N

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.-

TEMAS
Adjetivos seguidos de INFINITIVO con TO
ALL + Clause (Oracin Subordinada)
Any + Comparativo
Artculo: Usos y Omisiones
Caractersticas de los Verbos Defectivos
Colocacin de Both/All
Comparacin del Adjetivo y del Adverbio
Compuestos de Some/Any/No
Conjunciones ALTHOUGH/THOUGH
Conjunciones IN CASE/UNLESS
Construccin ACUSATIVA o INFINITIVA inglesa
Cuadro de Pronombres
Diferencias entre BEEN TO/GONE TO
Diferencias entre Say/Tell/Speak/Talk
Diferencias entre Seem/Look
ESTILO INDIRECTO (Reported Speech)
Estructuras:
Its (about) time + Simple Past

18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.-

Its no good + Gerundio (-ING)

Exclamaciones
Expresar DESEOS y LAMENTOS (Wish and If Only)
False Friends (Palabras que pueden confundir)
Formas de expresar la EDAD de una persona
FORMULAS PARA COMPOSICIONES (Frases hechas)
Gnero en personas, animales y cosas en ingls
GERUNDIO
GLOSARIO DE C.O.U.
GRAMTICA ESPA OLA
Artculo determinado e indeterminado espaol
Adjetivo espaol y sus clases
Comparacin del Adjetivo espaol
Pronombres espaoles y clases de Pronombre
Conjugacin espaola (Resumida)

27.-

Correspondencias de tiempos espaoles e ingleses

Tabla de tiempos ingleses (Todos los tiempos activos y pasivos)

38
50
45
7 - 11
30
25 - 27
28 - 29
4
46
48
47
4
33
32
32 - 33
55 - 63

33
34
47
33
71 - 73
71
105 - 119
81 - 84
34 - 35
70
97
97
97
99
100 - 102
103
104
104
1

28.29.30.31.32.33.34.35.36.37.38.39.40.41.42.43.44.45.46.47..48.49.50.51.52.53.54.55.56.57.58.59.60.61.62.63.64.65.66.-

Hacer Comparaciones
Impersonal YOU
INFINITIVO de Propsito o Finalidad
Locuciones Verbales: Would rather/sooner//Had better
Nombres Compuestos (Lista y significado)
Nombres Contables e Incontables
Oraciones CONDICIONALES (Conjunciones: if, unless, etc.)
Oraciones de RELATIVO
Oraciones FINALES
Oraciones TEMPORALES
Pares de palabras (pareados)
Participio de Pasado
Participio de Presente
Participio Falso o False Participle
Participios en vez de Oraciones Subordinadas
Partcula AS
Partcula EVER
Partculas QUITE/RATHER/SUCH a/an + Nombre Contable Singular
Partculas SO/SUCH THAT
Partculas TOO/ENOUGH
Phrasal Verbs (lista y significados)
Plural de los Nombres Ingleses
Posicin de Adverbios y Frases Adverbiales
Posicin de los Adverbios
Preposiciones (bsicas)
Preposiciones Finales o End-prepositions
Prepositional and Phrasal Verbs
Pronombres Reflexivos
Pronombres, Adjetivos y Adverbios Interrogativos con -EVER
Proverbs (Refranes)
Puntuacin en Ingls
Quehaceres Domsticos
Significados de la palabra LEFT
Significados del verbo To FEEL
Significados segn la Pronunciacin
Sinnimos
Sufijos y Prefijos
Tail Questions o Questions-tags
Tiempos Verbales

48 - 49
6
41
19 - 20
90 - 91
1- 2
51 - 53
64 - 66
67
66 - 67
96
35
35
36
35 - 36
45
6
45
46
46
79 - 80
11 - 12
43 - 44
68
75
45
41 - 42
48
47 - 48
76 - 78
42
6
33
22
74 - 75
74
69
50 - 51
12

