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Development of Entrepreneurial

Competences
va l e r i j d e r m o l
International School for Social and Business Studies, Celje, Slovenia
e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l l e a r n i n g seems to promote the emergence of entrepreneurship and enterprising undertakings among students and graduates of higher education institutions. The model
of entrepreneurial learning which we describe in this paper consists
of five constructs entrepreneurial competences, self-ecacy, entrepreneurial intention, self-employment or enterprising behaviour
and teaching methods. We assume that it is a combination of entrepreneurial competences and self-ecacy which encourages entrepreneurial intentions. On the other hand, a mix of appropriate
teaching methods which act as moderating variables promotes the
processes of learning and improves entrepreneurial competences respectively. The model assumes as well that more competent students
and graduates usually possess stronger entrepreneurial intentions. In
the paper, we propose a model of entrepreneurial learning on one
hand, and suggest an approach for further research on the model,
entrepreneurship and links between the constructs on the other.

i n t ro d u c t i o n
Most countries would like to encourage entrepreneurship among
students and graduates of higher education institutions (h e i) or
strengthen their willingness to undertake some kind of enterprising
projects. It seems that in the higher education (h e) environment, entrepreneurial learning is an important mechanism for strengthening
enterprising behaviour of students, or for encouraging them to enter
into self-employment or entrepreneurship. It facilitates the acquisition
of appropriate competences as well as strengthens the entrepreneurial
intentions. Various studies note that only individuals who possess appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes and who have suciently
strong entrepreneurial intention enter into entrepreneurship or enterprising ventures establish a firm, create and commercialise innovavo lu me 3 | number 1

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tions, establish coalitions or influence important decision makers in


the organisation to undertake innovative or intrapreneurial projects,
etc.
In order to successfully implement entrepreneurial learning, it is
necessary to choose the right methods of teaching and to adjust them
to the objectives and competences that the individuals should achieve.
There are some examples and case studies regarding these issues and
links between them claiming that, for example, one approach to entrepreneurial learning is more eective than others but clear definitions and classifications are missing. A more systematic approach to
entrepreneurial learning would encourage more educational organisations to further improve the quality of teaching and learning to promote entrepreneurial or enterprising behaviour.
In this paper we present a model for developing entrepreneurial
competences and intentions and for encouraging entrepreneurial and
enterprising activities among students and graduates of h e i. The
model is based on some theories related to the cause-eect relationship
between the constructs of entrepreneurial competences, self-ecacy,
entrepreneurial intentions and entrepreneurial or enterprising action.
The paper represents a starting point for further research on how to
promote entrepreneurial knowledge, skills, attitudes and intentions. It
also presents a short overview of teaching methods used to promote
dierent kinds of entrepreneurial competences. Our purpose is to introduce some future guidelines on how to ensure that more students
and graduates enter entrepreneurship or undertake enterprising ventures.
e n t e r p r i s i n g i n d i v i d ua l s
Antoncic et al. (2002) define entrepreneurship as an independent process in which the entrepreneur creates something new and worthy,
which requires some time and eort, and assumes the financial, psychological and social risk but also possible reward in the form of
money or personal satisfaction and independence. This definition also
applies to intrapreneurship or corporate entrepreneurship (Jong and
Wennekers 2008), with the dierence that intrapreneurs operate within
the organizational boundaries and are therefore less autonomous, their
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potential financial benefits are weaker and the risks are lower. Organizational context certainly places some restrictions, but on the other
hand it oers the entrepreneurs greater security, especially in the case
of failure they usually dont suer personally.
The concept of entrepreneurship includes professional and behavioural dimensions (Jong and Wennekers 2008). Professional refers
to the functioning of individuals who either own and operate a
business or are employees in firms owned by others, and the behavioural dimension which focuses on specific behaviours whether
entrepreneurial or managerial. In this way, it is possible to recognize
three dierent entrepreneurial roles business owners, independent
entrepreneurs, and employees with entrepreneurial or enterprising behaviours intrapreneurs. On the basis of this classification we can
define so-called enterprising individuals, including independent entrepreneurs, managers who show an entrepreneurial and not merely managerial mode of behaviour, and enterprising employees. In this paper
we focus on students and graduates who may appear later in their
professional career in any of these three roles.
e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p e d u c at i o n
Research confirms the high importance of entrepreneurship education.
It recognises influences on the emergence of entrepreneurial intentions,
as well as on the quality of entrepreneurship on the survival rate of
new businesses and on their growth (Lans et al. 2008). The policies
regarding education and training of most countries recognize the need
for entrepreneurship education and for fostering the entrepreneurial
mindsets of young people and for encouraging the emergence of new
firms or other enterprises (European Commission 2008).
Lans et al. (2008) divide entrepreneurship education into educational eorts in terms of changes in the state of mind, in terms of
enhancing entrepreneurial behaviour and in terms of mastering some
specific business situations. In the first case, the education should focus on the creation of appropriate values, beliefs and attitudes associated with successful entrepreneurship and intrapreneurship as well.
In the second case, considering entrepreneurship as a matter of behaviour, education should encourage transfer of specific abilities revo lu me 3 | number 1

