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Competences
va l e r i j d e r m o l
International School for Social and Business Studies, Celje, Slovenia
e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l l e a r n i n g seems to promote the emergence of entrepreneurship and enterprising undertakings among students and graduates of higher education institutions. The model
of entrepreneurial learning which we describe in this paper consists
of five constructs entrepreneurial competences, self-ecacy, entrepreneurial intention, self-employment or enterprising behaviour
and teaching methods. We assume that it is a combination of entrepreneurial competences and self-ecacy which encourages entrepreneurial intentions. On the other hand, a mix of appropriate
teaching methods which act as moderating variables promotes the
processes of learning and improves entrepreneurial competences respectively. The model assumes as well that more competent students
and graduates usually possess stronger entrepreneurial intentions. In
the paper, we propose a model of entrepreneurial learning on one
hand, and suggest an approach for further research on the model,
entrepreneurship and links between the constructs on the other.
i n t ro d u c t i o n
Most countries would like to encourage entrepreneurship among
students and graduates of higher education institutions (h e i) or
strengthen their willingness to undertake some kind of enterprising
projects. It seems that in the higher education (h e) environment, entrepreneurial learning is an important mechanism for strengthening
enterprising behaviour of students, or for encouraging them to enter
into self-employment or entrepreneurship. It facilitates the acquisition
of appropriate competences as well as strengthens the entrepreneurial
intentions. Various studies note that only individuals who possess appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes and who have suciently
strong entrepreneurial intention enter into entrepreneurship or enterprising ventures establish a firm, create and commercialise innovavo lu me 3 | number 1
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potential financial benefits are weaker and the risks are lower. Organizational context certainly places some restrictions, but on the other
hand it oers the entrepreneurs greater security, especially in the case
of failure they usually dont suer personally.
The concept of entrepreneurship includes professional and behavioural dimensions (Jong and Wennekers 2008). Professional refers
to the functioning of individuals who either own and operate a
business or are employees in firms owned by others, and the behavioural dimension which focuses on specific behaviours whether
entrepreneurial or managerial. In this way, it is possible to recognize
three dierent entrepreneurial roles business owners, independent
entrepreneurs, and employees with entrepreneurial or enterprising behaviours intrapreneurs. On the basis of this classification we can
define so-called enterprising individuals, including independent entrepreneurs, managers who show an entrepreneurial and not merely managerial mode of behaviour, and enterprising employees. In this paper
we focus on students and graduates who may appear later in their
professional career in any of these three roles.
e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p e d u c at i o n
Research confirms the high importance of entrepreneurship education.
It recognises influences on the emergence of entrepreneurial intentions,
as well as on the quality of entrepreneurship on the survival rate of
new businesses and on their growth (Lans et al. 2008). The policies
regarding education and training of most countries recognize the need
for entrepreneurship education and for fostering the entrepreneurial
mindsets of young people and for encouraging the emergence of new
firms or other enterprises (European Commission 2008).
Lans et al. (2008) divide entrepreneurship education into educational eorts in terms of changes in the state of mind, in terms of
enhancing entrepreneurial behaviour and in terms of mastering some
specific business situations. In the first case, the education should focus on the creation of appropriate values, beliefs and attitudes associated with successful entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship as well.
In the second case, considering entrepreneurship as a matter of behaviour, education should encourage transfer of specific abilities revo lu me 3 | number 1
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lated to entrepreneurial behaviour (whether on the role of independent entrepreneur, entrepreneurial manager or enterprising employee).
In the third case, in which entrepreneurship is aligned with mastering
of specific situations, education should focus on handling functional
expertise such as, how to start a business, how to explore the market, etc. The latter situation relates especially to individuals who are
considering establishing their own firm.
In entrepreneurship education literature, two names appear as synonyms for entrepreneurship education entrepreneurship teaching
and entrepreneurial learning. The former consists of two components
(European Commission 2002) the transfer of entrepreneurial attitudes and skills developing relevant personal characteristics which are
not directly linked to the business context (e. g. creativity, risk-taking,
responsibility), and specific training on how to create a new firm
(e. g. technical and business skills). On the other hand, entrepreneurial
learning is defined as all forms of education and training, both formal
and informal, which contribute to the entrepreneurial spirit and learning with or without commercial objectives (Gribben 2010). Holcomb
et al. (2009) define entrepreneurial learning as a process in which people absorb new knowledge from direct experience or from observation
of other peoples behaviour, actions and consequences, make intuitive
conclusions or heuristics because of environmental uncertainty and inconsistent information, and organize acquired knowledge by linking it
with pre-existing knowledge structures.