Presente Simple/Presente Contnuo

Pasado Simple/Presente Perfecto

 Presente Perfecto Contnuo

67.68.69.70.71.72.73.74.75.76.77.78.79.80.81.82.83.84.85.86.87.88.89.90.91.92.93.94.95.96.97.98.-

Pasado Perfecto Contnuo

Top Forty Fatal Mistakes
Uso de auxiliaries en afirmativa
Usos de Both/All/Neither/None
Usos de Can/Could
Usos de Eitheror/Neither nor
Usos de Going to/Will
Usos de May/Might
Usos de Much/Many/Little/Few
Usos de Must/Have to
Usos de Ought to
Usos de Shall/Will
Usos de Should/Would
Usos de Some/Any/No
Usos de Verbo To HAVE
Usos del verbo To DO y To MAKE
Usos del Verbo To Get
Verbo NEED + -ING
Verbo To Be + INFINITIVO con TO
Verbo To Dare
Verbo To Feel like
Verbo To GET
Verbo To Happen
Verbo To Help
Verbo To Look
Verbo To Mind
Verbo To Need
Verbo To Seem
Verbo TO SUGGEST
Verbo GET SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING
Verbo MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING
Verbos Irregulares Ingleses (Lista y significado)
Verbos Principales AUXILIARES-MODALES

99.100.101.102.103.104.-

Must/Need/Can/May
Verbos que no se pueden utilizar en tiempos continuos
Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO con Cambio de significado
Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO sin Cambio de significado
Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO sin TO
Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS de Perfecto
Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS PASIVOS

94 - 95
20
6
16 - 17
27
17 - 18
17
24 - 25
15 - 16
19
14 - 15
18 - 19
2-3
5-6
91
21
32
41
23
21 - 22
20 - 21
21
22
23
24
23
24
53
49
49
92 - 93
30
30 - 31
36 - 37
39 - 40
38
37
40
40

105.106.107.108.109.110.111.-

Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO con TO

Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO sin TO o Participio de Presente
Verbos seguidos por HOW TO + INFINITIVO
Verbos Think/Suppose/Hope
Verbos y palabras que rigen una preposicin/es determinadas
VOZ PASIVA
Wh-words + INFINITIVO con TO

38
40
38
33
85 - 89
53 - 55
45 - 46

NOMBRES CONTABLES E INCONTABLES:

Las categorias de singular y plural se aplican a todo aquello que se puede contar; son estos los que llamamos
nombres contables, materiales como: girls, houses, flowers, o abstractos como: days, hours, mistakes,
ideas.
Pero hay otra serie de nombres que no se pueden encuadrar dentro de unos lmites numricos - los
llamamos incontables, ya sea a su vez materiales, como: silver, butter, cheese, o abstractos como: music,
traffic, success. Asi como los nombres contables se pueden contar tomados en la medida de uno, dos tres etc.,
los incontables se pueden cuantificar con las expresiones: much, little, some, a great deal of, plenty of ... etc.
Podemos utilizar a lot of delante de nombres contables e incontables, pero la expresin a large number
of slo se utiliza ante contables.
Television companies receive a large number of letters every day.
A great deal of slo se utiliza con incontables:
The psycologist had spent a great deal of time studying the problem.
Para la afirmativa se prefieren estas expresiones a much o many, dejndoles a stos el uso exclusivo
de las interrogativas y negativas, o tambin si son sujeto o parte del sujeto nunca complemento.
Television companies don't receive many letters.
The psycologist hadn't spent much time on the problem
Adems de la expresiones ya vistas hay otras formas de referirnos a in contables como son:
A piece of: news, advice, furniture ...
A bit of: information
A stroke of: luck (golpe de suerte)
A matter of: common sense (un poco de sentido comn).
Asi mirada la distincin entre nombres contables e incontables no ofrece dificultad; hay que tener en
cuenta, sin embargo, que hay un gran nmero de palabras que pueden tomarse, en distintos contextos, como
contables o tambin como incontables:
contable Incontable
Ice: helado ; hielo
Iron: plancha ; acero
4