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lated to entrepreneurial behaviour (whether on the role of independent entrepreneur, entrepreneurial manager or enterprising employee).
In the third case, in which entrepreneurship is aligned with mastering
of specific situations, education should focus on handling functional
expertise such as, how to start a business, how to explore the market, etc. The latter situation relates especially to individuals who are
considering establishing their own firm.
In entrepreneurship education literature, two names appear as synonyms for entrepreneurship education entrepreneurship teaching
and entrepreneurial learning. The former consists of two components
(European Commission 2002) the transfer of entrepreneurial attitudes and skills developing relevant personal characteristics which are
not directly linked to the business context (e. g. creativity, risk-taking,
responsibility), and specific training on how to create a new firm
(e. g. technical and business skills). On the other hand, entrepreneurial
learning is defined as all forms of education and training, both formal
and informal, which contribute to the entrepreneurial spirit and learning with or without commercial objectives (Gribben 2010). Holcomb
et al. (2009) define entrepreneurial learning as a process in which people absorb new knowledge from direct experience or from observation
of other peoples behaviour, actions and consequences, make intuitive
conclusions or heuristics because of environmental uncertainty and inconsistent information, and organize acquired knowledge by linking it
with pre-existing knowledge structures.
Studies identify many possible approaches to entrepreneurial learning in the h e environment. Most of them are consistent with definitions of entrepreneurial learning or entrepreneurship teaching. JonesEvans, Williams and Deacon (2000) for instance indicate the action
learning approach (Revans 1980). Hampden-Turner (2010) describes
a similar approach integrating simulations and games of managing
the business, and organising meetings with some of the worlds leading entrepreneurs. Harkema and Schouten (2008) indicate examples
of student-oriented learning of entrepreneurship based on psychological tests for selection of appropriate students, and on planning of
learning by the student himself/herself, and using personal coaching.
As Hanke, Kisenwether and Warren (2005) note, the introduction of
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the problem-based learning and distance learning approach enhances


students self-ecacy and their capacity to manage uncertainty. An
interesting approach involving works of fiction or film productions
is indicated by Bumpus and Burton (2008). Such approaches can result, for example, in understanding of the ethical and economic concepts, understanding of concepts related to the human resource management, encouraging the use of dierent management styles, introduction of important strategic management principles, organizational
culture analysis, and understanding of the organizational behaviour
concepts.
Obviously, many authors note that entrepreneurial learning methods should be interactive and action oriented. The teaching should involve students as much as possible, and the teacher should have some
real life entrepreneurial experiences and build the learning content as
much as possible on them. As motivation for the students to start their
own firm, role playing and discussion of case-studies could be beneficial, while for recognition of business opportunities action learning
approaches are appropriate and, for learning about the process of business idea commercialization, guests from practice and competitions
involving business plans are best suited. Creativity, which seems to be
very important for the entrepreneurial individual, could be encouraged
by the use of group techniques for generation of new ideas and live
case studies, which stem from existing business cases and current business models. Within entrepreneurial learning business planning workshops, guests from practice and business simulations should be introduced as well. The Expert Group of the European Commission (European Commission 2008) also notes that the approaches (and contents)
of entrepreneurial learning should dier in business and non-business
h e i, and there should be a distinction between approaches at the first
and the second level of study as well.
In table 1 we give a summary of possible teaching methods in entrepreneurship learning at h e i (European Commission 2008).
In relation to entrepreneurial learning, contents of sustainable development apply as well. Modern societies expect from educators to
fully prepare the young people, including future entrepreneurs, for
their professional life and/or for continuing education as well (Sleurs
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ta b l e 1 Overview of teaching methods for entrepreneurial learning


