. When D10 is called "effective
diameter".
The bend coefficient
=
30 2
10 60
[2]
It helps in the interpretation of how is the soil gradded, giving information about the balance between the
various sizes.
Where Di is the particle size for which the (i%) by weight of the soil is smaller than it. When D10 is called "effective
diameter".
SE: Sand equivalent (NLT-133/72)
76
The purpose of this test is to find out the possible existence of a dangerous granular material to contain
excessive fines and simultaneously check the uniformity of the material used. The scope of the test is granulated
soils with a small proportion of plastic material.
SL: Shrinkage limit
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in any more volume
reduction. The test to determine the shrinkage limit is ASTM International D4943. The shrinkage limit is much
less commonly used than the liquid and plastic limits. It is the minimum water content.
A: Activity coefficient
High activity signifies large volume change when wetted and large shrinkage when dried. Soils with high activity
are very reactive chemically. Normally the activity of clay is between 0.75 and 1.25, and in this range clay is called
normal. It is assumed that the plasticity index is approximately equal to the clay fraction (A = 1). When A is less
than 0.75, it is considered inactive. When it is greater than 1.25, it is considered active.
HB195 [49]
<35-45
<10-30
Liquid Limit
Plasticity Index
TABLE 15 SUMMARY OF THE MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS FROM SOME REFERENCE BOOKS IN EARTH CONSTRUCTION [42]
Soil
% LL % LP % PI Cc Cu
1
4
1.1
4.1
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
23.1
31
15,6
26,1
18
24,8
34,5
15,4
17,3
22,3
38,5
15,4
34
27
28
30
18.3
17
12,5
12,3
8,3
11,4
16,1
10,1
9,4
10,2
15,2
11,4
19
4.8
14
3,1
13,8
9,7
13,4
18,4
5,3
7,9
12,1
23,3
4
11
%
SE
16.8
64
%
SL
10 0,77
0
6
3
5,1
7,1
2
2,4
3,5
7,1
0,2
27
23
26
22
Standard
AS 1012.17 [9]
NP 143 [14]
and ASTM D
4943 [15]
77
5.3. ADDITIVES
5.3.1. Tests table
Tests
N
1
2
Soil/
Batch
1.1
2.1
3.1
Unstabilised
Unstabilised
Unstabilised
3.2
Sand
3.3
3.4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
5.1 to 5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
6.1 to 6.4
6.5
Additive
Cement
Water
Sand
Cement
Water
Sand
Cement
Cement
Lime
Lime
Cement + Lime
Cement + Lime
Cement + Resin
Cement + Resin
Unstabilised
Cement
Cement
Cement + Lime
Cement + Lime
Cement
Unstabilised
By alkaline
activation of fly
ash
Details
Portland 42.5N
Portland 42.5N
Quantity
78
5% fly ash
It should be noted that the
activator constitutes all the
liquid phase of the mixtures,
and thus the activator/solids
ratio assumed a xed value,
slightly inferior to the OWC of
the original soil.
6.7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
Unstabilised
Hydraulic lime
Unstabilised
Unstabilised
Hydraulic lime
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.1.3
Pneumtic fibbers
Lime (0-200 m)
PCM (6 m)
NHL 3.5
2% hydraulic lime
NHL 3.5
Lime: Ca(OH)2 CalesPachs CL80 S.
PCM: the microencapsulted
used was Micronal DS 5001.
Alabaster: a by-product of
Alabaster Technology.
PCM: the microencapsulted
used was Micronal DS 5001.
Lime: Ca(OH)2 CalesPachs CL80 S.
Pneumatic fibbers: residue
from tires.
PCM: the microencapsulted
used was Micronal DS 5001.
8% hydraulic lime
7,50% Straw
10% Lime
10% PCM
7,5% Straw
10% Alabaster
0% PCM
It is also important to note that the utilization of the resin as a protection material is not economic. It is practically
eight times more expensive than the treatment by cement.
In test n 6 we can say that regarding the typical low clay content of granitic residual soils, the addition of cement
seems to be an efcient stabilisation solution. However, the addition of cement results in an important increase
of the embodied energy of rammed earth walls [51]. For example, Lax [52] demonstrates that for a specic case,
79
the embodied energy in stabilised rammed earth with 8% of cement is 1.84 times higher than in unstabilised
rammed earth. In order to try to mitigate the environmental impact of stabilised rammed earth built with granitic
residual soils, the authors have been developing an alternative stabilisation solution, which consists in the
addition of a geopolymeric binder obtained from the alkaline activation of y ash.
This technique has been recently studied in the manufacture of mortars and concrete [53], which present
enhanced environmental impact and durability over those manufactured with ordinary Portland cement [54].
