Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Pedagogical beliefs, activity choice and structure, and adultchild

interaction in nursery classrooms
Josepha A. Blay a, *, Judith Ireson b
a
b

School of Early Childhood Education, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, ON, M5B 2K3 Canada
Faculty of Children and Health, Institute of Education, University of London, 20 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AL, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 6 December 2007
Received in revised form
3 February 2009
Accepted 17 March 2009

A qualitative analysis of four cooking activities undertaken in two nursery classes reveals relationships
between the adults pedagogical beliefs, the choice and structuring of activities, and the nature of adult
child participation. Four adults each planned and carried out separately, one cooking activity of their
choice with a small group of children, as part of a normal nursery session. The activities were video
recorded and transcribed, and a grounded theory approach was adopted to analyse the adultchild
interactions. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with the adults which provided insight into
their pedagogical beliefs and rationale for their teaching approaches. Analysis of the data reveals
a dichotomy in the cooking activity choices made by the adults between baking recipes which required
a high level of adult control, and other cooking activities which required minimal adult intervention.
Observations of the cooking activities demonstrate differences in the structure of the activities and the
nature of adultchild participation. The interviews reveal how the teachers pedagogical beliefs and
intentions informed their choice and structure of the cooking activities. This study provides an illustration of the relationship between the adults pedagogical beliefs, activity structure, and the interactions
between the adults and children in one type of activity in a nursery setting. The appropriateness of the
design and feasibility of the observation method is also considered.
Crown Copyright 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Pedagogical beliefs
Activity structure
Adultchild participation
Early childhood education

1. Introduction

2. Pedagogical beliefs and classroom practices

The study sought to explore relationships between pedagogical beliefs and intentions, activity choice and structure, and
the nature of adultchild participation in the nursery from
a sociocultural perspective. A series of observations were carried
out to analyse adultchild interactions whilst undertaking
cooking activities in a naturalistic setting of three classrooms in
two state nursery schools in London, UK. The interactions were
categorised, and in conjunction with these interactions, the
structure of the activities was analysed. The teachers were
interviewed to gain insight into their pedagogical beliefs and
intentions for the activities. New ndings are presented that
examine the link between underlying pedagogical beliefs and
intentions, the choice and structure of the activities, and the
interactional roles of adults and children during one type of
activity in nursery settings.

The literature on pedagogical beliefs has established that

teachers perceptions and judgements are informed by their beliefs,
which in turn, inuence their classroom behaviours and practices
(Pajares, 1992). Understanding the association between teachers
beliefs and classroom practices has proved valuable in understanding differences in classroom practice. In general, teachers
deliberate consideration of their theories and beliefs is an essential
component of successful teaching and it is believed that a more
expansive view of teaching to include teachers thinking and beliefs
helps improve teacher education and practice (for example, see
Daniels & Shumow, 2003; Fang, 1996; Hermans, van Braak, & van
Keer, 2008; Isenberg, 1990).
Research has been carried out to understand how practices in
preschool education are inuenced in part by the pedagogical
beliefs of teachers. For example, links have been established
between teachers beliefs about child development theory and
practice (Daniels & Shumow, 2003); developmentally appropriate
practice (Charlesworth, Hart, Burts, Mosley, & Fleege, 1993;
McCarty, Abbott-Shim, & Lambert, 2001); literacy development
(Lim & Torr, 2007; Miller & Smith, 2004); and childrens social

* Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 416 979 5000.

E-mail address: jblay@ryerson.ca (J.A. Blay).

0742-051X/$ see front matter Crown Copyright 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2009.03.009

1106

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

behaviours (Arbeau & Coplan, 2007), but there remains a need to

examine how this relationship impacts the experience of children
in preschool settings in terms of the nature of the activities they are
offered and the interactions that subsequently ensue. The present
study illuminates how the adults underlying pedagogical beliefs
about appropriate activities for preschool children inuenced their
choice and structuring of cooking activities, which lead to different
interactional experiences for the children.
3. Activity context
The literature on language learning has revealed an association
between different activity contexts and variations in adultchild
interactional patterns. OBrien and Bis (1995) study of adultchild
interactions with 1 and 2 year olds in different play situations
found, for example, that teachers asked many questions and made
many comments when the children were playing with dolls and
houses. This differed from adultchild interactions when playing
with blocks and trucks in which teachers used a balance of questions and descriptions of ongoing activities. They asked fewer
questions and made more suggestions, and children responded by
talking the most in this activity and using more complex language.
Girolametto, Weitzman, and van Lieshout (2000) and Girolametto
and Weitzman (2002) found activity context played an important
role in mediating teachers directiveness and responsiveness in
preschool settings. Greater behaviour and response control
occurred during book reading, and greater conversation control in
the playdough activity, and the playdough activity elicited the
highest levels of caregiver responsive interactions.
Research on the role of activity context in shaping adultchild
interactional patterns has revealed context consistency for some
types of activity in early years settings. This study seeks to conrm
whether such consistency can be taken for granted in a cooking
activity, by examining differences in the structure in this activity in
light of the adults pedagogical beliefs.
4. Theoretical framework
This research adopted a sociocultural approach, based on the
work of Vygotsky, which has provided a theoretical framework for
understanding the role of social context in individual development
(Vygotsky, 1978). The sociocultural approach asserts that cognitive
functioning in the individual originates in social life. Social interaction between partners, and social inuence on broader levels of
society including cultural traditions and social practices is
emphasised. Cross-cultural studies have highlighted the priorities
given to separate developmental goals, and differences in beliefs
about appropriate ways for parents to interact with their children.
This has been shown to result in differences between cultural
communities in the learning context they provide for children and
in the types of interaction and activities they are exposed to (for
example, see Rogoff, Mistry, Goncu, & Mosier, 1993).
Vygotsky proposed a theory of internalisation, in which children
learn how to approach and solve problems by interactions with
adults. Children initially undertake activities with adult guidance
and gradually learn to carry out these activities independently. In
the beginning the childs behaviour is regulated on a social level,
through the adults instruction, but it eventually becomes internalised on a mental level (Elbers, Maier, Hoekstra, & Hoogsteder,
1992). Social interaction structures the developing independent
cognitive activity of the child. Cognitive processes have specic
organisational properties that reect the social arrangement from
which they are derived, so variations in how social functioning is
organised leads to variation in individual psychological functioning.
A child who has participated in a task which has been carried out in

