Arctic Engineering

Module 3a

Slide script
Welcome to the lecture on river ice. This is Steve Daly of the US Army Engineer Research and Development Center. I
work as a Research Hydraulic Engineer at the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, in Hanover, NH and
am also an affiliated Professor at UAA.

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Slide script
In this lecture we will cover the important concepts of river ice. This lecture is an overview of a very broad area. We will
concentrate on presenting a unified view of river ice, starting from its initial formation, through its final breakup, and the
formation of ice jams.

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Slide script
This is the schematic diagram I have developed to present the basic concepts of river ice. The diagram is meant to
represent the ice conditions in a reach of river. The diagram starts at the top with open water, and proceeds downwards.
The diagram is meant to represent the passage of time throughout the winter, but you cannot consider the distance from
the top of the diagram to have a one-to-one correspondence with time. Rather, the diagram is meant to show how one
stage of river ice development leads to another. Important alternate routes through the diagram are also shown.

The boxes that are highlighted with red in this slide show one alternative: no significant ice formation. This is a rather
uninteresting alternative for us, and we will not discuss this after this slide. The point I want to make here is that the heat
balance of the river controls ice formation. The river gains and looses heat through it surface. The river can also gain heat
from warm water inputs such as ground water and artificial heat sources such as industrial, municipal, and commercial
discharges. If the heat lost during the winter is not sufficient to overcome the heat gain and cool the water to 0C (32F),
ice will not form.

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Slide script
Now we will discuss ice formation. We are assuming that sufficient heat has been lost from the river to the atmosphere to
cool the water to 0 C (32 F). Further heat loss leads to the production of ice.

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Slide script
River water cools when heat is lost. If the heat loss continues long enough, the river water temperature will reach 0C (32F). We find that further heat
loss will continue to cool the water temperature. When the water temperature is less than 0C (32F) it is said to be supercooled. Supercooled water is
the precursor to the initial river ice formation.

Remember that when the water temperature is greater than 0 C (32 F) any ice in contact with the water will melt. Water at a temperature of 0 C (32
F) is in equilibrium with ice. Ice in contact with the water coexists without growing or melting. Water at a temperature less than 0C (32F) is considered
supercooled. Ice in contact with the water grows.

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Slide script
Nucleation is the processes sometimes cited as the source of the initial ice in rivers. Nucleation is a general term, referring
to the formation of a new phase of a substance from a parent phase. In our case, the parent phase is obviously water, and
the new phase that is appearing is, of course, ice. Heterogeneous nucleation refers to spontaneous appearance of ice
from nucleating agents such as silver iodide, organic particles, bacteria, or bubbles. It is now known that the ice crystals in
rivers do not spontaneously appear through heterogeneous or spontaneous nucleation in the water column.

We know now that seed crystals, which are ice crystals introduced from outside the river, start the initial ice formation.
Seed crystals can come from a number of different sources: vapor evaporating from the water surface, upon encountering
cold air, can sublimate into ice crystals, which fall back onto the water surface and are entrained by the turbulent motion of
the flow; small water droplets generated by breaking waves, bubbles bursting at the water surface, and splashing; snow
and sleet.

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Slide script
There are two extremes under which ice can form in natural waterbodies. On one extreme is quiescent water. The other
extreme is turbulent water. We will discuss ice formation under both extremes, however we will concentrate on formation
in turbulent water, as this is the most common ice form in river and stream.

In quiescent water, the ice will form at the surface only. This type of ice is common in lakes, ponds and very slow moving
rivers and streams. In quiescent water the heat loss from the surface stratifies water with coldest water at the surface. The
surface water becomes supercooled, seed crystal are introduced and ice forms at surface.

In rivers, ice is mainly ice formed in turbulent water. Most rivers and streams are turbulent due to their flow velocity.
Oceans, lakes and ponds can often be turbulent due to wind mixing. The type of ice formed in turbulent water is frazil ice.

Turbulence is a great mixer, and it produces a very uniform vertical temperature profile. This means that the entire depth
of flow in rivers can becomes supercooled, and after seed crystals are introduced, ice can form throughout the entire
depth of flow.

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Slide script
Ice formation on water in which the flow velocity plays no role is called static ice formation. This includes ice formed on
lakes and ponds during periods of low winds, and on rivers and streams in which the flow velocity is approximately 0.3
meter/sec (1 ft/sec) or less. Static ice formation starts in a very thin layer of supercooled water at the water surface and is
probably initiated by the introduction of seed crystals. The ice grows at the ice/water interface as a result of heat transfer
upwards from the interface, through the ice, to the atmosphere.

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Slide script

Rivers, streams and wind-blown lakes and ocean are turbulent.

Heat loss can cause the entire turbulent region to become supercooled

Frazil ice is formed in turbulent, supercooled water

It is observed that once a very few seed crystals are introduced into turbulent supercooled water, very quickly,
many new crystals are created through secondary nucleation. Secondary nucleation is the formation of new
crystals through the presence of existing ice crystals The production of minute ice fragments through the
collisions of existing crystals with hard surfaces (including other crystals) are thought to be the main mechanism
through which new frazil ice crystals are formed. These new crystals can then further increase the rate of
secondary nucleation with a multiplicative effect.

Turbulence mixes and ice crystals grow throughout the turbulent region. Because the frazil ice crystals are
suspended in supercooled water they are also growing in size. The water temperature will dynamically reflect the
balance of the latent heat released by the growing crystals and the heat transfer from the water surface.
Eventually, the rate of latent heat released is enough to return the water temperature to the icewater equilibrium
temperature (0 C [32 F]).

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Slide script
This slide shows a typical measurement of water temperature with time during the formation of frazil ice. The water
temperature falls at a constant rate at first, indicating that the heat transfer rate from the water body is constant. When the
water temperaturereaches 32 F (0 C), it continues to fall. Remember that this is the water temperature of a turbulent
body of water. When the temperature of the water is less than 32 F we say that the water has become supercooled. Ice
does not immediately appear. First, seed crystals must enter the water and secondary nucleation start. We can see that
immediately after the first crystals are observed, the water temperature decline begins to moderate and soon stops. At this
time the water temperature reflects a balance between the latent heat released by the growing ice and heat transfer away
from the water body. After this time, the water temperature increases, indicating that the rate of latent heat release by the
growing ice exceeds the heat transfer from the water body. Eventually the water temperature will return to near 32 F (0
C). Frazil ice will continue to be formed, but at this time, the latent heat released by the growing ice and the heat transfer
away from the water body are in balance.