The stabilisation of rammed earth by alkaline activation of y ash was recently introduced in Cristelo et al. [55],
which presented a composition study using the soil 7.1 here described, and where the compressive strength was
the control parameter. The compressive strength of the tested mixtures varied between 3 N/mm2 and 23 N/mm2,
when cured for periods between 1 and 7 days at 60C. These values are signicantly higher than those required
for rammed earth construction. This means that the content of geopolymeric binder can be further decreased in
order to promote higher sustainability and lower cost of this stabilisation solution in SRE construction. Therefore,
the major contribution of the test n6, relatively to [55], is the use of lower y ash contents and the curing at
ambient temperature [56]. However, the maximum compressive strength reached was 1.09 MPa, which may not
be enough for earth building construction according to the most of the standards shown in Table 25.
Thermal energy storage in buildings can be implemented by sensible heat or by latent heat (with the inclusion
of PCM: phase change material) to increase thermal inertia (test n 9). Phase change materials (PCM) have been
studied for thermal storage in buildings during the past 30 years [57]. PCM placed on the building facade can be
daily cycled. Thus, during the day the PCM absorbs heat and consequently is melted. Then, during the night the
heat is discharged through the solidication process.
Finally, the LCA shows that incorporating microencapsulated PCM in the rammed earth increases up to 4.5 times
the impact points of the material. For this reason, macroencapsulated PCM is recommended to improve the LCA
results. The addition of stabilizers also increases around 1.5 time the impact points of the material, but the use
of alabaster has 1.26 times less impact points than the lime. [19]
Other interesting methodology carried out in test n 9 is the optimization of rammed earth composition through
a design of experiments software (DoE). The samples given by the DoE were evaluated through compressive
strength tests. The optimums of these samples were then thermally The DoE allows maximum information with
minimum number of experiments. Furthermore, the main objective of the DoE is to deduce which components
inuence the mechanical properties of the new rammed earth. The objective of this DoE is to quantify the
variation of mechanical properties of the measured rammed earth, according to the percentage of each
component used. [19]
80
Shape
Dimensions
(cm)
Number
of
layers
Standard
Cilindrical
15,20 diameter
13.2 height
Modified Proctor
NLT 108/72
Cilindrical
10 diameter
20 height
Cube
10 cm3
Parallelepiped
10x10x20
5 cm
high
layers
1
Modified Proctor
NLT 108/72
5
6
Cilindrical
Cilindrical
8
9
Parallelepiped
Cilindrical
10 diameter
20 height
16 diameter
30 height
15 diameter
4x4x16
3
6
UNE-EN 196-1:2005
Type of Rammer
Tests N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Type
Weight of
rammer
[Kg]
N of
blows
per
layer
4,5350,01
4,5
60
15
Surface of
rammer
Drop height
19,60,2 cm
4572 mm
Manual
Static and simple compressive force of 15 MPa
Jackhammer
Automatic Proctor machine
81
82
Period of
storage
(days)
27
7
28
Humidity Temperature
(%)
(C)
Air-dried
28
>70
28
68
7~18
27~35
57,5
202
Details
Air-dried
83
Holtz [61]
Plasticity index
Degree of
(PI)
Expansion
>35
Very high
25-41
High
15-28
Medium
<18
Low
Proposed by [59]
Methylene blue
Degree of
value (g/100 g)
expansion
>15
Very high
8-15
High
4-8
Medium
0-4
Low
84
Soil
4.1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
9.1
Kaolinite
45
35
15
0
18
18
21-25
Illite
40
0
0
65
18
0
17-25
Quartz
5
Calcite
10
MBA
Standard
0,2
Methylene
blue test:
NF P 94-068
25-39
13-21
TABLE 22 CLAY MINERAL COMPOSITION, METHYLENE BLUE ADSORPTION VALUE AND STANDARDS IN ANALYSED TESTS
Tests N
MO
pH
0,15 7,1
SO4 CO3
SiO2
Al2O3
Chemical composition
Fe2O3 MgO CaO SO3
32,22
2,24
0,53
0,03
K2O
Na2O
Cl
0,03
0,005
0,02
26,9
Standard
NF6 P
15-467
ASTM D 2488
UNE 41410
85
Batch/
Sample
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Dry density
[kg/cm3]
Moisture
content [%]
2,06
2,09
2,14
4,8
5,8
8,8
5,5
7,1
8,4
8,6
9,4
10,2
15,5
12,2
12,2
13,0
Optimum
Moisture
Content
2,017-2,061
1,5303
1,7006
1,7412
1,6251
4.1
1,877
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
6.1
6.2
6.3
1,9718
1,9813
2,0054
1,7910
1,7581
1,9947
2,1528
1,9396
1,7931
2,0075
Optimum
Moisture
Content
Maximum Dry
Density
Optimum
Moisture
Content
Maximum Optimum
dry
moisture
Normative
density
content
[kg/cm3]
[%]
2,12
9,9
Modified
Proctor
2,16
Vibrating
hammer
BS 1377
1,877