a particular way, is likely to adopt the same approach when tackling

a similar task. Although the processes and structures of individual
(intramental) functioning originate on the social (intermental)
plane, they are transformed by the individual, and so are not direct
copies of socially organised processes (Rogoff & Wertsch, 1984;
Wertsch, 1991; Wertsch & Kanner, 1992).
The literature has paid particular interest to Vygotskys formulation of the concept of the zone of proximal development, which
highlights the importance of childrens collaboration with more
experienced partners in acquiring skills, as children need to practice skills in a social context before internalising them and using
them independently. Research from this theoretical framework has
examined processes of adultchild interactions in light of the
beliefs and goals of the adults involved. For example, Rogoffs model
of guided participation describes the nature of adult guidance in
adult- and child-initiated goal-orientated activity (Rogoff, 1990,
2003).
The wider social and cultural context played a role in determining what children experienced in their nursery classes in this
study. The north London local education authority in which the
participating nursery classes were located, favoured child-centred
play-based activities in which children are encouraged to set their
own goals and to initiate and undertake activities. It was anticipated that understanding the role of broader contextual inuences
would inform our understanding of the teachers beliefs and
intentions and their practices, as in earlier research. For example, in
an earlier study by the authors, a naturalistic study of adultchild
interaction during an open-ended Lego construction activity in
a preschool setting highlighted how cultural context mediated the
relationship between the adults beliefs and their classroom practice (Ireson & Blay, 1999). In that study, interviews with the adults
revealed how beliefs regarding their role in supporting childrens
learning, and their goals and intentions for the activity were
embedded in the broader cultural context of early years education
and the principles of the Preschool Playgroup Association
(a voluntary organisation which promotes childrens growth and
development through play and provides playgroups offering
informal play activities to children aged two-and-a-half to four).
A further study by Ireson (2000) provides an illustration of how
program and activity structuring occurs within a cultural context.
Tutors interpretations of their role and the role of the learner were
found to vary according to the age and ability of the learner and the
particular programme being followed. Ireson suggests that differences in approach and activities may stem from beliefs about
appropriate pedagogy for children of different stages, and links
pedagogical beliefs and programme principles with teachers0 goals
and classroom practices.
Rogoff (1990) developed a model of guided participation, in
which a childs cognitive development can be understood in terms
of an apprenticeship. Rogoffs work warrants particular consideration because it makes a valuable contribution to advances in
understanding adultchild interactions pertinent to this study. The
preschool nursery can be considered an informal learning environment in which children may initiate goal-orientated activities.
Rogoff explicitly acknowledges the active role of the child in initiating as well as contributing to interactions in adult- and childinitiated goal-orientated activity, and has studied how adultchild
interactions are managed in some informal as well as structured
learning situations (Rogoff, 1990, 2003).
Rogoffs model is based on the notion of apprenticeship, in
which the child can be likened to a novice. The novice (child) is an
active participant who collaborates with the expert (e.g. adult), in
a mutually created activity or event. The child and adult build
a shared framework of understanding, in activities which are
historically and culturally derived and meaningful, and social in an

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

immediate sense. From guided participation children appropriate

knowledge and skills relevant to functioning and contributing to
their community (Rogoff, 1990).

5. Aim of study
In this research the relationship among pedagogical beliefs,
choice and structure of the activity, and the nature of adultchild
participation in nursery classrooms was examined. The aim was to
take our current understanding of the link between teachers
beliefs and practices one step further by examining not only what
the teacher did, but what the teacher and child did together. A link
between teachers pedagogical beliefs and their classroom practices
has been established in the literature on teacher education, but
research in teachers beliefs and practices that is based on observations of actual teaching in classrooms rather than hypothetical
tasks and self-reported practices is missing (Fang, 1996). Also, many
of the studies adopting a sociocultural perspective in examining the
processes of adultchild interactions have focused on dyadic
encounters, often in contrived scenarios. There is a need to examine
joint processes of interaction as they occur naturally, and where an
adult is interacting with more than one child. The intention of this
research is to address this need by making authentic observations
in nursery classrooms of adults and small groups of children.

6. Design
This was an observational study of naturally occurring activities
in classrooms in two state nursery schools in a north London
borough, UK. Four sets of data were collected from two nursery
schools. Adults and children were observed and video recorded
during cooking activities undertaken in three nursery classes, and
audio taped interviews were conducted with the adults. The chosen
cooking activities were cake baking, biscuit baking, fruit salad
preparation and sandwich preparation.

6.1. The nursery schools

State nursery schools in the UK are funded by the local education authority and cater for children aged two-and-a-half to ve.
Classes within nursery schools typically have between 20 and 26
children, and 2 adults. One adult is a qualied teacher, and the other
is usually a trained nursery nurse or classroom assistant.
The two nursery schools involved in the study share similar
cultures. They are both local education authority nursery schools
from the same borough, and situated within several miles of each
other. They share the same in-service training and directives from
the local education authority, and are subject to similar budgetary
and political issues associated with the borough. The nurseries also
tend to attract families from similar backgrounds, which are from
predominantly private housing, with some from local authority
housing areas. A similar style of programme operates within each
school, and the arrangement of the nursery sessions reects the
cultural practices associated with this type of nursery. Children are
encouraged to undertake activities and explore their own ideas
independently of an adult by a workshop-style arrangement of the
activities where resources are displayed on open shelves for children to select from, combined with an extended period of freechoice time. This is followed by a 20-mi story and snack time which
is adult-led. The primary role of the adult is to provide resources
and assistance, and to elaborate and extend the childrens learning
in a supportive and responsive manner.

1107

6.2. The participants

Table 1 shows four nursery staff and children from three nursery
classes in two schools participated in the study, and the cooking
activity each chose, planned and carried out. From the school now
referred to as School X the adults were both trained teachers and
had worked in early years education for over 20 years. From the
school now referred to as School Y, the teacher had worked as an
early years teacher for over 20 years, and the nursery nurse had
worked at the school for 5 years, since qualifying.
The head teacher at School X was no longer assigned to a class,
and chose to work in a different class to that of the other participating teacher. The childrens ages ranged between 3 years 4
months and 4 years 8 months. Each child is referred to as Child
followed by a letter of the alphabet, for example Child B.
6.3. Data collection
Entry into the nursery schools was initially negotiated with the
head teachers through telephone calls, then formal meetings with
all the teaching staff at the schools to explain the purpose and
nature of the study. The researcher then made several lengthier
visits to the classes, observing several sessions. These visits were
undertaken in order to assess the suitability of the classrooms for
observations with video recording equipment, to develop a rapport
with the staff and children, and to coordinate arrangements with
the staff.
Informal interviews were held separately with each participating staff member. The staff were asked about their training and
work experience, and asked to describe the most important aspects
of their role. The adults were also given brief pre- and post-activity
interviews, in which they were asked about their intentions and
rationale for the activity, and what they felt the children would
learn from it. After the activity they were asked to describe how it
had gone. The head teacher, A2 was not interviewed pre-activity
due to her schedule, but was asked the same pre-interview questions post-activity. The interviews were semi-structured in nature,
and each adult was asked the same set of opening questions (see
Appendix). The adults answers were then explored in greater
depth with further questioning by the researcher.
7. Transcription and coding of the videotaped activities
Through a coding procedure of transcriptions of the videotapes,
categories were developed that described the structure of the
activity and adultchild interactions. From this a conceptual
framework was developed. For example, the cooking activities were
categorised as prescribed or open, and the adults role as expert
or facilitator, and the roles of the children as novice or designer.
7.1. Transcription sampling procedure
Selected excerpts were selected of the videotapes of the activities. Following recommendations by Erickson (1982), the videotapes were initially reviewed in their entirety to inform sampling
decisions. Notes were made on what the overall activity was, how

Table 1
Summary of participant information.
Adult

Designation

School

Class

A1
A2
A3
A4

Teacher
Head teacher
Teacher
Nursery nurse

X
X
Y
Y

Class
Class
Class
Class

Cooking activity
a
b
c
c

Bake biscuits
Bake cakes
Prepare sandwiches
Prepare fruit salad

1108

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

the adult arranged it, the identity of the participants, the nature of
participation by the adults and children, and what Erickson
(1982: p. 220) termed major constituent segments. Identication
of major segments then provided the basis for selecting excerpts for
further analysis. The type of segments differed for the baking
activities and the food preparation activities. For the baking activities the segments were consistent with each stage of adding and
mixing ingredients. For example, the rst ve segments of the
biscuit making with A1 (Adult 1) are as follows:
Segment
Segment
Segment
Segment
Segment

1:
2:
3:
4:
5:

Start of activity: introduction and explanation;

Adding our to bowls;
Adding fat and rubbing in;
Adding sugar;
Kneading dough.

The sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities were not

broken down into separate stages by the adult, as the children were
left to prepare the food in ways they chose and proceeded at their
own pace. One segment of these activities consisted of the introduction to each activity to the group of children, and the next
segment consisted of the completion of the activity by individual
children, for example, the completion of preparing a sandwich, or
the chopping of a piece of fruit.
The start and early phases of each activity were selected for
transcription, and transcription was continued for between 12 and
18 min. The decision to end transcribing was made when a segment
was clearly over, or the nature of the segments became repetitive,
and it was determined an adequate selection of interactions and
actions had been captured.
7.2. Transcription format
The work of Ochs (1979) was referred to in order to inform
judgements about the organisation of the transcription layout. The
recording of several or more children at an activity posed particular
problems for the transcription of the video recordings, as it was
necessary to consider how simultaneously occurring interactions
and behaviours of up to ve or six participants could best be represented temporally. For instance, whilst the adult was assisting
one child, two other children might be holding a conversation, and
another child trying to attract the adults attention.
The segments were divided into events. An event comprises
a sequence of behaviours and interactions with a recognisable
focus, and for which the researcher could identify a beginning and
an end, for example, cutting an apple, adding ingredients to a bowl,
or exchanges occurring between some of the participants. It was
usual for more than one event to occur simultaneously, beginning
and ending at varying times, and continuing for different lengths of
time. Out of those simultaneously occurring events, the event
involving the greater part of the adults participation was nominated to be the event in focus, and the others additional. The
event in focus was then transcribed in rich detail, while the additional events were tracked in less detail.
A column layout was developed, consisting of three participant
columns containing the transcriptions, and three additional
columns containing information of the line number and the
childrens identities (Table 2).
7.3. Coding procedure
A qualitative approach to examining the processes of interaction was implemented in this study. Pascal (1993) argued that
qualitative methods are well suited for examining processes and
linkages which characterise the social world in their entire

Table 2
Transcription column layout using an example of a transcript excerpt.
Line number

.
.
.
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
.
.
.

Childs
identity

Event in
focus.
Childrens
interactions

Adults
interactions
(Adult A2)

All

Looking
at A2

Ah, we need
some
bowls. Good
heavens have
I got
any bowls?
Searches in cool
bag. How many
bowls do I need?

children

In
chorus,
all
children

Four

Childs
identity

Additional
event.
Childrens
interactions

Child C

Enters cooking
area, observes
activity

complexity (p. 73). Rogoff, Mistry, Goncu, and Mosier (1993)

found that coding schemes focusing on independent behaviours
and their frequencies were not as useful in understanding
dynamic processes of interaction as a qualitative perspective
which enabled them to regard the adultchild dyad as a unit and
to consider the meaning of actions.
In this research, the analysis draws on a grounded method
approach, and was also informed by sociocultural theoretical
notions of the role of communication between adults and children
in childrens learning, in particular Rogoffs model of guided
participation (Rogoff, 1990). The analysis was also informed by one
researchers personal knowledge as a nursery teacher who was
familiar with working with children and staff in similar settings.
The grounded method approach adopted was originally developed
by Glaser and Strauss (1967), and later modied by Strauss and
Corbin (1990). This method uses procedures in a systematic way,
and is particularly suited for making sense of largely unstructured
data, including observations, interview transcripts, and other
documentary evidence. By systematically working through the
data, conceptual labels are generated and grouped into categories.
Linkages are created between categories, comparisons are drawn
between instances and categories, and theoretical sampling of new
cases is undertaken to extend theory.
To assist in the development of categories, descriptive
commentaries of the course of events and of individual participation were written to gain a deeper understanding of the context of
the activity and the purpose of the interactions. Rogoff and Gauvain
(1986: p. 266) argue that understanding of the meaning or purpose
of an interaction can be achieved by attending to the evidence that
participants provide to each other as a necessary part of joint
activity.
In this study open coding was then carried out. This involved
close examination of the transcripts and breaking the data down
into discrete parts, labelling and categorising them. The range of
interactions was identied through labelling each interactional
turn of the participants in each activity. Interpreting the purpose of
the interactions was undertaken by taking account of the utterances and gestures of the speaker, and the context of the interaction
in terms of what activity the participants were engaged in, and the
interactional turns preceding and following the one in focus. For
example, the label ensure foods and utensils are within easy reach
describes behaviours of the adults to move items around the table,
and infers the adults purpose.

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

There were four cooking activities, cake baking, biscuit baking,

fruit salad preparation and sandwich preparation. The range of
interactions was labelled for the adults and children in each of the
individual activities observed, and were then compared with each
other. It emerged that there were similarities between the two
baking activities, and further similarities between the fruit salad
and sandwich preparation activities. The labels from the two
baking activities were then combined to form one set of data, and
the labels from the fruit salad and sandwich preparation activities
were combined to form another set of data. From each set of data
the labels were reviewed and grouped into more expansive categories according to the overall or broader purpose. For example, the
category Ensure access to foods and utensils includes ensure sufcient utensils for growing numbers of children participating,
ensure all food items and utensils are with in easy reach,
removing sharp knives and items not in use and resolving
disputes between children over utensils and food items.
Interpretations about the style of teaching and role of the adult,
the childs role, and the structure of the activity were then developed by reviewing the completed categories. For example, the
activity structure was interpreted as either adult-determined or
child-determined. The categories revealed a number of similarities
and differences between the four cooking activities, and from
which a conceptual framework was developed.
8. Transcription and coding of the audio taped interviews
Several interviews were held with each adult separately. An
initial interview focused on their prior training and experience.
Pre- and post-activity interviews concentrated on the adults
intentions for the activity and reections on how it had gone.
Analysis of the interviews with each of the adults revealed their
underlying pedagogical beliefs and intentions for the activity.
8.1. Coding
All adult interviews were recorded onto audiotape and later
transcribed. Analysis of the interviews involved open coding of the
transcripts by the researcher which identied statements in the
texts relating to the adults beliefs about their practices, rationales
for the activities, and intentions for learning outcomes. For
example, the belief, learning should be enjoyable encompasses the
adults view that learning ought to occur in an encouraging and
positive climate, emerged from comments such as one made by A2,
Its (the nursery) got to be fun. It shouldnt be a punitive atmosphere. The properties of each belief were also identied for each
adult. For A2 the properties of this belief included foster a positive
disposition to learning, and participation in activities is optional.
8.2. Alignment between the adults stated and enacted beliefs
Alignment between the adults stated beliefs (from the interviews) and their enacted beliefs (as evidenced through their
behaviours and interactions during the cooking activities, and their
post-activity comments) was then examined. Each stated belief was
compared with the categories identied in the conceptual framework and with the activity and interview transcripts. For example,
for the stated belief above evidence was sought in the transcripts
for each of the properties identied, such as whether the children
were given the option to participate in the activities.
8.3. The adults rationale and intensions
The rationale given by each adult for their choice of cooking
activity was also obtained, as were their intentions for the learning