This is a typical supercooling curve. It is important to note that the maximum levels of supercooling recorded are small,
generally much less than 0.1 C. This means that it can be quite difficult to measure supercooling in the field unless one is
using laboratory grade equipment.

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Slide script
This is an image of frazil ice crystals removed from supercooled water generated in the Ice Engineering Refrigerated
Flume Facility at the US Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory in Hanover, New
Hampshire. These crystals have a major diameter of several tenths of a millimeter. Note the nearly perfect circular shape
of the crystals.

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Slide script

Formed only in areas of open water

Formed in turbulent water

Flow velocity

Wind mixing

Formed in supercooled water

o

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-0.01 C to -0.02 C

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Slide script
The evolution of river ice describes the transformation of individual and separate frazil ice crystals; suspended in turbulent
flow, into large, stable, ice covers. The initial frazil ice crystals are quite small, on the order of millimeters; the final stable
ice covers are quite large, on the orders of kilometers in length. The evolution can be seen as a dramatic change in the
form of the ice.

I have divided the evolution into three Phases: formation, transformation and transport, and stationary ice covers. Dividing
the evolution process into three phases ike this is somewhat arbitrary, but this approach makes clear the main processes
that are occurring in each Phase.

During Formation, Seed crystals enter the supercooled water and the process of secondary nucleation produces many
new, individual crystals.

The next phase is the transformation and transport phase. In this phase the individual crystals join together in a process
known as flocculation. Several crystals to several dozen crystals may join together to larger units. These larger units are

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referred to as flocs. The actual mechanism(s) that cause(s) the crystals to join together is not known. Certainly if
crystals come together in supercooled water they can freeze together. Sintering, the melding under pressure at
temperatures at equilibrium or greater, may also play a role. Frazil crystals may also be deposited on the channel bottom.
In this case they are referred to as anchor ice. The crystals that are not deposited on the bottom are transported
downstream with the flow. At this point, the water temperature is no longer supercooled but has returned to the equilibrium
temperature. The buoyancy of the flocs causes them to collect on the surface as frazil slush. There is always a tension
between the buoyancy of the flocs, which tends to cause them to rise and remain at the surface; and the turbulence of the
flow, which re-entrains the frazil ice into the depth of the flow. Frazil slush that remains at the surface becomes available
to be formed into ice floes. This process is referred to as Floe formation and induration (hardening). Frazil slush that is
exposed to cold air at the waters surface will eventually form into floes, if the turbulent intensity is not too large.

The final phase is the formation of stable ice covers and under ice transport. We are all familiar with river ice covers. The
mechanisms that form a stable ice covers depends on the depth and velocity of the flow at the leading (upstream) edge of
the cover, and the form of the ice when it arrives at the leading edge. Large, thick ice floes in arriving at the leading edge
at a point where the river is deep and slow moving will form a much different ice cover than frazil slush arriving at the
leading edge where the flow is shallow and fast flowing. If the flow is high enough, all the ice may be swept under the
leading edge and transported under the ice cover, perhaps for many kilometers.

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Slide script
This cartoon also recapitulates the evolution of frazil, but shows how the different forms of ice appear. We start on the left
with supercooled water. The flow is highly turbulent; gradients of temperature do not exist with depth and the water is
supercooled from the surface to the bed. Seed crystals are introduced. Quickly many more crystals are created and grow
in size. Crystals deposited on the bottom are anchor ice. The anchor ice can lift from the bottom and join the frazil
collecting on the surface as slush. The surface slush can form floes. Eventually, the transported ice arrives at the leading
edge of a stable ice cover, one that has formed spontaneously, or was formed through the use of ice control structure
such as floating booms. Frazil ice can be transported a great distance under the ice cover and can be deposited on the
bottom of the cover. Such depositions can become very thick, up to many meters.

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Slide script
When frazil crystals stick to any underwater object we know that the water and the object must be supercooled. When
frazil ice sticks to any underwater object, it is referred to as anchor ice. We see frazil ice that has stuck to an underwater
chain that has been removed from the water in the upper image. The operators of a hydroelectric plant left this chain in
the water. They would periodically remove it when they suspected the presence of frazil ice to see if ice was, in fact,
present. You can imagine the difficulties of operating any water intake when the water is supercooled.

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Slide script
Every water intake has a trash rack. The trash rack is a collection of bars in front of the intake to prevent debris from
entering the intake. Generally, the bars are made from steel, and are spaced from inch (12 mm) to 8 inches (203 mm)
apart, although there are always exceptions. The trash rack spacing should be designed to keep material out that will
damage downstream pumps, filters, etc. Frazil sticks to the trash rack when the water entering the intake is supercooled.
The frazil continues to accumulate on the rack as long as flow passes through the rack. It is not uncommon for racks to
become completely blocked. This can come as quite a surprise to the operators who only become aware of what is
happening when the pumps trip out due to lack of water, alarm bells ring, and general pandemonium reigns. This image
shows a hydroelectric intake trash rack that was removed after becoming completely blocked.

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Slide script
Samples of frazil slush take on a characteristic white appearance when the water drains out of them. A micrograph taken
of one floc of frazil slush shows how a number of crystals have come together to form this larger unit. There are hints of
the original crystals, perhaps. Note also, the angular, rough outline of the floc. This angularity may encourage mechanical
interlocking of flocs, allowing them to join together to form larger floes.

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Slide script
This is a diagram of the formation of ice floes. In the top center is frazil slush, the basic material that forms all river ice
floes. Across the bottom of the diagram I have indicated a continuum, from high velocity, high energy, mountain streams
on the left; to slow flowing, low energy streams on the right. The type of floe formed will depend on where in this
continuum the slush occurs. If it is in a steep mountain stream, the turbulent intensity may be enough to break apart any
floe that tries to form, and the slush will remain as slush. In the middle part of the diagrams, floes form, but these floes will
be of a relatively small size. These floes have a characteristic circular appearance and are known as pancake ice. Waves
in oceans and large lakes can also create pancake ice. In slow moving rivers, the channel geometry can force large
amounts of slush to converge in onearea to form very large floes, with a size equivalent to the width of the channel. These
large floes can also be formed from pancake floes as well as slush, of course.

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Slide script
The upper image is a stream in northwestern PA and lower image is a river in China. Both show frazil ice moving
downstream. There is the suggestion that surface floes are forming in the PA picture and we can see the definite
formation of floes in the China image. The ice in the China picture has traveled much further than the ice in PA. The
image in PA was taken in early morning and the ice seen here was undoubtedly formed the night before.

