Bio Instrumentation

ECG, EEG, EMG, Cardiovascular measurements & Venous Pressure

Op amp
Operational amplifiers is a very high gain DC differential amplifier that uses one or more external
feedback networks to control its response and characteristics. We can connect external resistors or
capacitors to the op-amp in a number of different ways to form basic building Block circuits such as,
Inverting, NonInverting, Voltage Follower, Summing, Differential, Integrator and Differentiator

type amplifiers.
Op-amp Symbol
An ideal or perfect Operational Amplifier is a device with certain special characteristics such as infinite
open-loop gain Ao, infinite input resistance Rin, zero output resistance Rout, infinite bandwidth 0 to and
zero offset (the output is exactly zero when the input is zero).
Operational amplifiers are available in IC packages of either single, dual or quad op-amps within one
single device. The most commonly available and used of all operational amplifiers in basic electronic kits
and projects is the industry standard A-741.

Sensors
Sensors (often called transducers the difference is unimportant here)
convert the energy of the patient (pressure, for example) into a form that
can be used by an instrument. There are two types of sensors/transducers:
Some transducers output changes in response to a change in
surroundings. The output is a change in resistance, capacitance, or
inductance. These variations can then be measured, often using
Wheatstone bridge circuitry because the changes may be very small.
Common
Examples include:
Strain gauges Change in resistance when some external event
occurs.
Potentiometers (variable resistors) Change in resistance when
some external event occurs. Since these devices often have a
mechanical knob or lever, they often convert mechanical movement or
position into a change in resistance.
Thermistors Change in resistance when temperature changes.
Photoresistors Change in resistance when light hits
the device.
Some transducers produce a voltage or current in response to a change in
environment. Common examples include:
Piezoelectric crystals Produce a voltage as the crystal is compressed
(even tiny amounts).
LVDTs (linear variable differential transformers) Convert linear
motion (may be very small amounts) into an electrical signal.
Thermocouples Measure temperature differences using dissimilar
metals. They require a known reference temperature.
Note: There are many types of sensors/transducers. Commonly
seen ones are described here, but engineers create specialized and
unique devices to serve particular needs.
When blood pressure is measured directly (in an artery), it is commonly
measured using strain gauges, piezoelectric crystals, and silicon membranes.
The hospital environment is very physically demanding on equipment. Even
though transducers are usually used only once (disposable), a good
transducer must be very durable.

Transducer

The device that performs the conversion of one form of variable into another is
called a transducer.
Two different principles are involved in the process of converting nonelectrical
variables into electrical signals.
One of these is energy conversion: Transducers based on this principle is called
active transducers.
Second of these is control of an excitation voltage or modulation of a carrier signal.
Transducers based on this principle is called a passive transducers.

Magnetic Induction:
if an electrical conductor is moved in a magnetic field in such a way that the
magnetic flux through the conductor is changed, a voltage is induced which is
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux.
Basically two basic configuration are used using this concept: one is linear motion
and the other is rotary motion.
The applications are heart sound microphones, pulse transducers and
electromagnetic blood flow meters.

Figure Magnetic induction based transducer

The Piezo Electric Effect

A non-conductive material get deformation/distortion due to applied pressure the
change separation occur in the material and electric voltage can be measured
across the material such as crystal of quartz Si02

The natural materials in which this piezoelectric effect can be observed are
primarily slices from crystals of quartz (SiO2) or Rochelle salt (sodium
potassium tartrate).
The piezoelectric process is reversible. If an electric field is applied to a
slab/block of material that has piezoelectric properties, it changes its
dimensions.
The piezoelectric effect principle is used in microphones for heart source or
other acoustic signals from within the body.
We will see equivalent circuit of the piezoelectric transducer connected to an
amplifier.

Fig: Equivalent
ckt

The piezoelectric principal is also used in ultrasonic instruments.

Figure: Principle of Piezoelectric effect

The Thermoelectric effect

If two wires of dissimilar metals (e.g., iron and copper) are connected so that
they form a closed conductive loop, a voltage can be observed at any point of
interruption of the loop which is proportional to the difference in temperature
between the two junctions between the metals.
The sensitivity of a thermocouple is small and amounts to only 40 microvolts
per degree Celsius. (microV/oC) for copper-constantan.

The use of thermoelectric effect to convert from thermal to electrical energy

is called the seeback effect. In reverse direction it is called the Peltier effect.
(its used to cool parts of instruments. E.g. a microscopic stage)

The photoelectric Effect:

The selenium cell, has been used to measure the intensity of light in
photographic exposure meters or the light absorption of chemical solution.
The silicon photoelectric cell (solar cell), has a much higher efficiency than the
selenium cell.

Passive Transducer
Passive transducers utilize the principle of controlling a dc excitation voltage
or an Ac carrier signal.
There are only three passive circuit elements that can be utilized as a passive
transducers. Resistors, capacitors, and Inductors.
Passive Transducers Using Resistive Elements: Special linear potentiometer
can be used to convert displacement into a resistance change.

Strain Gauge Transducer

Unbounded strain gauge

has a resistance wire stretched between two frames. The rigid pins of

the two frames are insulated. When the wire is stretched due to an applied force, there occurs a relative
motion between the two frames and thus a strain is produced, causing a change in resistance value. This

change

A bonded strain gauge will be either a wire type or a foil type as shown in the figure below. It
is connected to a paper or a thick plastic film support. The measuring leads are soldered or welded to the
gauge wire. The bonded strain gauge with the paper backing is connected to the elastic member whose
strain is to be measured.