1109

outcomes. For example, adults A3 and A4 rationale for their choice

of activity was to enable children to make choices and decisions
about their work. Learning outcomes were identied in terms of
the program curriculum and reected skills and knowledge from
those areas, such as handeye coordination and ne motor skill
practice for physical development, sharing and social interaction in
social development, and learning new vocabulary for language
development.
9. Findings of the analysis of the cooking activities and the
alignment between the stated and enacted beliefs
Findings regarding the analysis of the adults beliefs are presented together with the analysis of the cooking activities. Analysis
of the interviews revealed three overarching stated pedagogical
beliefs common to all adults, and their rationales for their choice of
cooking activity. Further analysis revealed whether their stated
beliefs were enacted in the cooking activities. During analysis of the
transcriptions of the activities it became apparent that there were
two distinct sets of cooking activities. One set comprised the two
baking activities, making biscuits and cakes undertaken at one
nursery school, School X, with teachers A1 and A2, the other set
comprised the preparation of fruit salad and sandwiches, undertaken at School Y, with teachers A3 and A4.
Tables 35 provide a summary of the conceptual framework that
emerged from the analysis of the interviews with the adults, and of
the analysis of the baking activities and the cold food preparation
activities. Each table centres around one of the stated beliefs, and
demonstrates the alignment between the stated and enacted belief
by comparing the properties drawn from analysis of the interviews
with each adult, and properties from the analysis of the activities
and interviews. Also included in the framework are the categories
developed from the two sets of cooking activities. The categories
from each set are listed separately, as the structure of these two
types of cooking activities and the interactional roles of the adult
and children contrasted with each other. In the tables the lists are
arranged side by side to enable the reader to make comparisons
between the two types of activities.
9.1. The adults beliefs
Three overarching stated beliefs common to all four adults were
identied in the interviews; ownership of the activity resides with
the child, the adults role is to promote childrens independent
learning, and learning should be enjoyable.
9.1.1. Belief: ownership of the activity resides with the child
Table 3 illustrates the relationship between the stated belief,
ownership of the activity resides with the child, the given rationales for the cooking activities, and the enacted belief. The belief
that ownership of the activity resides with the child reects the
adults view that activities ought to be child-determined. Childrens active engagement should primarily involve exploring the
nursery environment to develop their interests and set their own
goals.
Analysis of the structure of the four activities reveals that the
arrangement of the baking activities differed from that of the
sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities, and did not reect
the stated belief of the adults.
9.1.1.1. Activity structure. Differences between the two types of
cooking activities: Table 3 shows that the baking activities were
adult-determined with xed outcomes. The baking recipes
required many stages to be carried out in sequence, with xed
ingredients and amounts, and methods involving a range of ne

1110

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

Table 3
Comparison of stated and enacted belief: ownership of the activity resides with the child.
Adult
Cooking
Activity

A1 Bake biscuits

A2 Bake cakes

A3 Prepare
sandwiches

A4 Prepare fruit salad

Selected
belief
quote

But you also have to give

them time to make sense
of the things they have
learned
by allowing to follow
it through
themselves.
Children exercise control
over their experiences,
work independently and
make choices
A1 and A2
Ownership of the
activity resides with
the adult
Adult-lead activity
Children worked as a group
Fixed ingredients,
amounts, methods
Required broad range
of skills
Many stages involved in
preparation
A1
Baking biscuits in order
to decorate later as a
creative activity

.but theyve got to bring to it

something of themselves.making
it much more that they are in control
of the activity.

You dont get what you hope

to get out of it (activity),
because the children have
their own agendas.

.youre just another provision

for them. If they want you they
ll get you.

Children exercise control over their

experiences, work independently
and make choices

Children exercise control

over their experiences, work
independently and make choices

Children exercise control over their

experiences, work independently
and make choices

Properties of
stated belief

Enacted Belief

Properties of
enacted belief

Rationale for
activity

A3 and A4
Ownership of activity resides
with the child
Child-lead activity
Children worked independently
Choice of ingredients, amounts, methods
Required narrow range of skills
Few stages involved in preparation
A2
It is valuable for children to
experience ways of working
that differ from a self-determined
approach

motor and cognitive skills the children were unpracticed in, for
example, cracking open an egg, mixing ingredients together using
a prescribed rubbing in method, and using weighing scales to
measure ingredients including our and butter. To accommodate
the childrens inexperience, the adults imposed a rigid structure
that afforded them greater control. The adults restricted the
number of children participating, and arranged the activity in
sequential stages. The adults directed the children through each
stage of the activity as a group. The children were actively engaged
in the preparation of the mixtures, but there were no opportunities
for them to work autonomously.
The structure of the sandwich and fruit salad preparation
activities was more open-ended than that of the baking activities
and allowed for a child-determined approach. Offered a variety of
foods to work with, the children were encouraged to select which
foods to prepare, the methods to prepare them, and determine
when it was completed. As the dishes involved fewer stages and
simpler skills restricted to spreading, slicing and chopping, the
children were able to achieve their task either independently or
with some assistance on request. Although only four places were
initially set for the children, as the activities required little adult
direction, additional children who wanted to join in were
accommodated.
The structure of the sandwich and fruit salad preparation
activities reected the adults stated beliefs that ownership of the
activity resides with the child, and contrasts with the structure of
the baking, which did not.
The rationales for the cooking activities: Table 3 shows the
rationale given by each adult for their choice of cooking activity.
The rationales explain the adults intentions for the activity and
shed light on the discrepancy between the stated and enacted
belief for the baking activities.
The baking activities: A1 explained that her intention was to
provide a creative activity of decorating biscuits, and decided to let
the children bake the biscuits too:

A3 and A4
Children make choices and decisions

They wont be able to just put all the ingredients in and do what
they want to because we want an end product today that we
dont normally go for. The idea of having the end product is that
they can actually decorate biscuits themselves.
Typically, A1 chose recipes that required less direction. I try to
do things, as I say that the children can actually cope with, without
a lot of, too much direction. Vegetable soup was one dish she
preferred because, It doesnt matter how they chop it because
youre going to cook it.
Unlike the other adults, A2 regarded directed activity as having
important learning opportunities because of, not in spite of, its
prescribed nature:
They, they cant just charge in, and you know, put an extra one
on the table as they might do if they were nger painting. There
is a process we need to go through to get the nished product.
And its unlike most of the activities in the nursery. So its
a different way of working. And thats ne in itself, so its
showing them really, this is a different kind of activity, which
needs different kinds of skills.
A1 was uncomfortable with providing an adult-determined
activity, but justied it in her rationale as a means to a later childdetermined activity of decorating biscuits. A2 viewed this activity
as complimenting child-determined activity and having value in
exposing children to different ways of working.
Sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities: In contrast, the
rationales given by adults A3 and A4 for the sandwich and fruit
salad preparation activities did reect their stated belief that
ownership of the activity resides with the child. The adults
explained that the dish chosen and the activity arranged in a way
that offered choice and decision-making opportunities to the children. For example, A3 explained, Theyll be a variety of breads and
llings for the sandwiches, so that the children can choose what
they want to do.

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

1111

Table 4
Comparison of stated and enacted belief: the adults role is to facilitate childrens independent learning.
Adult

A1

A2

A3

A4

Selected
belief
quote

By having all the activities

displayed like workshops,
so that the children can use
the provision at whatever
stage they are at.

Organising it in such a way

that actually theyre doing
the work, they could do everything.

. a lot of what comes

out today will depend on the
children themselves.
I will try and follow their direction.