11,75
1,92
1,84
1,71
5,8
8,3
6,4
7,4
9,6
5,6
5,4
7,4
9,4
5,3
12
12
12
Modified
Proctor
Standard
Proctor
86
6.4
6.5
Just slightly
lower than the
maximum
dry density
6.6
6.7
7.1
7.2
7
7.3
7.4
7.5
8
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
7.1.6
7.1.7
7.1.8
7.1.9
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.2.5
7.2.6
7.2.7
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
7.3.7
7.3.8
7.3.9
7.3.10
7.3.11
7.3.12
7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.4.4
7.4.5
7.4.6
7.4.7
7.5.1
7.5.2
7.5.3
7.5.4
Optimum
Moisture
Content
considering
the liquid
phase of the
additive
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
2,2
2,8
4,5
6
8,5
12
13,8
1,5
2,5
4
4,8
6
6,8
8
8,8
10,5
11
11,8
12,4
1,9
3,6
5,2
6,6
8
10,2
12,2
2,2
5
8
12
5,32
2,01
10
1,71
12
1,71
12
1,71
12
87
88
2.76-6.89
2.07-6.21
1.72-4.14
1-15
2.068
>1.5 (1 floor)
>2 (2 floors)
400 mm
thick walls
>2 1
>2.12
>1.33
3-5
>2.07
TABLE 25 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF RAMMED EARTH IN SEVERAL INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS. ADAPTED FROM [40] [56]
Dry unconfined characteristic strength obtained from earth blocks or cylindrical earth specimens
On cured rammed earth specimens. No information is provided on the preparation of the specimens
3
Lowest of 5 specimens with 1:1 height/thickness ratio
2
89
Soil
1.1
Sample/Batch
Compressive
Youngs
strength [N/mm2]
modulus
Wet
[N/mm2]
Dry state
state
1.1.1
1.39
1.1.2
2.45
1.1.3
2.94
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
4.1
15,4
4.2
18,4
12,7
4.3
15,9
10,1
4.4
17,8
11,7
4.5
17,5
12,3
4.6
21,5
15,6
4.7
17,2
11,5
4.8
19,5
14
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
0,3
0,56
0,34
0,42
0,54
4,56
8,3
3,88
2,6
0,3
Average of
three
samples for
each soil
Average of
three
samples for
each soil
0,41
0,25
0,43
0,41
0,72
0,93
1,09
100
80,5
70,6
221,6
90
7.1
7.2
7
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
7.1.6
7.1.7
7.1.8
7.1.9
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.2.5
7.2.6
7.2.7
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
7.3.7
7.3.8
7.3.9
7.3.10
7.3.11
7.3.12
7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.4.4
7.4.5
7.4.6
7.4.7
7.4.8
7.5.1
7.5.2
7.5.3
7.5.4
8.1
8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3
8.1.4
8.1.5
8.1.6
8.1.7
8.1.8
9.1
9.1
1,9
1,9
1,7
1,6
1,35
1,25
0,8
0,6
0,4
1
0,95
0,9
0,8
0,65
0,4
0,15
1,7
1,67
1,55
1,4
1,2
1,15
0,95
0,85
0,5
0,47
0,37
0,25
2
1,85
1,7
1,4
1
0,9
0,6
0,4
0,8
0,75
0,75
0,7
3,4
4
2,7
3,7
2
4,4
2,7
2,5
2.33
~
3.38
386,55
461,57
296,84
419,2
127,22
296,72
549,76
334,34
91
9.2
9.3
1.90
~
4.87
1.16
~
1.95
92
Ongoing tests by the authors seem to show that the average compressive strength at 90 days can double the
values obtained at 28 days, but further tests are required to evaluate this effect. [56]
Compressive strength decreases with increasing moisture content that is logical. However, when moisture
content is below 4% (close to air dry), the variation of compressive strength was not significant. [44]
It is noted that the stabilization by hydraulic lime can decrease the sensibility to water of RE material but it does
not always accompany an increase in compressive strength. In addition, specific curing of lime stabilised samples
could give better results. [44]
With cement stabilisation, great strength values can be reached. For example, at the University Politechnika
Warszawska we obtained around 10 MPa for 8% cement (by weight) samples; that values are reached also in test
n 4 using cement plus resin. This is a great improvement for earth building, but still we should keep in mind that
the use of cement is pushing us in the wrong direction of sustainable construction. Even so the use of stabilizers
as fly ash or straw must be included in the future rammed earth standards as a preferred choice instead of the
use of cement. In any case, stabilised rammed earth is good to introduce earth building in the cities since the
buildings at cities have to be taller than in rural areas because the soil is very limited and valuable.
93
FIG. 83 TAKING OUT THE FIRST BATCH OF RAMMED EARTH SAMPLES FROM THE STORAGE CHAMBER AFTER 28 DAYS CURING PERIOD
94
95
FIG. 85 SELECTION OF PLYWOOD TO REUSE THE ONES WITH ONE VIRGIN SIDE
96
97
FIG. 89 COMPUTER WITH SIMPLE COMPRESSIVE TEST SOFTWARE AND PRESS FOR TESTING SAMPLES
FIG. 90SAMPLES READY TO BE TESTED WITH THE PLYWOOD SHEET USED TO SMOOTH THE TOP SURFACE
98
99
FIG. 93 THE PRESS AND ONE SAMPLE WITH 9% CONTENT OF CEMENT READY TO BE TESTED
100
FIG. 95 SOFTWARE
101
102
103
104
105
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