Learning through experience
Learning by observation and examples
and experimentation
Meetings with leading entrepreneurs
Action learning
Integration of works of fiction
Simulation
or film productions
Role playing
The integration of teachers real life
Use of personal instruction
experience
Self-directed learning
Case studies with discussions
Problem-based learning
Study of live entrepreneurial cases
Distance Learning
Guest speakers entrepreneurs
Business plan competition
as lecturers
Group techniques to create new ideas
Business planning workshops

2008). Educational systems largely assume the important role of socialization. They are in fact expected to prepare the young people to
take responsibility for the society in which they live. Educational programs in many countries include the contents of sustainable development such as environmental education, health education, citizenship
education, education for peace, etc.
Schools should encourage individuals to reflect about their life
styles and associate them with issues of sustainable development and
their life (Scott 2002). European universities and some other partners
(Sleurs 2008) note that the role of education is in promoting independent thinking as well, and therefore they strongly emphasize the
importance of critical reflection about the vision of sustainable development. Education should encourage and teach individuals how to (1)
think about their own situation and the situation of others recognising their interdependence, (2) critically assess situations, (3) self-reflect
about the role, possibilities and limitations of personal and collective
responsibility, and (4) make responsible decisions and take actions at
both personal and societal level. It seems that the approaches to learning about sustainable development are consistent with the teaching
methods mentioned in table 1, particularly in the case of self-directed
learning, problem-learning, discussions and case-studies, etc. methods that encourage reflection, self-reflection and transfer of views and
values.
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We believe that the choice of teaching methods is crucial for the effectiveness of entrepreneurial learning, and respectively, entrepreneurial
education. Koir and Bezenek (2009) and also Burke et al. (2006) and
Arthur et al. (2003), in their meta-researches on organisational training eectiveness, note that the mix of implemented teaching methods
significantly influences the quality of learning in the sense of students
satisfaction, possible changes in their knowledge structures and behaviour, and also in the sense of the individual and organisational performance. On the basis of such considerations we state the following
proposition:
p 1 The mix of teaching methods used as a mean of h e entrepreneurship learning
has an important moderating impact on the process of entrepreneurial learning
and on the creation of entrepreneurial intentions.
entrepreneurial competences
The Dictionary (www.answers.com) defines competence as the ability
of implementation, especially of something physical, mental or financial, or as a legal power to achieve something. It is either a natural or
an acquired skill or talent. Despite such a relatively clear definition,
Lans et al. (2008) note that in practice the construct of competence is
surrounded by a great deal of confusion.
Due to the dierences between the components of competences
achievements, capabilities, tasks, and personal characteristics competences are a fuzzy concept (Le Deist and Winterton 2005).
As identified by Lans et al. (2008) competences are a mix of knowledge, skills and attitudes. They can also be defined as broader personal characteristics necessary for superior behaviour, but also as an
outcome of a proper application of knowledge (Brown 1993). LeBrasseur, Blanco and Dodge (2002) note that when considering competences the emphasis is on behaviour and performance. They understand a competency as an eective performance of a task or activity in a job setting, due to the underlying characteristics of the individual: motives, traits, skills, self-image, social role, or knowledge
and experience. Obviously competences can be defined as professional standards as well. They can be therefore identified by conductvo lu me 3 | number 1