Paper: peridico ; papel

Glass vaso ; cristal
Wood: bosque ; madera
Otra distincin a tener en cuenta es la que se refiere al animal como contable, y a su carne como incontable:
Ox (buey), carne: beef
Calf (ternera) carne: veal
Sheep (oveja) carne: mutton
Pig or swine (cerdo) carne: pork
Desde el punto de vista meramente lgico, podramos deducir que, puesto que los nombres incontables
denotan lo que no podemos contar, las categoras de singular y plural no les son aplicables; sin embargo
hay muchos nombres incontables que son plurales por su forma:
sweets (caramelos) rickets (el raquitismo)
weeds (malas hierbas) hysterics (la histeria)
goods (mercancias) measles (el sarampin)
ashes (cenizas)
Otro grupo de nombres son los terminados en -ics, que denotan materias:
mathematics - matemticas
politics - poltica
statistics - estadstica
Tanto este grupo de nombres como el anterior pueden ir seguidos de un verbo en singular o en plural:
Measles is/are very infectious
Politics dont/doesn't interest me.
USOS DE SOME, ANY y NO
Some y any son adjetivos o pronombres indefinidos que se emplean con sustantivos incontables en singular y
con sustantivos plurales contables, o sustituyendo a estos mismos sustantivos.
Some: Con nombres incontables en singular equivale al partitivo francs y tiene el significado de un poco
(de), algo (de), o puede prescindirse de su traduccin en espaol. Con los nombres contables en plural
significa algunos/as:
There is some water in the jug.
5

I have some English books at home.

Como pronombre sustituye a nombres incontables en singular y a contables en plural a los que se ha
mencionado previamente. Significa: un poco, algo, algunos/as:
I like some milk. I feel like drinking some now.
You need many pins for that. I can lend you some if you want.
Por regla general el uso de some se limita a oraciones afirmativas. En las oraciones interrogativas y negativas,
detrs de if, hardly, barely, scarcely se emplea any con los mismos significados de some:
Is there any water in the glass?
Are there any books on the table?
I haven't any money left.
There is hardly any sugar.
There are scarcely any papers on the floor.
If you want any help, let me know.
Slo si la pregunta implica una invitacin u ofrecimiento, o si se espera una respuesta afirmativa, se puede
emplear some en las oraciones interrogativas:
Would you like some more tea?
Did he buy some new books?
Se emplea:
En ocasiones con los nombres contables tiene el valor de plural del artculo indeterminado a:
Come with me and I'll show you some English books I bought.
I have bought some too.
There is some milk in that glass; I'll have some.
Cuando ofrecemos algo, para dar a este ofreciemiento ms fuerza:
Would you like some tea?
En las preguntas cuando esperamos que la respuesta sea afirmativa:
He has some tea already, hasn't he?
Para expresar indiferencia al referirnos a una persona, o para indicar irritacin:
Some man came and told me the most stupid story.
6

Some stupid boy must have broken this lamp.

Any: Acompaa o sustituye tambin a nombres incontables en singular y a contables en plural:
Se emplea:
Sustituyendo a some en las oraciones interrogativas:
Is there any wine in the bottle?
Have you got nay books here?
En las oraciones negativas y en las que tienen valor negativo a causa de las expresiones: hardly, barely,
scarcely, estas expresiones tienen matiz negativo:
There isn't any bread at home.
He has hardly any money.
You haven't any paper.
En las oraciones condicionales detrs de if especialmente si creemos que la condicin no se va a cumplir:
If I see any of your friends I'll tell them to meet you at the cinema.
En oraciones que expresan duda:
I doubt whether they will have any gin at home.
En oraciones afirmativas con valor distinto de some. Significa cualquiera no importa cul:
Don't worry; any book will do.
NO: Se emplea en oraciones afirmativas para expresar negacin. Su valor es similar al de any, como
adjetivo, con el verbo en forma negativa:
I haven't any money = I have no maney.
There aren't any stamps = There are no stamps.
COMPUESTOS DE SOME, ANY, NO
FORM
VERB