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Slide script
The upper image shows pancakes on the Green River in Utah. The Green River is very steep in the reach immediately
upstream. Pancake ice is formed in this steep reach and then travels for many miles downstream. The lower image shows
frazil slush entering a slow moving section on Oil Creek in PA. The presence of shore ice and the low flow velocity causes
the slush to converge. The flow velocity exerts a drag force that causes large separate floes to break off of the converged
slush. This can be seen on the right side of the image. In fact, a regular progression of relatively large floes can be seen
moving to the right away from the converged frazil slush. So in this case, we have a continuous supply of slush entering
on the left and a regular progression of discrete, large floes leaving on the right.

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Slide script
Border ice is ice that is formed along the banks of a river channel. Border ice can be formed in two different ways: floes
and frazil slush can be deposited along each shore; or ice can spontaneously grow away from the bank into flow. This
second means is possible if the flow velocity is very low near the bank and the depth is shallow. We really do not have a
good way of predicting the growth rate of border ice at this time.

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Slide script
Now we are going to turn our attention to the formation of stable ice covers. Stable ice can last for long periods of time
through the winter. The ice covers impacts the hydraulics of the river flow.

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Slide script
The type of ice cover formation we are going to consider is called dynamic ice formation, that is formation that is
dominated by the interaction of ice floes and the flowing water. Once an ice cover has formed dynamically, however, it
can then thicken due to heat lossto the atmosphere.

The flow conditions of depth and velocity determine the type of process that occurs when ice floes reach the leading edge
of a stationary ice cover. Starting with the lowest flow velocity, each successive process occurs under higher and higher
flow velocities.

Bridging describes spontaneous formation of stationary ice covers. At the present time, we cannot predict if an ice cover
will form spontaneously at any location. Certainly, it is more likely in river reaches where the flow velocity is very low, and
the width is relatively narrow. Ice control structures are sometimes used to promote or ensure that an ice cover will, in
fact, form at a particular location.

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Slide script
Here are some important points to remember about river ice covers. First of all: river ice covers are always floating at hydrostatic
equilibrium. The pressure at the base of the cover exactly balances the weight of the ice cover. If you drill a hole through the
cover, water does not shoot up in the air like a geyser. Of course, if you park your pickup on the ice next to your fishing hole, you
may see water come up through the hole and flood the ice surface. This is due to the additional weight of the vehicle and I
suggest you drive your truck off the ice as soon as possible. If the water level of the river changes, the ice cover will respond to
the change. During this period of time that the ice cover is responding to the change in water level, it may not exactly be floating
at hydrostatic equilibrium. In fact, it cant be because there has to be an unbalanced pressure force to cause the ice to move to
its new position. However, these periods tend to be short and the amount of the unbalanced pressure force small, and so for all
intents and purposes, the ice can be considered to be at hydrostatic equilibrium.

Next are listed the three important ways in which an ice cover, floating at hydrostatic equilibrium can influence steady flow in a
river.

Blocks flow area

Reduces hydraulic radius (area/wetted perimeter)

Modifies effective channel roughness (Mannings n)

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Slide script
We know that every year the ice covers formed during the cold of winter will breakup and disappear. Breakup transforms
a completely ice-covered river into an open river. Two example forms of breakup bracket the types of breakup commonly
found throughout most of North America. At one extreme is thermal meltout. During an ideal thermal meltout, the river ice
cover deteriorates through warming and the absorption of solar radiation and melts in place, with no increase in flow and
little or no ice movement. At the other extreme is the more complex and less understood mechanical breakup.

Actual breakups take place most often during warming periods, when the ice cover strength deteriorates to some degree
and the flow entering the river increases because of snowmelt or precipitation. Therefore, most river ice breakups actually
fall somewhere in between the extremes of thermal meltout and mechanical breakup. As a general rule, the closer that a
breakup is to being a mechanical breakup, the more dramatic and dangerous it is because of the increase in flow and the
large volume of fragmented ice produced.

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Slide script
Every river in North America will experience a thermal meltout every spring unless a mechanical breakup occurs first. The
ice cover melts in place because of heat transfer into the ice cover from the flowing water and the atmosphere. Direct
sunlight can play an important role, but because the surface of the ice is often white much of the sunlight will be reflected.
The absorption of sunlight can be promoted if the surface color can be modified, such as by dusting with a dark material.
The creation of meltwater on the surface will also help the ice absorb sunlight. The ice cover can also deteriorate
internally without much of a loss of thickness if solar radiation is able to penetrate it. The absorbed solar radiation causes
melting in the interior of the ice that results in a loss of structural integrity of the cover.

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Slide script
The process of mechanical breakup of the river ice cover can lead to spectacular and dangerous ice jams. The formation
of an ice jam is the last of step of a process that starts with the mechanical breakup of the ice cover. The individual pieces
are the carried downstream. Ice jams form at locations where the capacity of the channel to transport ice floes is
exceeded.

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Slide script
A pure mechanical breakup occurs when the hydrodynamic forces acting on cover exceed cover strength. The increases
in the hydrodynamic forces arise because of the increase in the river flow. The flow increase will generally result from a
precipitation event, snowmelt, or the opening of gate at a dam.

The increased force on the ice cover fractures the ice covers. The fractures free the ice cover from the constraints of the
channel banks and the ice pieces are transported downstream. A rough rule of thumb is that the water level must rise 1.5
to 3 times the ice thickness before the ice cover will be begin to breakup

The breakup process follows a rough progression: first shore cracks are seen, then lateral crack across the channel; then
transport of the ice pieces; and then fracture of the moving ice into smaller piece sizes.

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Slide script
Shore cracks are longitudinal cracks running parallel to the banks of the rivers. Shore cracks form when the magnitude of
the water level change in the river channel exceeds a limit determined by the material properties of the ice, the ice
thickness, channel width, and the type of attachment of the ice cover to the channel bank (hinged or fixed). Only a small
increase or decrease in discharge is necessary to cause shore cracks, and they are usually common soon after runoff into
a river has begun to increase. The presence of shore cracks does not necessarily indicate the immediate onset of
breakup. They may be present throughout the winter season.

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Slide script
Transverse cracks (across the channel) will appear soon after the river stage has begun to increase. The first cracks will
generally create relatively large ice floes, a river-width wide, and many river-widths long, but sometimes the ice covers are
immediately broken into much smaller floes. The actual mechanisms responsible for creating the individual floes have not
yet been positively identified.