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ing a job analysis within dierent work or social contexts. Furthermore, Le Deist and Winteron (2005) also recognise so called metacompetences. They define them as a capacity to manage uncertainty,
learning and reflection and are usually related to learning to learn
ability. As a kind of meta-competence, Gagne (Richey 2000) recognises so-called cognitive strategies. He defines them as intrinsically
organised skills directing personal behaviour at learning, memorising
and reflecting. They are related to self-management and self-control of
learning and thinking, and not to the context in which the individual
operates. To acquire them it takes a lot of practice and opportunities
to reflect.
Competences are closely related to work contexts (Sandberg 2000).
In many cases they can be considered as tacit knowledge (Polanyi 1966),
which individuals automatically have at hand when they need it, but
they are usually not aware of having such knowledge (Dermol 2010).
Related to this, Cope and Watts (2000) recognize the developmental aspect of competence. When the competences are used in practice, even unconsciously, experiential learning takes place which on the
other hand improves these competences e. g. by reflection on critical
incidents, by testing the learning or by observation. We can conclude
that entrepreneurial competences are not fully given to individuals at
birth, but are created through the processes of education, training and
experience (Lans et al. 2008)
Personal history is also very closely linked to the concept of the
competences. It is actually the outcome of experiential learning, which
is considered by many authors to be the most important method of
adult learning (Jarvis, Holford and Grin 2006). It takes place anywhere and at any time and includes the acquisition of all types of
knowledge, skills and experience (Trunk irca and Gomezelj Omerzel
2006). Experiences in the sense of trial and error processes and observation of other people are the basis for learning, but they are also a
very important learning stimulus (Jarvis, Holford, and Grin 2006).
Boyd and Vozikis (1994), for example, highlight the findings of various
studies showing that very often the parents of entrepreneurs are selfemployed, which seems to aect the future entrepreneurs inspirations
and desires for training and education.
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Cognitive Competences
Cognitive competences are primarily related to knowing that and
knowing why knowledge. Le Deist and Winterton (2005) for example
define cognitive competences as conceptual or theoretical knowledge
on one hand and understanding on the other. Gagne in his studies
about learning domains recognises so called verbal information and intellectual skills which are both tightly related to cognitive competences
(Richey 2000). Verbal information consists of facts, principles and
generalizations presented and organized in a meaningful context and
represents the basis for learning. It is usually called the knowledge.
Intellectual skills can be defined as skills that allow better understanding of dierent rules and concepts, dierentiation between the latter
and also as skills enabling action and decision making. Gagne states
that they dont oer the answers to the question What do individuals
know? but to the question What are individuals capable of doing?
(Dermol 2010). Cognitive competences seem to be learned formally
within an organised learning environment, but they can be gained informally by experience as well (Le Deist and Winterton 2005).
There are various social, cultural, political and economic factors
which influence the realisation of entrepreneurial intentions and the
formation of new businesses. Boyd and Vozikis (1994), who summarize the findings of various authors, highlight factors such as: change
in employment, previous work experience, the quality of urban life,
membership in certain ethnic groups, etc., as well as the availability of
venture capital, governmental impacts, availability of buyers, suppliers and transportation options, educated labour force, land and equipment and other support services. Relevant information availability and
perception of environmental factors may play an important role in the
construction of individuals expectations and their views on the feasibility of possible entrepreneurial ideas. The knowledge and understanding about these issues seems to be an important entrepreneurial
competence and an important learning outcome of entrepreneurial
learning at h e i as well.
In the last 30 years many scientists have been trying to identify
the characteristics that distinguish entrepreneurs and nascent entrepreneurs from all other people (Boyd and Vozikis 1994). As Carter
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and Jones-Evans (2006) note, psychologists highlight the importance