ASSERTIVE
Affirmative
someone

NON-ASSERTIVE
Negative
Anyone

NEGATIVE
Affirmative
no-one

somebody
something
somewhere
sometimes
somehow

Anybody
Anything
Anywhere
Ever
in any way

nobody
nothing
nowhere
never
in no way

Personas
Cosas
Lugar

already
Any more/any longer
still
Yet
There is somebody with you.

no more/no longer
No form

Don't give him anything before lunch.

It must be somewhere in the class.
There aren't any tourists here this summer.
There was nobody at home.
EVERY solo tiene la forma ASSERTIVE
FORM
VERB

ASSERTIVE
Affirmative
Everybody
Everyone
Everything
Everywhere
PRONOMBRES PERSONALES, POSESIVOS Y REFLEXIVOS
PERSONALES
POSESIVOS
Sujeto
Complemento
Adjetivos
Pronombres
I
me
my
mine
you
you
your
yours
he
him
his
his
she
her
her
hers
it
it
its
its?
we
us
our
ours
you
you
your
yours
they
them
their
theirs
PRONOMBRES REC PROCOS

REFLEXIVOS
Pronombres
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves

Each other: (uno a atro) se (entre dos personas o cosas)

One another: (unos a otros) se (entre ms de dos)
USOS DEL VERBO TO HAVE
Adems del uso ms frecuente de have que es la de auxiliar en la formacin de los tiempos compuestos
de cualquier verbo, tiene otros usos:
1.- Significado de TENER, POSEER
She has a black cat.
Lo encontramos tambin significando lo mismo en la forma have got

Have you got a cigarette?

Con este significado no usamos normalmente el auxiliar do para la forma negativa e interrogativa, sobre
todo si la posesin a la que nos referimos es en el momento en que hablamos:
You have a lot of maney to buy that.
You haven't much money to buy that.
Si la posesin no es en este momento, sino de vez en cuando se pone los auxiliares do/does/did para
formar la ineterrogativa y negativa:
He doesn't usually have more than one pound in his pocket.
Por supuesto si la forma que empleamos es have got nunca se puede utilizar do:En afirmativa suele
emplearse en ingls britnico la estructura HAVE GOT, as have hace la interrogativa y negativa
mientras que got actua como comodn:
I have got a car
2.- Obligacin TENER QUE
El verbo to have seguido de infinitivo con to indica Obligacin y significa tener que y este es el verbo
que suple las deficiencias de must. Necesita de auxiliares para formar la interrogativa y negativa. Si se
utiliza el comodn got to el que hace la interrogativa y negativa es have:
I have to leave. I have got to leave I must leave
Have you got to leave? Do you have to leave?
La negativa e interrogativa de have to puede hacerse de dos formas: con o sin do; es ms frecuente la
forma con do sobre todo en presente:
Have you to leave? Do you have to leave? (mejor)
3.- Uso Causativo
Este uso se utiliza cuando se quiere expresar que alguien ha hecho algo por uno. La estructura es To
HAVE/GET + Objeto + past participle. Usamos esta construccin cuando queremos dar la idea de que no
es el sujeto el que realiza la accin, sino que ms bien recae sobre s mismo; por tanto tiene significado
pasivo.Para hacer la negativa e interrogativa necesita tambin de auxiliares:
I had my car washed yesterday I had my hair cut yesterday.
I didnt have my car washed yesterday.
He had his windows cleaned last Saturday.
4.- Con el sigificado de tomar, recibir, experimentar, comer etc.
En este uso la palabra que acompaa al verbo have es su complemento directo, por tanto actua como un
verbo lxico u ordinario. Tambin necesita de auxiliares ara formar la interrogativa y negativa:
9

I had a cup of coffee at six o'clock (tom).