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Slide script
As the stage continues to increase, the ice floes will begin to move. If the floes are relatively large, they may be kept from
movement by geometric constraints, such as sharp bends, constrictions, the presence of bridge piers, etc., until a
substantial increase in stage is reached. If the floes are relatively small, and there are no constraints, they may begin to
move after a small stage increase. As a rule of thumb, the stage must rise 1-1/2 to 3 times the ice thickness before the ice
moves. Once the floes begin moving, they are quickly reduced in size, eventually arriving at a size that is roughly 4 to 6
times the ice thickness.

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Slide script
Ice jams form when the moving ice floes reach a location in the river where its ice transport capacity is exceeded. This is
most likely at places where an intact ice cover remains, the slope of the river decreases, a geometric constraint exists,
etc. At these locations, the ice stops moving and jams. This type of ice jam is a breakup ice jam. Ice jams substantially
reduce the channel flow conveyance. As a result, water levels upstream of an ice jam can rise substantially and quickly,
causing flooding and transporting ice into the flood plain. The probable maximum thickness and roughness of ice jams
can be estimated and used to estimate the probable flood stages (see Chapter 3).

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Slide script
Look at the two images. On the left, we see a very rough field of ice. This is obviously a jam. The relief in the ice is large,
certainly on the order of the height of the two individuals standing on the ice, say 6 feet (2 meters). Now look at the image
on the right. The ice cover looks smooth. This may not be reported as a jam. But this is an ice jam as well, and has a
dramatic effect on the hydraulics of the river

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Slide script
The International Association of Hydraulic Research (IAHR) put together a working group of international ice experts to
decide on common definitions for all ice terminology, including ice jams. After literally years of discussion, they arrived at
this simple definition of a river ice jam: An ice jam is a stationary accumulation of fragmented ice or frazil that restricts
flow. There are several key concepts here. The first is that an ice jam is stationary. The second is that a jam is formed
from fragmented pieces of ice or frazil ice. And finally, that an ice jam restricts the flow.

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Slide script
Lets now turn our attention to the two main types of ice jams. The first we are going to cover are freezeup jams. Freezeup
jams occur during the ice formation process.

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Slide script
These are the general characteristics of a freezeup jam. Freezeup jams are formed largely from frazil ice. We know that
the formation of frazil ice requires open water and subfreezing air temperatures. Freezeup jams happen when so much
frazil ice is transported into a reach of river that it substantially blocks the channel cross section.

Freezeup jams are fairly robust once they are in place. Often this causes problems when the ice cover upstream of the
freezeup jam breaks up and runs downstream. The location of the freezeup jam is a classic location for a breakup jam to
occur.

The river flow rate is usually fairly constant or slowly decreasing during the formation of freezeup jam. There is usually a
rise in water level upstream of the jam as the flow capacity of the channel is reduced as ice fills the channel cross section.

A freezeup jam will have porosity of about 50%. Heat loss from the surface of the jam will quickly freeze the water in the
interstices of the ice. The jam will then exhibit cohesion. The undersides of freezeup are not particularly rough. As a result,
the jams are not particularly rough hydraulically.

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Slide script
This is a schematic diagram of a freezeup jam. This diagram is simplified in that it shows the jam with a flat, horizontal
bottom across the width of the channel. This is not likely. Usually, the bottom of the ice cover will be very uneven, and the
flow area may be limited to small section of the river cross section. In fact, it may be difficult to locate the actual flow area
under the ice.

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Slide script
This image is of a freezeup jam. The surface has the characteristic white appearance of drained frazil ice. There are also
characteristic shear lines where the ice cover successively shoved and thickened as it was formed.

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Slide script
Shear wall is the term used to describe the ice left along the channel banks after an ice jam has blown out or melted out.
This image shows the shear wall left in place after a freezeup jam melted out. The frazil ice deposits in this jam were quite
thick compared to the channel depth. In the background is a small hydroelectric station that was flooded out by the jam.

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Slide script
Lets turn our attention to breakup jams.

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Slide script
Where do breakup jams tend to occur? Breakup jams occur at locations where the rivers ability to transport the broken ice floes is exceeded. These
locations are:

Upstream edge of an intact ice cover

Sharp bends

Decreases in channel slope

Constrictions, such as at bridges, islands

Confluences.

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Slide script
These are the general characteristics of breakup jams. Breakup jams must form after the river ice cover has formed so this means the jams occur
relatively late in the season. This is especially true in Alaska, where most breakup jams occur in May. However, in the continental US, warm fronts can
occur at any time, so as soon as a cover has formed, the potential for a breakup jam exists.

Breakup jams are formed from pieces of fragmented ice covers, which implies that the ice cover was mechanically broken up. Mechanical breakup, in
turn, results from increases in river flows. Increases in flow occur during precipitation events, snowmelt events, or when the outflow from a dam or
hydraulic control structure was increased. Certainly the first two situations require that the temperature be above freezing.

Breakup jams are formed from broken pieces of the ice cover. Typically, the average diameter of broken ice pieces is three to five times their thickness.

Breakup jams can form quickly causing upstream water levels to rise rapidly. As the upstream level rises, the net pressure acting on the jam increases.
At some point, the jam may suddenly release, sending a large wave of water downstream. It is not possible to predict the conditions under which a
breakup jam will release. It is very dangerous to walk on breakup jams once they have gone into place. As a result, we have not been able to make
many measurements of ice jams once they are in place. The pieces of a breakup jam exhibit little cohesion. This reflects the relatively warm air
temperatures under which they formed. The underside of breakup jams can be very rough in appearance and also be very rough hydraulically.

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Slide script
This is a schematic diagram of breakup jam. This diagram is simplified in that it shows the jam with a flat, horizontal
bottom across the width of the channel. This is not likely. Usually, the bottom of the ice cover will be very uneven, and the
flow area may be limited to small section of the river cross section. It is my opinion that breakup jams are often grounded
on the channel bottom over a portion of the downstream toe of the jam, especially in smaller channels.

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Slide script
This image is an example of a breakup jam. The individual pieces can be clearly seen.

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Slide script
These images show the ice left when a breakup jam has moved out. Especially interesting are the shear walls left in
place. These walls can be quite dramatic, with thickness of several to many meters, depending on the size of the
channels and conditions when the ice jam formed. Measurements made in Canada indicate that the thickness of the
shear wall is a pretty good estimate of the actual thickness of the jam.