of entrepreneurial personal traits the need for achievement, locus
of control, propensity to take risks, tolerance for uncertainty, etc. Attempts to develop the personal profile of a typical entrepreneur, based
solely on psychological constructs have been proven largely unsuccessful. These psychological constructs may be part of entrepreneurial
(cognitive) competences, but empirical studies show that only a very
small part of dierences in entrepreneurship (e. g. measured performance of new businesses) could be explained by them (Lans et
al. 2008). Bloom (Richey 2000) classifies cognitive learning objectives
and consequently cognitive competences hierarchically as (1) knowing of
terminology, concepts, rules, procedures and theories, (2) understanding
the knowledge with capabilities of self-change, foresight, integration and
forecasting, (3) using the knowledge in terms of operation, problem solving, and knowledge transfer, (4) analysis with capabilities of information interpreting, (5) synthesis with capability of new conceptual links
creation and experimentation, and (6) evaluation with the capabilities
of value judgments about the use of dierent methods, technical solutions and products (Dermol 2010). According to that, Pagon, Banutai
and Bizjak (2008) define the following types of cognitive competences:
divergent thinking, critical thinking, problem solving, strategic thinking, analytical skills, and numerical abilities.
The European Commission (2008) notes that in the context of entrepreneurial education and h e i it is necessary to impart the knowledge and understanding on how to establish a new business and how
to encourage its growth at the first study level especially through
the promotion of self-employment concept; at the second level, however, through the knowledge and understanding of business planning
processes and in the environment available entrepreneurial support
mechanisms. Also, at non-business h e i the entrepreneurial learning
should provide some practical basics about: economics, marketing,
management techniques, protection of intellectual property, commercialization of innovation, and venture capital availability. Humanities
and arts students should be aware of the problems concerning selfmanagement issues, social entrepreneurship, options for partial selfemployment and also of the innovation issues, especially the ones
based on users needs.
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Functional Competences
In this case the competences are associated with practising the profession and with mastering various entrepreneurial situations (Le Deist
and Winterton 2005). Functional competences are practical intellectual skills related to the understanding of entrepreneurial concepts and
relationships between them, mastering dierent rules connected with
these concepts and entrepreneurial decision making as well (Richey
2000). They are actually know-how knowledge, which a person operating in a particular occupational or entrepreneurial field should be
able to perform or exhibit.
Entrepreneurial learning related to the transfer of so-called functional competences needed to carry out certain tasks or to implement
some innovative work or business approaches, should focus on actual
business situations, on innovation, on intrapreneurial initiatives, or on
creation of new firms, and on finding the ways to enter new markets,
etc. It is especially worth mentioning that such competences should
enable the learner to identify entrepreneurial opportunities (acquisition of information and its interpretation), to create new business
concepts (products, services, markets, customers), to conduct market research or acquisition of assets (funding, human resources, etc.)
and to organise the business (to enter into arrangements, to establish
working routines and organisational structures) (Jong de and Wennekers 2008). Zinger et al. (2001) identify ten areas of managerial competences, which are related to entrepreneurial situations as well: customer service, business image, pricing, operations, supply management
(purchasing, inventory control), ability to develop new products and
services, financial management (monitoring receivables, developing financial projections), general management (monitoring business trends,
delegating), using computer technology, advertising and promotion,
and financial control (using budgets for setting targets and evaluating
results).
Behavioural Competences
Behavioural competences are personal, learnable competences related
to entrepreneurial or enterprising behaviour. They represent the answer to the question how to behave in certain entrepreneurial situations (Jong and Wennekers 2008). Within the concept of behavioural
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competences we can distinguish between social competences and metacompetences.


Social competences are the skills related to successful functioning
in a society. They are outward orientated. Meta-competences on the
other hand are inward orientated. They are conceptual skills of learning and reflecting. They encourage the acquisition of other competences as well (Le Deist and Winterton 2005). Gagne identified them
as cognitive strategies because they direct the behaviour of individuals
in the moments of learning, memorising and reflecting (Richey 2000).
According to him, learning of these skills requires a lot of practice
especially in terms of allowing the opportunity to challenge thinking.
Among the social competences we can also place the ethical competences with the possession of appropriate personal and professional
values and the ability to make sound judgements based upon these in
work-related situations (Le Deist and Winterton 2005, 35). In addition, Elmose and Roth (2005) recognized three kinds of competences
of sustainable development: understanding and being able to change a
persons own life conditions, participating in collective decision making and showing solidarity with those who are unable to control their
living conditions. Sustainable development is seen as a core value for
every citizen, to be always present in their minds.
Among the behavioural competences associated with entrepreneurial behaviour we should highlight in particular competences related to:
researching and realisation of entrepreneurial opportunities, production of creative ideas, taking responsibility for the execution of such
ideas or other activities, handling the uncertainties and risks, creating
favourable coalitions within an organisation, selling skills, initiative
taking, problem solving and overcoming potential barriers (Jong and
Wennekers 2008). Miller and Friesen (1982) and Miller (1983) identified three entrepreneurial orientations defining dierent kinds of
entrepreneurial behaviour: product-market innovation, risk-taking for
large benefits, and proactivity in the market. Entrepreneurial orientation is a firm-level concept, but it can be easily translated to the individual level of entrepreneurial behaviour as well. Quinn et al. (1996)
on the other hand proposes eight managerial roles: mentor, facilitator,
monitor, coordinator, director, producer, broker, and innovator. Each
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role demands some specific competences in most cases related to