Studies identify many possible approaches to entrepreneurial learning in the h e environment. Most of them are consistent with definitions of entrepreneurial learning or entrepreneurship teaching. JonesEvans, Williams and Deacon (2000) for instance indicate the action
learning approach (Revans 1980). Hampden-Turner (2010) describes
a similar approach integrating simulations and games of managing
the business, and organising meetings with some of the worlds leading entrepreneurs. Harkema and Schouten (2008) indicate examples
of student-oriented learning of entrepreneurship based on psychological tests for selection of appropriate students, and on planning of
learning by the student himself/herself, and using personal coaching.
As Hanke, Kisenwether and Warren (2005) note, the introduction of
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2008). Educational systems largely assume the important role of socialization. They are in fact expected to prepare the young people to
take responsibility for the society in which they live. Educational programs in many countries include the contents of sustainable development such as environmental education, health education, citizenship
education, education for peace, etc.
Schools should encourage individuals to reflect about their life
styles and associate them with issues of sustainable development and
their life (Scott 2002). European universities and some other partners
(Sleurs 2008) note that the role of education is in promoting independent thinking as well, and therefore they strongly emphasize the
importance of critical reflection about the vision of sustainable development. Education should encourage and teach individuals how to (1)
think about their own situation and the situation of others recognising their interdependence, (2) critically assess situations, (3) self-reflect
about the role, possibilities and limitations of personal and collective
responsibility, and (4) make responsible decisions and take actions at
both personal and societal level. It seems that the approaches to learning about sustainable development are consistent with the teaching
methods mentioned in table 1, particularly in the case of self-directed
learning, problem-learning, discussions and case-studies, etc. methods that encourage reflection, self-reflection and transfer of views and
values.
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We believe that the choice of teaching methods is crucial for the effectiveness of entrepreneurial learning, and respectively, entrepreneurial
education. Koir and Bezenek (2009) and also Burke et al. (2006) and
Arthur et al. (2003), in their meta-researches on organisational training eectiveness, note that the mix of implemented teaching methods
significantly influences the quality of learning in the sense of students
satisfaction, possible changes in their knowledge structures and behaviour, and also in the sense of the individual and organisational performance. On the basis of such considerations we state the following
proposition:
p 1 The mix of teaching methods used as a mean of h e entrepreneurship learning
has an important moderating impact on the process of entrepreneurial learning
and on the creation of entrepreneurial intentions.
entrepreneurial competences
The Dictionary (www.answers.com) defines competence as the ability
of implementation, especially of something physical, mental or financial, or as a legal power to achieve something. It is either a natural or
an acquired skill or talent. Despite such a relatively clear definition,
Lans et al. (2008) note that in practice the construct of competence is
surrounded by a great deal of confusion.
Due to the dierences between the components of competences
achievements, capabilities, tasks, and personal characteristics competences are a fuzzy concept (Le Deist and Winterton 2005).
As identified by Lans et al. (2008) competences are a mix of knowledge, skills and attitudes. They can also be defined as broader personal characteristics necessary for superior behaviour, but also as an
outcome of a proper application of knowledge (Brown 1993). LeBrasseur, Blanco and Dodge (2002) note that when considering competences the emphasis is on behaviour and performance. They understand a competency as an eective performance of a task or activity in a job setting, due to the underlying characteristics of the individual: motives, traits, skills, self-image, social role, or knowledge
and experience. Obviously competences can be defined as professional standards as well. They can be therefore identified by conductvo lu me 3 | number 1
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ing a job analysis within dierent work or social contexts. Furthermore, Le Deist and Winteron (2005) also recognise so called metacompetences. They define them as a capacity to manage uncertainty,
learning and reflection and are usually related to learning to learn
ability. As a kind of meta-competence, Gagne (Richey 2000) recognises so-called cognitive strategies. He defines them as intrinsically
organised skills directing personal behaviour at learning, memorising
and reflecting. They are related to self-management and self-control of
learning and thinking, and not to the context in which the individual
operates. To acquire them it takes a lot of practice and opportunities
to reflect.
Competences are closely related to work contexts (Sandberg 2000).
In many cases they can be considered as tacit knowledge (Polanyi 1966),
which individuals automatically have at hand when they need it, but
they are usually not aware of having such knowledge (Dermol 2010).