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Slide script
The upper image is of a shear wall left in place when an ice jam moved out. The lower image documents the erosion that
can be caused by an ice jam. The erosion can be caused by direct scour of the bank by ice and because the ice jam
directed the flow against the bank itself.

Page 47 of 50

Arctic Engineering

Module 3a

Slide script
This is a diagram that displays the forces acting on an ice jam that is composed of small, individual pieces. The jam in this
diagram can be considered to be composed of a granular material. This is a typical breakup jam. Breakup jams cause a
considerable amount, if not the vast majority, of flooding associate with ice jams. This type of jam will turn out to be important for
us because we can describe the material properties of the jam in engineering terms. This allows us to estimate the jam
thickness that is required to resist the applied forces.

In the bottom diagram the forces acting on the jam are shown. These are the water drag force acting on the bottom of the jam
and the component of the gravity force that acts in the downstream direction due to the slope of the water surface. (The wind
drag is also shown but the wind drag is hardly ever significant and is almost always ignored.)

In the top diagram, the force resisting the downstream force is shown. This is the shear force developed between the ice cover
and channel banks. This is the only force that can balance the downstream forces. The internal shear stress in the cover arises
because the downstream forces may not be exactly balance by the bank stress at every section along the channel. If the
downstream forces are in balance with the bank stress at every section, the jam is referred to as an equilibrium jam. Equilibrium
jams are rare in nature, but the concept of the equilibrium jam has proved fruitful to ice jam analysis.

Page 48 of 50

Arctic Engineering

Module 3a

Slide script
This is an important diagram that describes the various sections of a wide river jam that contains an equilibrium section. The
downstream end of the jam is the toe. The ice thickness changes rapidly immediately upstream of the toe. This portion of the
jam cannot be in equilibrium because of the rapid changes in jam thickness along the length of the jam. That is why it is referred
to as a transition section. The actual ice conditions at the toe are generally not known.

The equilibrium section begins above the downstream transition. In the equilibrium section, the ice thickness is constant and the
forces are in balance. In nature, equilibrium sections exist about as often as uniform flow exists in open channels. Changes in
the channel width, depth, and slope will all lead to new transition sections. However, ice jam equilibrium is a powerful concept
that can provide a lot of insight in ice jam force balance analysis.

The upstream end of an ice jam ends in another transition from the equilibrium section to the leading edge of the ice cover.

This is a classic ice jam: start at the toe with a transition section leading to the equilibrium section. The equilibrium section
extends upstream for most of the length of the jam. At the upstream end of the jam another transition section exists before the
upstream end of the ice jam.

Page 49 of 50

Arctic Engineering

Slide script
None

Page 50 of 50

Module 3a

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
This is Jon Zufelt welcoming you to Module #3B Physical and Mechanical Properties of Ice. This presentation
will provide information on the properties of water, river ice, lake ice, and sea ice. The reading assignment for this
module is in the Course Texts, EM 1110-2-1612 Ice Engineering Manual Chapter 2 and River and Lake Ice
Engineering Chapter 2.

Page 1 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
In ice engineering, ice is almost always in contact with liquid water, whether it is the ice in a jam on a river or the
bottom of the growing ice sheet on a lake. To understand ice, we should look at water a bit, also. Water molecules
are composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. The structure of the water molecule arises from the
covalent bond or sharing of an electron between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. A covalent bond is one of the
strongest molecular bonds there is and gives rise to some of waters unique properties. The hydrogen atoms
attach to the oxygen atom at a 105-degree angle between them which gives rise to an electrical polarity, the
oxygen side of the molecule has a negative charge while the hydrogen side has a positive charge.

Page 2 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
The electrical polarity of the water molecules gives rise to hydrogen bonding in which the positive hydrogen sides
are attracted to the negative oxygen sides of neighboring molecules. Water and ice have this hydrogen bonded
structure where each oxygen atom is associated with two hydrogen atoms but with the restriction that only one
hydrogen atom can be located between any pair of oxygen atoms. The slide shows this arrangement of covalent
(strong) bonds and hydrogen (weaker) bonds.

Page 3 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
The effect of the hydrogen bonds results in some interesting and important properties for water. It has a high heat
capacity or the ability to absorb a large amount of heat with little increase in temperature. This is why dry air (like
in a desert) heats up and cools down much more rapidly than humid air. Water also has a high latent heat of
fusion or the amount of heat that must be lost before change of liquid to solid state occurs. Think of how
dangerous it would be to be out on the lake ice skating on a sunny day if the latent heat of fusion was the same
as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of water one degree (80:1 ratio). Water also has a very
high latent heat of vaporization which acts to keep the water in our lakes instead of the atmosphere. Finally, water
has a very high surface tension, important in droplet formation, crystal formation, and capillary wave formation.

Page 4 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
The specific heat is a measure of the quantity of heat that must be added to a unit mass of substance to raise its
temperature one unit degree under constant pressure. Water has a high specific heat meaning that a relatively
large amount of heat must be added or extracted to change the temperature. The specific heat of water is a
function of temperature and is given in the following empirical equations for SI and English units.

Page 5 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
The density of water is temperature dependent and even though the changes in density over the range of water
temperatures normally encountered in nature are small, the effects are very important. Unlike most substances,
the density of water increases with decreasing temperature only to about 4 C. Further decrease in temperature
actually results in a decrease in density as the hydrogen-bonded molecules begin to align into a regular crystalline
pattern. Upon freezing, the crystalline structure takes up much more room and the density decreases significantly.

Page 6 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
This slide gives the empirical formula for the density of water as a function of temperature at standard
atmospheric pressure. The maximum density of freshwater (at 4 C or 39.2 F), is 1000 kg/cubic meter or 62.4
lbs/cubic foot.

Page 7 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
In the summer, natural water bodies will have warmer and lighter water at the surface with cooler denser water at
the bottom. As the surface water in the lake cools and becomes more dense, it will sink to the bottom. As the
water continues to cool, the entire lake reaches a uniform temperature of 4 degrees Celsius. The surface will
continue to cool but the water will remain at the surface since it is now less dense. Ice eventually forms at the
surface. The denser water at the bottom forms a thermal reserve for the lake which is insulated from further heat
loss by the ice sheet and snow on the lake surface. Windy conditions prior to freeze-up will result in significant
mixing of the water, thereby reducing the water temperature near the bottom and the potential thermal reserve.