Properties of
stated belief

Arrange environment to
foster independence
Intervene only when
necessary
Adult follows childs lead
Bake biscuits

Arrange environment to
foster independence
Intervene only when necessary
Adults to follow childs lead.

Arrange environment to foster

independence
Intervene only when necessary
Adult follows childs lead.

I will support them as

much as they actually
need me to. If they cant
persist I will help them
persist.but I want them
to do it.
Arrange environment to
foster independence
Intervene only when necessary
Adult follows childs lead.

Bake cakes

Prepare sandwiches

Prepare fruit salad

Cooking
activity
Enacted belief
Properties of
enacted
belief:
Role of adult

Role of child

A1 and A2
Adult as expert,
child as novice

A3 and A4
Adult as Facilitator, child as
designer

Adult as expert
Introduce the cooking
activity
Divide the activity into
manageable steps
Direct the progress of the
activity
Limit access to ingredients
Keep children focused
on the activity
Service the cooking area
Elaborate the activity
Child as Novice
Join the activity
Reliant on adults expertise
Demonstrate active involvement
to the adult
Monitor progress of other
children and the activity
Try to take initiative

Adult as facilitator
Introduce the cooking activity

Become distracted

9.1.1.2. Summary. Differences were found in the alignment

between the stated and enacted beliefs of the adults for the baking
activities and the sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities.
The belief, ownership of the activity resides with the child is
linked to how the activities are structured in terms of whether they
are adult- or child-determined. The baking activities were adultdetermined as they involved a level of difculty too great for the
children to complete alone. In contrast, the fruit salad and sandwich preparation activities comprising few stages and simple skills
accommodated independence of, and decision-making by the
children.
The rationale given by each adult for their choice of cooking
activity reveals how the adults intentions for the activity were
consistent with the adults stated beliefs in the case of the sandwich
and fruit salad preparation activities, and were inconsistent with
their stated beliefs as in the baking activities. The rationales help us
to understand why their enacted beliefs were or were not aligned
with their enacted beliefs.
9.2. Belief: the adults role is to facilitate childrens
independent learning
Table 4 illustrates the alignment between the adults stated
belief, the adults role is to facilitate childrens independent
learning, and its enactment. This is closely linked to the previous

Facilitate the progress of the activity

Ensure access to ingredients and utensils
Service the cooking area
Elaborate the activity

Child as Designer
Join the activity
Regard the adult as a resource
Make choices
Demonstrate active involvement
to the adult
Monitor progress of other children
and the activity
Compete in a group situation
Become distracted

belief, in that it centres on the role of the adult in promoting

childrens ownership of the activity. This belief is reected in the
ways in which the adults organised the learning environment in
general, as evidenced in the classroom and adult interviews, and in
the interactional roles of the adults with the children during the
cooking activities. The adults carefully arranged the nursery classroom in a workshop style to encourage children to independently
explore and pursue their own interests. For example, the literacy
area comprised open shelving with a range of coloured paper in an
assortment of sizes, writing tools such as pencil and crayons,
envelopes, and scissors for children to select and use in ways they
chose.
The adults were sensitive to both the need to encourage children
to be independent and self-directed, and to intervene appropriately
in order to move a child on to more challenging tasks and new
learning. A3 described her role as one of following the childrens
direction. A1 explained this approach, I have to be aware of when
to interact and not to interact, and move a child along by introducing perhaps a new piece of equipment or **, or some new
vocabulary, like that.
The alignment between the stated and enacted belief is
considered in terms of the adults and childrens roles in the
activities. Table 4 shows that the roles of the adults and children in
the baking activities did not reect the stated belief. The adult
adopted the role of expert with the child as novice in which the

1112

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

Table 5
Comparison of stated and enacted belief: learning should be enjoyable.
Adult

A1

Selected belief
quote

To create a warm
It shouldnt be a punitive
and secure quality
atmosphere. Learning is
place of learning for
wonderful, help them get that
young children.
Foster positive
Foster positive
disposition to learning
disposition to learning
Participation in
Participation in activity
activity is optional
is optional
Encourage quiet or
shy children to observe
and/or participate
Bake cakes
Bake cakes
Children eager
to participate,
affective support
from adults welcomed
quieter children and
encouraged all childrens
efforts Optional participation
in cooking activities;
adults welcomed all children;
adults provided
affective support

Properties of stated
belief

Cooking Activity
Enacted belief (all adults)
Properties of enacted
belief

A2

child was dependent on the adults expertise and was required to

follow the adults direction. This differed from the participatory
roles of the adults and children in the sandwich and fruit salad
preparation activities. In line with the stated belief, the adults A3
and A4 adopted the role of facilitator, and encouraged the children
to be designers of their activity, offering choice and decisionmaking. The analysis of the videotapes reveals that the adults role
was that of responding to childrens approaches for assistance, and
to make attempts to incorporate learning through elaborating on
and extending the activity.
9.2.1. Differences in the participatory roles of the adults in the
baking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities
The adults role in the baking activities was that of expert, and
was instructional and managerial in nature. Differences in the way
the adults managed the progress of each type of cooking activity are
revealed in the categories Divide the activity into manageable steps
and Direct the progress of the activity in the baking activities, and
Facilitate the progress of the activity in the fruit salad and sandwich
preparation activities. The adults in the baking activities assumed
responsibility for directing and managing the activities by introducing each stage with explanations, questions and demonstrations, and closely monitoring the progress of each stage. The adults
responded contingently to each childs efforts by indicating where
appropriate progress was being made, or providing further
instruction and direction. Individual instruction, demonstration
and explanation punctuated group instruction and management to
ensure each child progressed through each stage acquiring skills as
needed, such as learning to rub in the our, fat and sugar between
ngers and thumb until the mixture resembled ne bread crumbs.
The adults performed some tasks if they were considered beyond
the childrens capabilities or potentially hazardous, such as setting
the oven temperature, and placing or removing the biscuits and
cakes in or from the heated oven. The adults determined when each
stage was completed, for instance, when each child had weighed
out the correct amount, or when the mixture had reached the
appropriate consistency.
Unlike the baking activities, adults in the sandwiches and fruit
salad preparation activities primarily provided individual attention,
rather than group instruction. Adults invited children to make
choices from the foods available, and the method of preparation.

A3

A4

.well try and encourage

children who are a little
bit shy.just showing that were
aware of them and make them welcome.
Participation in activity is optional
Encourage quiet or shy children to
participate

To be individual, to have a go,

and not worry about making
a mistake.

