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ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
Introduction
Analysis is the breaking down of an object into its basic
elements to get to its essence.
Studying the nature and identifying its essential features and
their relationships.
Tools of analysis are based upon logic and the application of
logical systems (e.g. mathematics, physics & mechanics).
The role of analysis in design is a critical one and can be
considered the internal guidance system of a project.
Creative brainstorming
path investigated.
suggests
Next
stage
involves
critical
assessment of the possibilities &
first level of analysis : resulted in a
prioritized list of choices and
rational.
Iterative Process
with
Boing 777
40% conventional materials are
replaced with advanced materials.
Advanced
software's.
computers
and
exciting
An example of extrapolated
engineering, effects of winds
were
not
properly
considered.
Engineering design failure
should encourage caution
when
extending
past,
seemingly successful, design.
to
Reliability
The reliability method of design is one in which we obtain
the distribution of stresses and the distribution of
strengths and then relate these two in order to achieve an
acceptable success rate.
The reliability R can be expressed by a number having the
range
0R1
In the reliability method of design, the designers task is
to make a judicious selection of materials, processes, and
geometry (size) so as to achieve a specific reliability goal.
It is important to note that good statistical data and
estimates are essential to perform an acceptable reliability
analysis.
Statistical Considerations
Introduction
Statistics in mechanical design provides a method of dealing with
characteristics whose values are variable.
Products manufactured in large quantities have a life that is variable.
One automobile may have so many defects that it must be repaired
repeatedly during the first few months of operation while another may
operate satisfactorily for years, requiring only minor maintenance.
The variability inherent in limits and fits, in stress and strength, in
bearing clearances, and in a multitude of other characteristics must be
described numerically for proper control.
Evidence gathered from nature by measurement is a mixture of
systematic and random effects. It is the role of statistics to separate
these, and, through the sensitive use of data, illuminate the obscure.
Random Variables
Outcome when two dices were tossed:
A Probability Distribution:
Random Variables
The strength determined by random experiment
is called a random, or a stochastic, variable.
A probability distribution shows all possible
values of a random variable and with the
corresponding probabilities.
The probability function p = f (x ) , a function of
x, is often called the frequency function or,
sometimes, the probability density function
(PDF).
A
cumulative
probability
distribution
describes the probability that x is less than or
equal to a certain value xi.
Sample variance :
Sample standard deviation :
Lognormal Distribution
The lognormal distribution is one in which the logarithms of
the variate have a normal distribution.
Use the transformation
y has a normal distribution
The lognormal distribution has the following two characteristics:
The distribution is asymmetrical about the mean.
The variables have only positive values.
Lognormal Distribution
Uniform Distribution
The uniform distribution is a closed-interval distribution that arises
when the chance of an observation is the same as the chance for any
other observation.
The probability density function (PDF) for the uniform distribution is
axb
Uniform Distribution
Weibull Distribution
Most reliability information comes from laboratory and field service
data, and because of its flexibility, the Weibull distribution is widely
used.
The probability density function, for Weibull, is
Weibull Distribution
Propagation of Error
Suppose we wish to add
the two variates x and y to
form a third variate z.
Linear Regression
Statisticians use a process of analysis called regression to obtain a
curve that best fits a set of data points.
The process is called linear regression when the best-fitting straight
line is to be found.
The standard equation of a straight line is
Introduction to CAD/CAM
CAD/CAM is commonly used in engineering :
Drafting
Design
Simulation and analysis
Manufacturing
Geometric modeling
Computer graphics
Design applications
Manufacturing applications
Design
Need
Collecting design
information,
feasibility study
Design
conceptualization
Design modeling
& Simulation
Design
communication &
documentation
Design
evaluation
To manufacturing process
Design
optimization
Design
analysis
Analysis
CAD Process
Process
Planning
CAM Process
Production
Planning
Design &
Procurement
of new tools
Production
Quality
Control
Packaging
Order
Material
NC,CNC,DNC
programming
Design need
(Design Process)
Marketing
Shipping
Design
Manufacturing
Process planning: determines the most efficient sequence to
manufacture the product. Outcome is production plan, tools
procurement, material order and machine programming.
CAD Disciplines
Material properties
Finite element analysis
Dimensioning & tolerances
Assembly modeling
Documentation and drafting
Geometric
modeling
Computer
Graphics
CAD
Design
CAM Disciplines
CAD
Automation
Inspection
packaging
CAM
Manufacturing
CAD/CAM Modules
Geometric module
Core of system
Developing, editing and manipulation of geometry
Drafting and documentation
Applications module
Geometry is mean to achieve the goal.
Mass property calculations
Assembly and tolerances analysis
Finite element modeling and analysis
Mechanism analysis
Simulation and analysis of plastic injection molding
CAD/CAM Modules
Programming module
Allows to customize the system
Adapt system with certain design and manufacturing
tasks
Communication module
To achieve integration between CAD & CAM, other
computer systems and manufacturing facilities
Collaborative module
To established real time connection between design
teams working in different geographical locations
Numerical Control
53
Basic Components
An NC system consists of the machine tools, the partprogram, and the machine control unit (MCU).
54
Machine Tools
The machine tools perform the useful work.
A machine tool consists of.
A worktable,
55
The Part-Program
57
59
60
63
Coordinate Systems
Model(Master) Coordinate System (MCS)
MCS is the reference space of model with respect to which all
the model geometries data is stored. In a CAD system MCS is
generally shown by displaying X,Y,Z axis.