Page 8 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
As water freezes, the molecules arrange themselves in a more open, more regular, hexagonal crystalline
structure. The oxygen atoms occupy the points of the hexagonal lattice in which each oxygen atom is
tetrahedrally coordinated with four other oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms are concentrated in planes, called
basal planes which are situated perpendicular to the hexagonal axis or c-axis. In the figure on the right, the view
is along the c-axis and looking down through the hexagonal basal planes.

Page 9 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
The density of freshwater ice at 0 degrees Celsius is 916.8 kg/cubic meter or 57.2 lbs/cubic foot. Like most solids,
ice contracts with decreasing temperature, thereby increasing the density. Its density is most affected by
impurities such as air bubbles (which can reduce the density) or pockets of liquid water (which can increase the
density). For most ice engineering applications in the temperature ranges expected, a value of 915-917 kg/ cubic
meter or 57.1-57.2 lb/cubic foot is a good value for freshwater ice density.

Page 10 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Thermal conductivity is the measure of the ability of ice to transmit heat under a unit temperature gradient. The
values of thermal conductivity for freshwater ice are given here in the slide for both SI and English units. Ice is
less of a heat conductor than copper or aluminum (which have thermal conductivities of 388 and 209
Watts/meter-degree C) but a greater heat conductor than wood or concrete. Impurities, unfrozen water, and air
bubbles can affect the thermal conductivity. The latent heat of freezing, or that amount of heat that must be lost
for water to change into ice, is much higher than the specific heat of ice, which is the amount of heat which much
be lost to drop the temperature of ice by one degree Celsius. The specific heat of ice is roughly half of the specific
heat of liquid water.

Page 11 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Mechanical properties of ice are important parameters that determine the forces that ice may exert on structures
or the way that ice deforms under loading conditions. Depending on the crystalline structure of ice, its behavior
can range from brittle to ductile, also being influenced by the loading rate, temperature, testing technique, and
testing conditions. Detailed explanations of ice properties can be found in Chapter 2 of River and Lake Ice
Engineering our course text.

Page 12 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Strength is mechanical property of ice that comes to mind in engineering terms since it determines the ice forces
acting on a structure or the load bearing capacity of an ice sheet. Strength tests are relatively easy to perform and
as such, ice strength has been extensively tested. Strength is defined as the maximum stress that a specimen
can support. Failure is described as brittle when the specimen ruptures or breaks with an instantaneous drop in
stress and ductile if the strain continues to increase with no further increase in stress. Strength values must be
fully qualified in their description since they depend on temperature, ice type (crystal structure), grain size, air
bubble content, loading rate, orientation, end conditions, and specimen size.

Page 13 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Compressive or crushing strength is the maximum load that can be supported due to loads perpendicular to the caxis. These type of loadings usually occur normal to the floe thickness, such as a floe being pushed against a
vertical wall or crushing against a bridge pier. The main factors affecting crushing strength are the crystal size,
rate of loading, and ice temperature. For snow or frazil ice and columnar ice at a temperature of -10 C, the
average crushing strength ranges between 8 to 10 Mega Pascals or 1.1 to 1.5 thousand psi. The formula given
here for crushing strength is from experiments by Michel and includes the variables of temperature and crystal
size.

Page 14 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Tensile strength is much harder to measure due to the difficulty of attaching the specimen to the loading device.
As such, only limited test data exists on tensile strength. In the brittle failure region, strength appears to be mainly
a function of grain size with very little influence of temperature. There seems to be no impact of strain rate on the
results. For snow ice (small grains) at 7 C, values of 1.8 to 2.2 Mega Pascals have been measured. Larger
columnar-grained ice showed strengths of 1 to 1.2 Mega Pascals. There is not much call for values of tensile
strength, mainly in ice breaker performance and forces on inclined structures.

Page 15 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Shear strength implies a lateral movement within the material or forces that cause breakage along a plane. Since
the different testing methods approach shear in various ways (torsion, direct shear, and punch tests) values can
vary widely. Russian literature gives shear strength ranges of 0.2 to 4 Mega Pascals depending on temperature,
ice type, specimen size, and loading rate.

Page 16 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Flexural strength has been investigated both in the laboratory and in the field and applies to performance of ice
breakers, ice forces on inclined structures, rubble mound and ridge building, and determining safe bearing
capacities on ice sheets. The flexural strength is the maximum vertical load that can be supported by an ice sheet
at its edge. The results of many tests show that the strength reported depends on the size of the test specimen,
the type of test performed, crystal size, and whether the top or bottom of the ice sheet is put into tension. Values
for competent freshwater columnar ice ranges from 0.5 Mega Pascals for large cantilever beam specimens to 1.2
Mega Pascals for small specimens in simple beam tests.

Page 17 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Breakthrough loads are discussed later in the course but for short-term duration loads, the allowable load P that a
floating ice sheet can withstand is proportional to the square of the ice thickness. This slide presents the formula
representing this relation. The value of A depends on the system of units used.

Page 18 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
The Elastic Modulus or E represents the relationship between stress and strain. It depends on the ice
temperature, ice crystal structure, and the rate of stress application. Creep, or stress deformation, can occur at
high stress levels and can cause the strain to vary during a test. As a result, the values of Elastic Modulus can
vary widely. For natural freshwater ice, values have been measured between 0.4 and 9.8 GigaPascals (55 to
1350 thousand psi). For large laboratory tanks of freshwater ice, values have been measured of 4.3 to 8.3
GigaPascals (600 to 1150 thousand psi).

Page 19 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
The characteristic length, L sub-c, of a floating ice sheet is a measure of the zone of deformation when the sheet
is subjected to a vertical load. It is also a measure of the initial size of ice floes upon breakup of a cover. Field
measurements have shown that the characteristic length of competent freshwater ice is 15 to 20 times the
thickness. The formula for characteristic length is given in this slide.

Page 20 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Two techniques can be used in the field to measure elastic modulus and flexural strength with minimal equipment.
The cantilever beam test is shown on this slide. A beam is cut in the ice sheet with a length L that is about 5 to 8
times the sheet thickness, h. The width should be about 2 ice thicknesses. The load P is applied to the tip of the
beam and the deflection delta is measured. The failure load P prime is used to determine the flexural strength.
Formulas are provided in the slide. The saw cuts at the root of the beam (inside corners) should be rounded to
avoid local stress concentrations that may cause early beam failure.

Page 21 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
In the simple beam test, a beam of length L and width B is cut from the ice sheet and placed on two supports. It is
loaded at its center with the load P and the deflection delta is measured. Formulas are provided in the slide. For
both the cantilever and simple beam test, the top or the bottom of the ice specimen can be put into tension.