Prepare sandwiches

Foster positive disposition to learning

Participation in activity is optional
Encourage quiet or shy
children to participate

Prepare fruit salad

They responded to childrens individual requests for assistance, for

example, when one child informed A4 that he was unable to cut the
orange, she suggested he try an alternative method of using his
ngers to peel it. The adults assisted with skills, such as holding
a hand over the childs to guide and apply pressure whilst the child
sliced fruit. The adults also encouraged children to consider additional ingredients, for example adding tomato to a cheese
sandwich.
The category Limit access to the ingredients in the baking activities was necessitated by adherence to a given recipe. This stands in
contrast to the category Ensure access to ingredients and utensils
which illustrates how the adults facilitated choice in the fruit salad
and sandwich preparation activities by providing a wide range of
foods to prepare, either a variety of types of breads and llings, or
a choice of fruits, and sufcient or sharing of knives and chopping
boards. Adults also resolved disputes between the children over
ingredients and utensils, which tended to occur when children
were unable to reach an ingredient or there was a lack of space with
a high number of children participating.
The category Keep children focused on activity includes a range of
the strategies adopted by adults in the baking activities that were
not evidenced in the fruit salad and sandwich preparation activities. These included curbing conversations unrelated to the activity
and responses to other events in the classroom, discouraging
children from initiating use of or play with ingredients and utensils,
and checking the intentions of the children, for example, Do you
want to continue?
9.2.2. Similarities in the participatory roles of the adults in the
baking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities
Similarities were evident across all four activities in some of the
categories describing the interactions displayed by both adults.
Table 4 includes the categories Introduce the activity, for the adults.
In each activity the adults helped children prepare or asked them to
wash their hands or don aprons. Once the children were settled, the
adults elicited the childrens attention and involvement by introducing the activity, for example, A1 announced to the group of
children, Were going to make biscuits.
Once the activity was underway, another category shared by all
adults is that of Service the cooking area. The adults took responsibility for maintaining the activity area by clearing away used

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

utensils, and in the case of the baking activities, for clearing away
ingredients that had already been added and were no longer
needed.
Table 4 shows that there were also similarities in the way the
adults interacted with children in ways that extended and supported each activity. The category Elaborate the activity describes
the strategies adults used to test the childrens knowledge and
recall, drawing on the childrens home experiences and relating
them to the activity. For example, children were asked what
ingredients go into a cake, or whether they ate sandwiches when
they went on picnics. They were also asked to observe and describe
the foods. For example, the children were encouraged to compare
the inside and outside of the fruits, or describe the changing
consistency of the cake mixture as the sugar dissolved.
9.2.3. Summary
Differences in the interactions of the adults in the two types of
activities arose from the different roles they adopted. In the baking
activities the adult adopted the role of expert, which resulted in
strategies that enabled them to assume responsibility for the
activity by directing and managing the children and controlling the
ingredients. In contrast, the adults in the sandwich and fruit salad
preparation activities displayed a facilitatory role that encouraged
children to assume responsibility, and maintained their role to one
of support and assistance. Despite some differences, the adults also
shared several strategies. These included strategies related to
health and safety, such as washing hands and removing utensils
and foods no longer needed or used; announcing the start of the
activity, and elaborating the activity in order to nd ways to have
the children think about aspects of the activity.
9.2.4. Differences in the participatory roles of the children in the
baking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities
Differences emerged in the interactional roles of the children,
which are characterized as that of a novice or designer. In the
baking activity the children adopted the role of novice, and the role
of designer in the fruit salad and sandwich preparation activities.
These differences are captured in the categories Reliant on the
adults expertise in the baking activities, and Regard the adult as
a resource and Make choices, in the fruit salad and sandwich preparation activities. In the baking activities the children lacked the
knowledge and skills to be able to carry out this activity alone, and
were dependent on the adult to guide and direct them. The children
attended to the adult, observing the techniques she demonstrated
and following her instructions and explanations.
In contrast to the baking activities, the childrens role during the
fruit salad and sandwich preparation activities was that of designer.
This term is used to describe the childs role in designing or creating
their dish. The children regarded the adult as a resource, there to
provide assistance when required, for example, one child asked,
Can you help me? when she was unable to slice an apple. In
addition children asked the adults to bring utensils and food items
within reach, as well as to check the procedure, for example,
whether to wash fruit before chopping.
Table 4 shows that the children in the fruit salad and sandwich
preparation activities made choices in ways children in the baking
activities were unable to do. The category Make choices lists the
choices the children offered, such as choosing which foods to
prepare. For example, when asked by the adult, So what would you
like to choose to cut? a child replied, I think Ill choose an orange.
One child decided to halve her bread before making the sandwich,
whilst another decided not to halve his sandwich at all. Children also
chose the method of preparation, such as chopping or slicing, how
much to do, and when they had completed the activity. Some children refused adults offers of assistance. For example when one child

1113

told the adult he is was unable remove the peel from an orange, the
adult offered to cut the peel off using a knife. The child changed his
mind and insisted on peeling the orange himself. Children also
challenged instructions, as demonstrated by one child who initially
refused to wash her hands in readiness for the activity.
The category of Try to take initiative in the baking activity
demonstrates the childrens attempts to assert themselves, and
contrasts with childrens ability and expectation to assume
responsibility through making choices in the sandwich and fruit
salad preparation activities. Some children tried to negotiate more
responsibility for the activity, such as adding more of an ingredient.
When A1 added more our to one childs mixture because it was
too sticky, several children chimed in, And mine, Can you give
me just a little tiny bit? At other times children tried to add or play
with ingredients without negotiating. Some children showed
initiative by deciding to leave before the activity was completed.
The children also occasionally attempted to initiate conversation
with each other and with the adult, but their attention was gently
steered back to the activity by the adult.
The category Compete in a group situation for the fruit salad and
sandwich preparation activities arose from the high number of
children participating at these activities. This resulted in more
requests for assistance and a longer wait time for an adult response.
The children devised a variety of tactics to attract the adults
attention, for example, some children repeated their requests with
increasing loudness, or leant nearer the adult. As well as competing
for the adults attention, children also had to compete for resources.
In the fruit salad activity one child tried to prize a chopping board
away from another, and the adult stepped in and suggested they
share the board. There was no competition for resources in the
baking activities as the number of participating children was limited
to that planned, and sufcient quantities of items were available.
9.2.5. Similarities in the participatory roles of the children in the
baking and sandwich and fruit salad preparation activities
Join the activity was common to all activities. In each activity the
children approached the adult and asked permission to join in, or
prepared for the activity by sitting down, donning an apron, or
rolling up their sleeves. The children were seemingly drawn to the
activity by the adults earlier preparations and setting up of the
activity.
Once the activity was underway the children shared categories
relating to involvement with the adults and the other participating
children. Demonstrate active involvement to the adult describes the
strategies the children adopted in drawing attention to or seeking
reassurance about their progress. During the cakemaking activity
one child said, This look like cake, then a little later showed the
mixture by pushing the bowl to the adult, saying, There you are.
The children also turned to the adult when they found something
interesting or puzzling, shared short commentaries on their actions
or intentions, and talked of home events related to the activities,
and asked or answered questions to the adult. The category Monitor
progress of other children and the activity includes the childrens
observations of and comments about each others mixtures and
dishes, and when they thought another child was misbehaving.
The children in both types of cooking activities were briey
distracted by conversations with each other and the adult on topics
unrelated to the activity, as described in the category, Become
distracted. In the baking activities, the childrens attention was also
diverted to other events occurring simultaneously in the classroom,
such as a sudden loud noise.
9.2.6. Summary
In the baking activities the children took on the role of novice,
and their strategies reected a reliance on the adults expertise.

1114

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

Despite being restricted to following the adults lead, they tried to

assume some independence by taking initiative in several ways.
This differed from the children in the salad and fruit salad preparation dishes, in which the children assumed the role of designer. In
this role the children displayed interactions that required them to
take initiative and only turn to adults when they needed assistance
or advice. Working independently also entailed competing for the
adults attention and resources in ways that the children who were
closely monitored and working as a group did not. Despite adopting
very different roles children from both types of activity chose to
join the activity, closely attended to the activity overall, becoming
distracted occasionally and for short periods.

secure learning experiences. This they set out to achieve by creating

a welcoming and supportive environment through attention to
childrens emotional and social differences and needs.