communication skills for example, entrepreneurs as mentors should
be able to communicate eectively with their subordinates and to
develop them as well. LeBrasseur, Blanco and Dodge (2002) in their
study of entrepreneurial competences identify the top five competences
required during the survival stage of a small firm: perseverance, eective communication, judgement, individual productivity, and creative
thinking. In the fast growth stage of a small firm less importance is
attributed to innovating in products/services and planning and monitoring cash flows competences, on the other hand, more importance is
attributed to developing subordinates and eectively delegating competences.
e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l s e l f - e ffi c a c y
Self-ecacy can be defined as persons belief about his or her ability
and capacity to accomplish a task or to deal with the challenges of life
(Bandura 1993; 1997). It seems that self-ecacy aects the individuals beliefs about possibilities to realise the objectives, as well as their
personal choices, desires, eorts and perseverance even in case of setbacks or obstacles (Boyd and Vozikis 1994). On the other hand, if individuals perceive that a given behaviour exceeds their capacity, they do
not react even in cases when society encourages such behaviour. Bird
(1988), who focuses his study on enterprising individuals linking individual self-ecacy with entrepreneurial intention, also believes that
only individuals who believe that they are capable of implementing
certain activities actually realise their enterprising or entrepreneurial
desires. Because of such considerations we state the following proposition:
p 2 Students and graduates with a strong sense of self-ecacy are more likely
to challenge themselves with dicult tasks, be intrinsically motivated and are
therefore more likely to form firm entrepreneurial intentions.
Lans et al. (2008) believe that the motivational concept of selfecacy relates to the concept of competences, but it is not a part
of it. Empirical studies show that self-ecacy has a reciprocal eect
on entrepreneurial competences. Absorption of competences and past
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performance enhances self-ecacy and helps to strengthen the desire


and improve future performance. This applies vice versa as well
self-ecacy aects the acquisition of competences and individual performance. Boyd and Vozikis (1994) note that self-ecacy is obtained
through life stages, it is developed in line with experience since it enables the development of complex cognitive, social, linguistic and/or
motor skills.
Individuals create and strengthen their beliefs about their selfecacy in four ways (Boyd and Vozikis 1994; Erikson 2003): (1)
through experience (experiential learning), (2) by observing others
or by vicarious learning (e. g. influence of parents, mentors, etc.), (3)
by the means of social persuasion (e. g. providing feedback, existence
of social norms and conduct of discussions), and (4) through an
assessment of their own psychological state. Namely, empirical studies suggest a negative correlation between the degree of anxiety and
self-ecacy. In order to enhance the self-ecacy, it is necessary to
improve the individuals emotional and physical condition and reduce
stress. The individuals estimates of availability of assets and possible
personal or situational limitations also aect the beliefs about selfecacy (Fishbein and Ajzen 1997). In accordance with the described
findings we state the following propositions:
p 3 Teachers at h e i can use various strategies to build students and graduates
entrepreneurial self-ecacy, but all of the strategies are based on the processes
of enhancing the entrepreneurial competences.
p 4 Enhanced entrepreneurial self-ecacy positively influences the construction of
entrepreneurial competences.
the model of entrepreneurial learning
The emergence and development of the entrepreneurial intention is influenced by the individuals beliefs and potential reactions to environmental impulses (Fishbein and Ajzen 1997). Each individual develops a
repertoire of beliefs and his or her potential reactions to environmental
impulses. Beliefs are formed on the basis of personal variables and variables related to the context in which the individuals operate. They are
the products of the individuals personal history (experiential learning,
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vicarious learning, action learning, problem learning, trial and error