Page 22 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
The properties of sea ice differ from those of freshwater ice mainly due to the presence of brine and air pockets
within the ice structure. As sea ice freezes, the impurities are rejected to the crystal boundaries, resulting in brine
pockets where the salt concentration is high enough to prevent further freezing. The volume of the brine in parts
per thousand is given here as a function of salinity and temperature.

Page 23 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
The volume of the air voids in the ice structure can be found after measuring the bulk density, of the ice
containing salt and air. This relation also depends on the salinity and two functions of temperature.

Page 24 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
The two functions of temperature are provided here in graphical form and are derived from a phase equilibrium
table developed by Cox and Weeks. The total porosity in the ice sub-t, and the brine volume fraction of the
porosity, sub-b are used to calculate values of compressive and flexural strength of sea ice.

Page 25 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Timco and Frederking analyzed over 400 samples to come up with the relations for compressive strength
presented here as a function of the total porosity (in parts per thousand) and strain rate. The range of applicable
strain rates for these equations is 10 to the -7th to 10 to the -4th per second. Relations are given for horizontally
loaded columnar sea ice, vertically loaded columnar sea ice, and granular sea ice.

Page 26 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3b

Slide script
Timco and OBrien analyzed over 900 flexural strength measurements to come up with this relation for flexural
strength of sea ice which is only a function of the brine volume fraction. If the brine volume is set to zero, the
equation results in a flexural strength of 1.76 Mega Pascals, which agrees very well with the average value of
1.73 Mega Pascals for freshwater ice.

Page 27 of 27

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
This is Jon Zufelt welcoming you to Module #3C Bearing Capacity of Floating Ice Sheets. The floating part is important
because it is the material properties of the ice that determine strength and therefore bearing capacity.

Page 1 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
The most idealized and simplest case of bearing capacity is given in this figure with a point load acting perfectly in the
center of a floating ice block. The block has buoyancy due to its density being less than that of water. If the block did not
have an extra load on it and you didnt know its density, you could figure out the density by knowing that the weight of the
block must be equal to the weight of the volume of water that is displaced. As in the case shown, if the block has an area
of A and has a depth of submergence z, then its weight is equal to A times z times the unit weight of water (gamma sub
w). Since we usually can assume a density or unit weight of ice, we can calculate the maximum load that a floating block
can hold. For the maximum loading case, the block submergence depth z, is equal to its thickness, h and the maximum
load P is given by A times h times the difference between the ice and water density. If the load is not perfectly centered,
however, the block will have an induced moment and tip or flip over.

Page 2 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
This figure shows a load applied to an idealized infinite ice sheet. By infinite, we mean that there are no effects due to
attachment at the edges of the sheet. Think of it as a load out in the middle of a lake as opposed to the load on a small
puddle ice sheet where the attachment at the edges provides additional support. Away from the load, the buoyancy force
supports the ice sheet and is given as a pressure on the underside of the sheet equal to the unit weight of the ice times
the ice thickness (or density times gravity times ice thickness). Closer to the load, deflection occurs due to the load and an
additional pressure is required to keep the load afloat. This additional pressure is equal to the unit weight of water times
the local deflection. The sheet can act as a membrane and deflect below the piezometric head line but any cracks will
allow water onto the surface of the sheet which results in additional load on the sheet. Ice sheets respond to loads by
elastic and creep deformations depending on the strain rate. If the load is too great (or too concentrated) the tensile
strength of the ice will be exceeded at the lower surface and cracks will begin to form, lessening the load carrying capacity
of the ice sheet.

Page 3 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
The loading type is really dependent on the strain rate. At low strain rates, deformation is by creep, while at high strain
rates the sheet deforms elastically. Short term loads allow the sheet to deform elastically. These loads might be due to
slow moving loads on an ice cover (like a person walking across a frozen pond). Moving loads are characterized by
movements that are quick enough to cause the ice sheet to deflect and then return to normal, possibly setting up a
resonance. Problems with moving loads often occur as a vehicle traveling across an ice sheet approaches the shore.
Finally, long-term loads are those that allow the ice sheet to deform under creep, such as a drill rig on the ice or long-term
storage of materials on the ice.

Page 4 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
Under a short-term load, the ice sheet behaves as an elastic, brittle material. If we assume that the ice cover can be
described as an elastic plate on an elastic foundation, we can solve the bearing capacity and deflection analytically (or
through a theoretical solution). As long as the elastic stresses under the load are less than the tensile strength of the
bottom of the sheet, this analytical solution is valid. If the tensile strength is exceeded, however, the sheet cracks. Further
loading causes radial cracks to form extending from the loading point out for a distance of about 2-3 characteristic lengths.
Then circumferential cracks form around the loaded area. Eventually, the sheet will break through.

Page 5 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
The next few slides show some break-through experiments conducted in the test basin at CRREL with fresh water ice.
You can see the break-through at the point of loading, the radial cracks extending out from the loading point, and the
circumferential cracks.

Page 6 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
This plot shows the loading (in kiloNewtons) vs. deflection at the loading point (in mm). You can see a reduction in the
loading before the break-through which could be due to cracks allowing water onto the ice surface (which would increase
the total load on the ice but reduce measured load applied).

Page 7 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Slide script
These two photos show the significant micro cracking between the major radial cracks.

Page 8 of 18

Module 3c

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
The deflection is described in the analytical solution by a differential equation that is presented and solved in both of our
texts. The solution results in an expression for the Characteristic Length of the ice sheet as shown here. The factor D is
further defined as well with gamma sub w equal to the unit weight of water, capital E is the Elastic Modulus of the ice, h is
the ice thickness, and nu is the Poisson ratio for the ice sheet. The figure provides characteristic length versus sheet
thickness for several values of Elastic Modulus and a Poissons ratio of 0.3.

Page 9 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
The maximum tensile stress, before the first crack appears, can be calculated with the formula shown here. As noted before, characteristic length

depends on the Elastic Modulus and thickness of the ice sheet. So, as the loaded area radius increases (as a/L increases
in the figure), the value of C and hence the maximum tensile stress decreases. The effect is that for a given maximum
tensile stress, the lower C allows a larger load P for a given ice sheet. This means that as you distribute the load over a
larger radius, the sheet can carry a larger load. Also shown on the plot is the value of C if the load is placed over a square
area at the edge of a semi-infinite ice sheet (think of this as the edge of an ice sheet with open water beyond). Values of C
are higher, indicating a lower allowable value of load which is what you would expect at the edge of an ice sheet.