9.3. Belief: learning experiences should be enjoyable

This research provides an illustration of the link between

teachers pedagogical beliefs and their classroom practices. Of
particular interest in this study is the nding that beliefs and
practices were sometimes aligned, but not always. The enacted
beliefs of the adults who undertook the sandwich preparation and
fruit salad preparation activities did reect their stated beliefs
regarding their preference for self-directed and free-choice activities, unlike the adults who chose the baking activities. The adults
recognised their activities did not reect this approach because of
the need for a high level of adult direction, and addressed this
contradiction in different ways. One adult felt uncomfortable with
such a structured activity, and justied her choice as a means to an
end (baking cookies in order for the children to creatively decorate). The other adult believed having a more controlled activity
was acceptable on occasion, as it provided an alternative type of
learning experience.
Without taking account of the nature of the activities and the
pedagogical beliefs and intentions of the adults the ndings would
have been interesting but puzzling. Insights into the teachers
beliefs enhances our understanding of what the teachers regard as
valuable and appropriate learning experiences for children. In
addition, the analysis of observational data highlights contradictions between stated beliefs and actual practice, and offers an
opportunity to examine the impact of these choices on the participatory experiences of children as well as the adults. This research
thus complements the studies that focus only on self-reported
teaching practices (Fang, 1996).

Table 5 illustrates the relationship between the adults belief

that learning should be enjoyable, and its enactment. The alignment between the stated belief and enacted belief is considered in
terms of the ways in which the adults fostered an inviting and
supportive learning environment. These are reected in the adults
expectations of childrens participation in the activity and the
affective support the adults provided to them.
As much emphasis was placed on the emotional tone of the
environment as on the physical layout. The adults believed the
emotional tone of the environment impacts how well children
learn, and how they feel about learning. Properties of this belief
include fostering a positive disposition to learning, participation in
activities should be optional, and quiet or shy children should be
gently encouraged to observe and/or participate in activities. The
adults believed it important for children to feel condent and
develop a positive view of themselves as competent, independent
learners as described by A2, .so that any interaction should be
based on the positive.making them feel very capable little human
beings.
The adults believed it is important to foster a positive disposition to learning and they cited characteristics children should
develop that will underpin and promote independent learning,
such as condence, competence, persistence, perseverance and
self-discipline. Offering an inviting and supportive environment
was believed to be an effective way to foster a positive disposition
to learning. The adults believed it is important not to force children
to participate, but to be welcoming, especially to children who were
considered quiet or shy.
Table 5 shows that the enacted belief reects the stated belief.
Children eagerly volunteered to participate in each cooking activity,
and when others approached and observed, they actively tried to
engage them, as recounted by A4 when she was approached by two
children, And when they came over, I invited them to have a piece
of fruit, because it brought Child M and Child L in.
The properties of the enacted belief include a variety of strategies adopted by the adults to provide affective support to encourage
the children to remain engaged in the activity and overcome their
anxieties and frustration. The adults offered encouragement and
praise; acknowledged progress made by children, as well as difcult aspects of the activity; and alleviated frustration and anxiety.
For example A2 acknowledged Child Bs difculty of getting the raw
egg onto a spoon as she struggled, It is very difcult to get on your
spoon. Can you get, can you get it on your spoon? Can you get
a spoonful, cause it rolls off, doesnt it. Its really difcult.
9.3.1. Summary
The adults were concerned not only with what children learn,
but how they felt about learning. The adults believed that it is
important to promote the development of attitudes and skills that
would lead to a positive disposition through creating enjoyable and

10. Discussion
This study examined the relationship between the adults
pedagogical beliefs, choice and structure of the activity, and the
nature of participation of the adults and children during a cooking
activity in the nursery classroom.
10.1. Pedagogical beliefs and classroom practices

10.2. Tensions between pedagogical approaches

Interview data revealed that the adults rationales and justication for their choices mediated the alignment between stated and
enacted beliefs, creating tensions between their beliefs in a childcentred approach and their adult-controlled activities. The tensions
between teacher control and a child-centred approach has been the
subject of recent discussion (Tzuo, 2007; Wood, 2007). Wood
describes the existence of tensions in child-centred education
between responding to and provoking childrens interests, or in
other words, between responsive and proactive pedagogical
models, especially in relation to play (Wood, 2007: p.125). The
adults who conducted the baking activities expressed awareness of
the tensions between these two approaches, which presented them
with a dilemma. Of notable interest is the difference in their
response. One adult revealed her discomfort with an adult-lead
activity in contrast with the other who found value in it. This
teacher appears to have adopted what Lim and Torr (2007) term an
eclectic approach which they observed in a study of early years
literacy teachers. They found that teachers were aware of different
approaches, but did not so much take sides, as take an eclectic
approach to literacy development according to the needs and
interests of the children and demands of classroom management
(p. 425).

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

10.3. Activity context

The differences in activity choice and context provide an illustration of how the teachers created contrasting contexts in which
adults and children pursued joint participation, and contribute to
the literature on teacherchild interaction early years settings. In
some studies, adultchild language and interactional patterns were
consistent within some types of activity, for example OBrien and Bi
(1995), Girolametto et al. (2000) and Girolametto and Weitzman
(2002).
In contrast with the studies cited above, of note in the present
study are the striking differences in the nature of adultchild
interactions in a cooking activity. The differences appear to be
dependent on whether the activity was adult-lead with a predetermined recipe and outcome, or child-lead and more openended. This distinction highlights how different pedagogical
approaches chosen by the adults had a strong inuence on
creating an activity context, and was not dependent on the type of
activity per se.
10.4. A sociocultural perspective
Sociocultural theory recognises the role of broader social and
cultural practices in differing developmental goals and contexts for
childrens learning experiences. The adults beliefs in this study
reect the approach espoused by the local education authority for
which they worked. As in the authors earlier work (Ireson & Blay,
1999), insights into the adults beliefs made it possible to explain
the more child-centred approach (evident in the sandwich and fruit
salad preparation activities here), which differ from the adultdetermined closed tasks favoured in other studies examining
processes of interaction in adultchild dyads such as building
a block pyramid (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976), completing a puzzle
(Wertsch, McNamee, McLane, & Budwig, 1980) and sorting
(Goncu & Rogoff, 1998).
Rogoff (1990) considered several types of activity context,
including adult-determined closed tasks in which the adult recruits
the child to participate and in which the adult intentionally
instructs, and child-initiated participation in household chores and
routines, and involvement in childrens games in which the adult is
not intentionally instructing. Unlike Rogoffs studies in which
adults are either conscious of their instructional role or not the
adults in this study were clearly aware of their teaching role in both
types of activities. They selected activities knowing the different
roles they would adopt, and the different participatory opportunities the children would be offered. In activities which emphasised
childrens decision-making the adults consciously adopted a lead
by following approach aimed at supporting the childs own efforts.
In this type of activity the child was no longer in an apprenticeship
role to the adult, but rather the designer, using the adult as an
additional resource.
Much of the research on adultchild interaction stemming from
a sociocultural perspective has focused on dyadic encounters. This
study shows that the nature of participation between adults and
children is changed in a group scenario. Nursery settings often
comprise a large number of children with relatively few adults in an
informal environment. Children competed for the adults attention
and for equipment. In the baking activities, the children were
managed as a group; they had to wait their turn to add ingredients,
stir the mixture, and for others to nish.
10.5. Design and methodology
This research provides insights into the usefulness of the
design and methodology adopted in the study. Pascal (1993)