Sketching Planes
Are
the
orthogonal
planes
Block
Hole
Feature Approach
Similar to primitive approach, it replaces primitives with
features and embeds Boolean operation in the features
definition.
Steps:
i. Create the block using block feature.
ii. Create the hole in the block by creating a hole feature.
Sketching Approach
Sketching
Similar to features approach, with one change . Instead of
using predefined shapes only, it allows designers to create
much more elaborate & more general features starting from a
sketch.
2-D Sketch
Solid Model
Modeling 3D Operations
Extrusion
Revolving
Sweep
Loft
21/2 D
21/2 D Composite
Axisymmetric
3 D Model
Are the ones that do not have a uniform cross section and/or
not have constant thickness. Require more than one sketch in
different sketch planes.
Visualization
Once the model is created, CAD system allows to view those
models in many different ways. Viewing operation in a CAD
system can be classified into three groups.
i. View orientation
ii. View modes
iii. View manipulation
View Orientation
Includes standard views such as front, top, right and
isometric.
View Modes
Allow us to change the display of the model to different types
such as wireframe, hidden & shaded
Wire Frame
Shaded
View Manipulation
Allow us to dynamically rotate, pan and zoom the model to
gain better control over its viewing.
Softwares
CATIA
Pro-Engineer
Solid works
ANSYS
Abaqus
I-DEAS
LS-DYNA
Introduction
to
Finite Element Method
Introduction to FEM
Application of FEM
APPLICATIONS
AEROSPACE
AUTOMOTIVE
BIOMECHANICS
MULTIPHYSICS
FEM in Piping
FEM in Safety
FEM in Crashworthiness
Discretization of Continuum
Numerical techniques in continuum mechanics are
based on the principle that a continuum can be divided
into an equivalent system of smaller bodies.
These bodies are connected at points (nodes) common
to the sub-regions (smaller bodies called elements).
Advantages of FEM
Accurate representation of complex geometry
Inclusion of dissimilar material properties
Easy representation of the total solution
Capture of local effects.
Element Geometries
Computational errors : due to round-off errors from the computer floating-point calculations
and the formulations of the numerical integration schemes that are employed.
Discretization errors : The geometry and the displacement distribution of a true structure
continuously vary. Using a finite number of elements to model the structure introduces errors in
matching geometry and the displacement distribution due to the inherent mathematical
limitations of the elements.
Mesh Generation
The network of elements and nodes that discretize a region is referred
to as a mesh.
Element Mesh
Mesh in Biomechanics
Meshing Curves
Mesh
S W G M
Strong
Weak
Galerkin
Matrix
form
form
approx.
form
Sample Problem
Axial deformation of a bar subjected to a uniform load
(1-D Poisson equation)
p x = p0
x = 0, L
d 2u
EA 2 = p0
dx
u 0 = 0
du
EA
dx
=0
xL
u = axial displacement
E=Youngs modulus = 1
A=Cross-sectional area = 1
Strong Form
The set of governing PDEs, with boundary conditions, is
called the strong form of the problem.
Hence, our strong form is (Poisson equation in 1-D):
d 2u
= p0
2
dx
u 0 = 0
du
dx
=0
xL
Weak Form
We now reformulate the problem into the weak form.
Weak Form
d 2u
= p0
2
dx
d 2u
p0 = 0
2
dx
L
d 2u
0 dx2 p0 vdx = 0
Strong Form
Residual R=0
Weak Form
Weak Form
Why is it weak?
It is a weaker statement of the problem.
A solution of the strong form will also satisfy the weak form,
but not vice versa.
Weak Form
Choosing the test function:
We can choose any v we want, so let's choose v such that it
satisfies homogeneous boundary conditions .
[k]g{u}g = {F}g
Fundamentals of FEM
(i)
Idealization of structure
simplify the geometrical features of the structure
(ii)
Discretization of structures
subdivide the structure into a system of finite elements. The
size and number of elements are dictated by the
geometrical features of the structure, applied load and
restrains, accuracy and size of computer.
(iii)
(e.g.
Fundamentals (Contd)
(iv) Derivation of the element stiffness matrix
Derive the element stiffness matrix using the principle
of minimum of potential energy (equilibrium equation).
The derived stiffness relates the nodal displacements
to the applied nodal forces.
The stiffness matrix is a function of the material and
geometric properties of an element.
(v) Assembly of global stiffness matrix
Assemble the global stiffness matrix from the element
stiffness matrices
Fundamentals (Contd)
(vi) Solution for the unknown nodal displacement
Features of FEM
Pre Processing
General features,
nodes, elements,
topology, Co-ordinate
axes etc.
Material properties,
yield strength,
density, coeff. of
thermal expansion
Boundary conditions
imposed, mechanical
& thermal restraints
Applied loads
Preprocessor
Appropriate
Input Data File
General purpose
FE software
Post Processing
Displacement
Strain
General purpose
FE software
Stress
Post Processing
Temperature
Velocity
Result Files
Basic FE Algorithm
Input Data
E.S.M.G.
Assembler
Reducer
Solver
Output data
Apply B.C.
u
ij
ij
Mesh geometry
Element type
Boundary condition
Applied load
Symmetry
Example
Now that the displacement at u2 has been obtained, the end forces and
stress values can be obtained by reverting back to the individual
element stiffness matrices
For the stress, you only need to look at the individual node of the
stiffness equation
Reactions
Element Forces
Element Stresses
Softwares
ANSYS
Abaqus
I-DEAS
LS-DYNA