learning, etc.) and changes in his or her social context. They are obviously based on dierent kinds of learning and, respectively, on the
mix of the individuals competences. As Boyd and Vozikis (1994) state,
these beliefs and potential reactions are some kind of saved information which directs personal behaviour and are a function of personal
(personal history, personality and abilities) and contextual variables
(social, political, economic context). On the bases of saved information, individuals construct their expectations and attitudes which subsequently aect the individual and his or her intentions.
It seems that entrepreneurial competences are closely linked with
behaviour and performance and are considered to be a predictor of entrepreneurial intentions. On the basis of entrepreneurial competences,
individuals beliefs and expectations are formed about the tasks and
expected performance. We therefore state the following proposition:
p 5 Entrepreneurial competences which are actually learnable and measurable
knowledge, skills and attitudes are the base for construction of individuals
beliefs, potential reactions, expectations, and attitudes about their potential
performance and of their views on the feasibility of possible entrepreneurial
ideas and as such they positively aect entrepreneurial intentions.
As an important construct which is involved in the process of creating intentions, Boyd and Vozikis (1994) include self-ecacy (Bandura
1993; 1997) as well. Entrepreneurial intention seems to be crucial for
the realization of the ideas that emerge in the minds of enterprising
individuals (Bird 1988; Boyd and Vozikis 1994). The intention has a
significant influence on the critical strategic thinking of enterprising
individuals. It is a state of mind, which directs the actions of individuals and leads them towards the development and realization of
their ideas and/or business concepts. Individuals with the intention
are more able to focus their attention, experience and knowledge in a
specific subject or a method of behaviour. Based on such considerations, we state the following proposition:
p 6 Entrepreneurial intention positively influences the emergence of entrepreneurial
or enterprising behavioural and cognitive change.
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Entrepreneurial
self-ecacy

p5
Entrepreneurial
competences

Entrepreneurial
intention

p6
p1

p3

[42]

p4

p2

Self-employment
or enterprising
behaviuor

Teaching methods

f igure 1

Model of entrepreneurial learning

Figure 1 illustrates the final model of the entrepreneurial learning


consisting of all the described constructs and links between them.
d i s c u s s i o n a n d g u i d e l i n e s f o r f u rt h e r
r e s e a rc h
In this paper we recognize the factors competences and self-ecacy
which promote and enable the decisions of individuals, students and
graduates, about the possible realization of their entrepreneurial or
enterprising ideas or their potential entry into self-employment. We
are of course interested primarily in students and graduates of h e i.
In the paper there is a short review of the competences which in the
entrepreneurship literature are usually attributed to the independent
entrepreneurs, business owners managers and enterprising employees (intrapreneurs). These are the competences that enable individuals
to absorb or use the entrepreneurial knowledge, skills and attitudes
(competences), but also reinforce their beliefs in being able to successfully implement entrepreneurial intentions (self-ecacy). The proper
combination of competences and self-ecacy may enhance individuals entrepreneurial intentions and serve as an action guide when performing their intentions.
Based on these considerations, we propose empirical verification of
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the model, illustrated in figure 1 within the h e environment. The study


we propose could be based on the findings in some already existing
studies. Jong and Wennekers (2008) in their study, for example, state
indicators which they found in entrepreneurial and management literature and which allow for the measurement of entrepreneurial competences. Lin and Chen (2006), in their study based on the theory of
planned behaviour (Ajzen 2002), define indicators of entrepreneurial
intentions. The study, which is tightly connected with the model presented in figure 1, confirms the theory of planned behaviour within
h e i. Indicators of the construct of general self-ecacy are developed
by Schwarzer and Jerusalem (1995), and could be used in the proposed
research as well. To conclude, the model presented in this paper, and
the proposed indicators measuring dependent and independent variables in the model, may be a sound starting point for a detailed study
of entrepreneurial learning in the context of h e i. As a possible approach to analysing the data and to obtaining some theoretical and
practical guidelines we propose structural equation modelling, which
is probably the best way to simultaneously test all cause-eect relationships in the model and to explore possible moderator eects of using
dierent kinds of teaching methods.
In this paper, when referring to the typology of entrepreneurial
competences (Le Deist and Winterton 2005) we also recognize the
knowledge, skills and attitudes to be possessed by enterprising individuals, in order to be successful. At the same time we try to recognize
the contribution of some teaching methods that have been successfully used in entrepreneurial education practice (European Commission 2008) to develop or improve the entrepreneurial competences. In
the literature there are, for example, several studies examining the influences of using dierent teaching methods or a mix of them on Kirkpatricks levels (1998) of training outcomes (participants satisfaction,
individuals learning, individuals behaviour and organisational results).
On the other hand, there is a lack of studies examining the causal links
or correlations between the components of entrepreneurial competences and teaching methods in the literature. There can be found only
some sporadic reflections and reasoning about that issue (see Gibb
2002). Therefore, further research related to entrepreneurial learning
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Valerij Dermol

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should be conducted in this direction, because the findings may have a


significant impact on the strategies to promote entrepreneurial learning and to improve entrepreneurial competences and intentions of students and graduates, as well as the quality of their entrepreneurial and
enterprising activities.
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