1115

argued for the need for innovative approaches to researching the

processes which form the educational experiences of children.
The design employed in this study has enabled observations to
be made of interactions occurring naturally in their usual
context, and which would have been difcult to replicate in
articial conditions. The use of a video camera to lm in the
nursery environment has enabled the collection of a rich set of
data that is authentic and detailed. The interviews with the
adults enabled further insights and understanding of the adults
beliefs and intentions, and the tensions they faced in the choices
they made.
A grounded approach complemented the design by providing
systematic procedures that helped make sense of and analyse
a vast amount of unstructured data. Not constrained by predetermined constructs or observation schedules, out of the
analysis it was possible to generate new descriptions and
emergent categories of interaction, which can take account of
context and purpose. Interviews with the staff regarding their
pedagogical beliefs and approaches provided valuable insights
into how beliefs inuenced the nature of the activities, and how
the nature of the activity inuenced the interactional roles of
adults and children.
The drawbacks with the design are acknowledged. Only
a selection of excerpts was used for transcription and analysis. The
sample size was very small, and consequently the conclusions that
can be drawn from this small study are tentative, and not intended
to be generalised. Despite these drawbacks, the methodology
resulted in a data set that is very detailed and provides new insights
that may be useful in future research.

10.6. Conclusion
This study throws light on the inter-related nature of adult and
child participation and activity structure in the nursery, and
pedagogical beliefs and activity choice. The choice made by the
adults resulted in both adult-led and child-led cooking activities,
and analysis revealed not only how the structuring of these are
associated with different interactional experiences for the children,
but also reect differences and tensions in their beliefs about the
appropriateness and value of this type of activity in a child-centred
nursery classroom.

Appendix
Interview questions
About the adults teaching experience
(1) How long have you worked in childcare?
(2) What areas of childcare have you worked in?
(3) What training have you had?
(4) What do you think are the most important aspects of role?
(5) How do you put these aspects into practice with the children?
(6) What level or type of interaction do you think childcare
workers ought to give?
Pre-activity questions
(1) How will you structure the activity itselfdthe materials, table,
etc.?
(2) In what sorts of ways do you anticipate supporting the children
during this activity?
(3) Do you vary your approach/support with different children?
How?
(4) What do you think the children learn from this activity?

1116

J.A. Blay, J. Ireson / Teaching and Teacher Education 25 (2009) 11051116

Post-activity interview questions

(1) How did the activity go?
(2) Did it go as expected?
(3) Did you deliberately change your support for different children? How?
(4) What do you think the children got out of the activity?
References
Arbeau, K. A., & Coplan, R. J. (2007). Kindergarten teachers beliefs and responses to
hypothetical prosocial, asocial, and antisocial children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly,
53, 291318.
Charlesworth, R., Hart, C. H., Burts, D. C., Mosley, J., & Fleege, P. O. (1993). Measuring
the developmental appropriateness of kindergarten teachers beliefs and
practices. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 8, 255276.
Daniels, D. H., & Shumow, L. (2003). Child development and classroom teaching: A
review of the literature and implications for educating teachers. Applied
Developmental Psychology, 23, 495526.
Elbers, E., Maier, R., Hoekstra, T., & Hoogsteder, M. (1992). Internalisation and adult
child interaction. Learning and Instruction, 2, 101118.
Erickson, F. (1982). Audiovisual records as a primary data source. Sociological
Methods and Research, 11, 213232.
Fang, Z. (1996). A review of research on teacher beliefs and practices. Educational
Research, 38, 4765.
Girolametto, L., & Weitzman, E. (2002). Responsiveness of child care providers in
interactions with toddlers and preschoolers. Language, Speech, and Hearing
Services in School, 33, 268281.
Girolametto, L., Weitzman, E., & van Lieshout, R. (2000). Directiveness in teachers
language input to toddlers and preschoolers in day care. Journal of Speech
Language and Hearing Research, 43, 11011114.
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for
qualitative research. New York: Aldine.
Goncu, A., & Rogoff, B. (1998). Childrens categorization with varying adult support.
American Educational Research Journal, 35, 333349.
Hermans, R., van Braak, J., & van Keer, H. (2008). Development of the Beliefs about
Primary Education Scale: Distinguishing a developmental transmissive
dimension. Teacher and Teacher Education, 24, 127139.
Ireson, J. (2000). Activity and interaction in pedagogical contexts. In H. Cowie, &
G. van der Aalsvoort (Eds.), Social interaction in learning and instruction: The
meaning of discourse for the construction of knowledge. Amsterdam: Pergamon.
Ireson, J., & Blay, J. A. (1999). Constructing activity: Participation by adults and
children. Learning and Instruction, 9, 1936.
Isenberg, J. P. (1990). Teachers thinking and beliefs and classroom practice. Childhood Education, 66, 322327.
Lim, C., & Torr, J. (2007). Singaporean early childhood teachers beliefs about literacy
development in a multilingual context. Asia-Pacic Journal of Teacher Education,
35, 409434.

McCarty, F., Abbott-Shim, M., & Lambert, R. (2001). The relationship between
teacher beliefs and practices, and Head Start classroom quality. Early Education
and Development, 12, 225238.
Miller, L., & Smith, A. P. (2004). Practitioners beliefs and childrens experiences of
literacy in four early years settings. Early Years, 24, 121131.
OBrien, M., & Bi, X. (1995). Language learning in context: Teacher and toddler
speech in three classroom play areas. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education,
15, 148163.
Ochs, E. (1979). Transcription as theory. In E. Ochs, & B. B. Schieffelin (Eds.),
Developmental Pragmatics. New York: Academic Press.
Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up
a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62, 307332.
Pascal, C. (1993). Capturing the quality of education provision for young children: A
story of developing professionals and developing methodology. European Early
Childhood Education Research Journal, 1, 6980.
Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Rogoff, B., & Gauvain, M. (1986). A method for the analysis of patterns, illustrated with data on mother-child instructional interaction. In J. Valsiner
(Ed.), The role of the individual subject in scientic psychology. New York:
Plenum Press.
Rogoff, B., Mistry, J., Goncu, A., & Mosier, C. (1993). Guided participation in cultural
activity and caregivers. Monographs of the society for Research in Child Development, 58. (8, Serial No. 236).
Rogoff, B., & Wertsch, J. V. (1984). Editors notes. In B. Rogoff, & J. V. Wertsch (Eds.),
Childrens learning in the zone of proximal development. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics in qualitative research: Grounded theory
procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Tzuo, P. W. (2007). The tension between teacher control and childrens
freedom in a child-centred classroom: Resolving the practical dilemma
through a closer look at the related theories. Early Education Journal, 35,
3339.
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wertsch, J. V. (1991). Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Wertsch, J. V., & Kanner, B. (1992). A sociocultural approach to intellectual development. In R. Sternberg, & C. Berg (Eds.), Intellectual development. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Wertsch, J. V., McNamee, G. D., McLane, J. B., & Budwig, N. A. (1980). The
adultchild dyad as a problem-solving system. Child Development, 51,
12151221.
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89100.
Wood, E. (2007). Reconceptualising child-centred education: Contemporary
directions in policy, theory and practice in early childhood. Forum: For
Promoting 319 Comprehensive Education, 49, 119134, Available from: http://dx.
doi.org/10.2304/forum.2007.49.1.119. Accessed 19.08.07.