Related to this, Cope and Watts (2000) recognize the developmental aspect of competence. When the competences are used in practice, even unconsciously, experiential learning takes place which on the
other hand improves these competences e. g. by reflection on critical
incidents, by testing the learning or by observation. We can conclude
that entrepreneurial competences are not fully given to individuals at
birth, but are created through the processes of education, training and
experience (Lans et al. 2008)
Personal history is also very closely linked to the concept of the
competences. It is actually the outcome of experiential learning, which
is considered by many authors to be the most important method of
adult learning (Jarvis, Holford and Grin 2006). It takes place anywhere and at any time and includes the acquisition of all types of
knowledge, skills and experience (Trunk irca and Gomezelj Omerzel
2006). Experiences in the sense of trial and error processes and observation of other people are the basis for learning, but they are also a
very important learning stimulus (Jarvis, Holford, and Grin 2006).
Boyd and Vozikis (1994), for example, highlight the findings of various
studies showing that very often the parents of entrepreneurs are selfemployed, which seems to aect the future entrepreneurs inspirations
and desires for training and education.
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Cognitive Competences
Cognitive competences are primarily related to knowing that and
knowing why knowledge. Le Deist and Winterton (2005) for example
define cognitive competences as conceptual or theoretical knowledge
on one hand and understanding on the other. Gagne in his studies
about learning domains recognises so called verbal information and intellectual skills which are both tightly related to cognitive competences
(Richey 2000). Verbal information consists of facts, principles and
generalizations presented and organized in a meaningful context and
represents the basis for learning. It is usually called the knowledge.
Intellectual skills can be defined as skills that allow better understanding of dierent rules and concepts, dierentiation between the latter
and also as skills enabling action and decision making. Gagne states
that they dont oer the answers to the question What do individuals
know? but to the question What are individuals capable of doing?
(Dermol 2010). Cognitive competences seem to be learned formally
within an organised learning environment, but they can be gained informally by experience as well (Le Deist and Winterton 2005).
There are various social, cultural, political and economic factors
which influence the realisation of entrepreneurial intentions and the
formation of new businesses. Boyd and Vozikis (1994), who summarize the findings of various authors, highlight factors such as: change
in employment, previous work experience, the quality of urban life,
membership in certain ethnic groups, etc., as well as the availability of
venture capital, governmental impacts, availability of buyers, suppliers and transportation options, educated labour force, land and equipment and other support services. Relevant information availability and
perception of environmental factors may play an important role in the
construction of individuals expectations and their views on the feasibility of possible entrepreneurial ideas. The knowledge and understanding about these issues seems to be an important entrepreneurial
competence and an important learning outcome of entrepreneurial
learning at h e i as well.
In the last 30 years many scientists have been trying to identify
the characteristics that distinguish entrepreneurs and nascent entrepreneurs from all other people (Boyd and Vozikis 1994). As Carter
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Functional Competences
In this case the competences are associated with practising the profession and with mastering various entrepreneurial situations (Le Deist
and Winterton 2005). Functional competences are practical intellectual skills related to the understanding of entrepreneurial concepts and
relationships between them, mastering dierent rules connected with
these concepts and entrepreneurial decision making as well (Richey
2000). They are actually know-how knowledge, which a person operating in a particular occupational or entrepreneurial field should be
able to perform or exhibit.
Entrepreneurial learning related to the transfer of so-called functional competences needed to carry out certain tasks or to implement
some innovative work or business approaches, should focus on actual
business situations, on innovation, on intrapreneurial initiatives, or on
creation of new firms, and on finding the ways to enter new markets,
etc. It is especially worth mentioning that such competences should
enable the learner to identify entrepreneurial opportunities (acquisition of information and its interpretation), to create new business
concepts (products, services, markets, customers), to conduct market research or acquisition of assets (funding, human resources, etc.)
and to organise the business (to enter into arrangements, to establish
working routines and organisational structures) (Jong de and Wennekers 2008). Zinger et al. (2001) identify ten areas of managerial competences, which are related to entrepreneurial situations as well: customer service, business image, pricing, operations, supply management
(purchasing, inventory control), ability to develop new products and
services, financial management (monitoring receivables, developing financial projections), general management (monitoring business trends,
delegating), using computer technology, advertising and promotion,
and financial control (using budgets for setting targets and evaluating
results).
Behavioural Competences
Behavioural competences are personal, learnable competences related
to entrepreneurial or enterprising behaviour. They represent the answer to the question how to behave in certain entrepreneurial situations (Jong and Wennekers 2008). Within the concept of behavioural
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Entrepreneurial
self-ecacy
p5
Entrepreneurial
competences
Entrepreneurial
intention
p6
p1
p3
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p4
p2
Self-employment
or enterprising
behaviuor
Teaching methods
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