Page 10 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
Experience with floating drilling platforms in the arctic has resulted in accepted values of maximum allowable tensile
stress. For sea ice, 550 kPa (or 80 psi) is customary while a value of 690 kPa (or 100 psi) can be used for freshwater ice.
The values customarily used for elastic modulus were obtained by measurements using strain gages embedded in very
thick ice platforms (ice islands). 690 MPa is used for calculations of deflections immediately after a load is placed on an
ice sheet. The Elastic Modulus decreases with time due to creep deformation and thus for long term loads, a value of only
55 MPa is used.

Page 11 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
A long data history of break-through loads and ice thicknesses has resulted in some very good empirical relations for
short-term bearing capacity. The Army actually did a series of experiments where different sized vehicles were loaded
until an ice sheet failed. The form of the empirical relation is P=A * h-squared where P is the load, h is the allowable
thickness and A is a coefficient that depends on the condition of the ice, ice temperature, factor of safety desired, and the
units used. For a load in tons and ice thickness in inches, the relation is P=h-squared/16 or h=4*P to the 1/2 power. The
relation for load in metric tons and thickness in centimeters as well as the relation for load in megaNewtons and the
thickness in meters are given in this slide. Of course these values are for clear competent ice. White, bubble-filled, or
snow-ice should be considered to be only half as strong or equivalent to half as much clear ice.

Page 12 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
This slide shows a plot of actual break-through loads for short-term loadings vs. ice thickness. The best fit lines to this
data show P=1.93 * h-squared or P=1.75 * h-squared which is a bit higher than the formula on the previous slide of P=hsquared. This difference could be due to the ice sheets not being clear, or not being strong ice.
Table 8-1 on page 8-9 of the Ice Engineering EM provides additional information to assist in vehicle operations on an ice
sheet. The table gives values of ice thickness required for different weights of tracked and wheeled vehicles for two
different ambient temperature ranges. There is also a recommendation for the distance between vehicles. As the air
temperature rises above freezing, the ice sheet will begin to lose its strength (especially at the surface). Continued warm
temperatures significantly reduce the bearing capacity.

Page 13 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
Moving loads present additional difficulties due to the inertia of the ice and water. A load on an ice sheet deflects the
sheet in a bowl-shaped area. As the load moves across the sheet, the deflection bowl (and the water that is being
displaced) is also moving. Just as with a boat moving through the water, the moving deflection bowl sets up a gravity
wave. If the deflection is great enough and the speed is high enough, a wave begins to form in front of the moving load.
While this is less evident in deep water, as the water depth decreases, the wave grows and attempts to break as it nears
the shore (similar to a beach wave). The most critical time is when a moving vehicle approaches the shore line. Not only
does the critical speed become less, the ice thickness near the shore is often less as well. The slide shows the formulas
for critical speed (which is really the wave speed) for both deep water and shallow water conditions.

Page 14 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
Long term loads are characterized by creep deformation. When a load is initially placed on the sheet, deflection occurs.
The effect of creep is that this vertical deflection increases with time due to the Elastic Modulus and characteristic length
decreasing with time. The maximum deflection of an elastic ice sheet (but still less than the freeboard of the sheet) is
given by w-max=P/(rho-water times g times the characteristic length squared). As stated before, the Elastic Modulus for
an initially loaded ice sheet would be 690 megaPascals while that of a long-term loaded sheet would only be 55
megaPascals. It is important to limit the long-term deflection of the ice sheet to its freeboard. That way, even as the sheet
continues to creep, water shouldnt leak up onto the surface through cracks (causing additional loading). By limiting the
deflection to the freeboard, the effects of creep are that the long-term load is about 3 to 4 times smaller than the allowable
short-term load.

Page 15 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
What if youre not sure how long youre going to load the ice sheet, or not certain of the Elastic Modulus? One of the best
ways to ensure that you dont deflect more than the freeboard is to drill a hole in the sheet near your load. As long as the
water doesnt come up onto the ice, you should be safe. This is the ice fishermans rule: if your truck tires are getting wet,
its time to move.

Page 16 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
We often need to significantly load an ice sheet, whether for construction or safe passage across a river. Methods to
increase the bearing capacity of the ice sheet include distributing the load over a larger area. This might be done by
spreading out your items to be stored rather than stacking them up. Other ways to increase the bearing capacity include
increasing the Elastic Modulus or increasing the ice thickness. The latter can be accomplished by removing the snow
cover (which is really an insulation layer) from the ice sheet to induce ice growth or by periodically flooding the ice sheet in
thin layers, thereby building up the thickness. A final method of increasing bearing capacity is to reduce the time of
loading such that you maintain short-term loading conditions.

Page 17 of 18

Arctic Engineering

Module 3c

Slide script
So in summary, the bearing capacity of floating ice sheets depends on the type of loading, whether short-term , moving, or
long-term. Many parameters influence the bearing capacity including the Elastic Modulus, characteristic length, ice
thickness, loading area, and time of loading. Creep deformation and cracking can accelerate the failure of ice sheets and
the available freeboard of the sheet should also be monitored.
The homework assignments look at some practical aspects of bearing capacity. It can be found under the assignments
section of the website and will be due on April 24th.

Page 18 of 18

Submitted

10/181129:44 PM

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Question 6

to out of 10 points

A convoy of 2-lon trucks on a 12inch-lhick river k:e road (check 'On Thin

Ice: by Orson

Sm~h}

Selected AnSW9f: I!':i should keep vehicles al Ieasl 120 feel apart

Correct AnSW9f:

I!':i should keep vehk:les alleasl120 feel apart

Question 7

o oul of 10 points

Which factor does nol affect Ihe compressive strength of sea k:e?
Selected AnSW9f: X salinity

Question B

10 out of 10 points

Whk:h is the second slage 10 occur In sea k:e development?

Selected Answef:

I!':i nllas

Correct Answer:

I!':i nllas

Question 9

o out of 10 points

What property is least alticallo the maximum load bearable by an k:e sheet?
Selected Answef: X

CorTecI Answer:
Response
Feedback:

salln~

I!':i temperature below freezing

Except just alief a dramatic temperature change,

temperature is nol as a~K:a1 as the othel" parametefll.

Question 10

o out of 10 points

Hydrogen bonds between waler mo~les resutt In (check ah that apply)

Selected Answers:

!iIi CorTecI

AnSW9rs:

I!':i high haat capacity

I!':i
I!':i

high heat capacity

high heat of vaporization

Thursday, October 18, 2012 9:44:13 PM AKDT