I had a present from Charle (recib).
I had a lovely time with him (experiment).
To have a bath; to have a shower; to have breakfast.
5.- Acabar de + infinitivo: To have just + past participle
Indica que una accin acaba de desarrollarse hace un instante:
He has just arrived home.
QUEHACERES DOM STICOS (Chores)
TO DO + artculo determinado + -ING, excepto = To make the beds
Ej: Mrs Wildes cooks the meals every day.
Mrs Wildes does the cooking every day.
To do the washing = lavar la ropa, hacer la colada
To do the washing-up = lavar los platos
To do the cleaning = limpiar la casa.
To do the spring cleaning = limpiar la casa a fondo.
To do the gardening = trabajar en el jardn
etc.
BOTH / ALL / NEITHER / NONE
Both - ambos, los dos
All - ms de dos
Neither - ninguno (de dos)
None - ninguno (ms de dos)
both ... and - tanto ... como
neither ... nor - ni ... ni
Both, All, None - rigen el verbo en plural.
IMPERSONAL: YOU

10

You equivale al impersonal espaol uno

Ej: Uno sale de casa y luego no vuelve.
PART CULA: EVER
Significa: alguna vez
Hardly ever - casi nunca; puesto que en ingls no se pueden poner dos partculas negativas juntas; la
partcula hardly tiene matiz negativo por tanto no se puede poner never.
EVER se emplea en preguntas con el significado de alguna vez; y con el superlativo relativo significa
jams.
Preguntas: Have you ever been to London?
Yes, several times.
No, never
Superlativos: He is the most intelligent man I have (I've) ever seen.
EL ART CULO
El artculo determinado en ingls se pone cuando se habla de un sustantivo en concreto, determinado, no
en sentido general.
The boy next door to us is full of mischief
The book that you gave me is very interesting
En ambos ejemplos hay algo que define a la persona o cosa a que nos referimos. En el primer caso es next
door to us y en el segundo es that you gave me. Esta definicin del obejto o la persona de quin
hablamos nos la puede dar la pregunta: WHAT? o la pregunta WHICH?, y sto ocurre en singular y
plural:
The animals I saw were beautiful. What animals? Those I saw (not all animals).
The dogs in your farm don't like meat. Which dogs? The ones you have in your farm.
La determinacin se puede expresar por medio de una oracin de ralativo (The book that you gave me) o
por un complemento con preposicin (The dogs in your farm)
The carpet of the dining-room; The house near the church.
Si hablamos de algo en sentido general utilizamos el artculo indeterminado si la persona o cosa de que
hablamos es singular y nada si es plural:
A play by Shakespeare is something interesting to be seen.
Films are good entertainment.

11

Usos del Artculo Determinado:

- Cuando nos referimos a algo de lo que slo existe un ejemplar:
The sky, the earth, the moon.
- Cuando empleamos el superlativo relativo, pero no el absoluto:
This is the most interesting poem I have read.
pero es: It is most interesting.
- Con los nombres de mares, rios y oceanos:
the Thames, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Mediterranean etc.
- Con los nombres de cordilleras y archipilagos, pero no con los nombres de mantaas y de una sla
isla:
The Canary Islands, the Alps, the Grampians
pero es: Mont Balnc, Sicily.
-Con los nmeros ordinales en ttulos honorficos:
Elisabeth the Second (Elisabeth II), Charles V (Charles the Fifth).
- Con los nombres de trenes, barcos y aviones famosos:
The Queen Mary, The Arrow, the Concorde
- Con nombres de paises que o son plurales o estn formados por ms de una entidad territorial:
The United States, The United Kingdom, The Netherlands;
pero no Spain, France, Germany, Italy.
- Con las palabras theatre, cinema, movies, pictures, opera, ballet ... cuando se utilizan como lugar de
esparcimiento:
I went to the cinema last week, We should go to the ballet.
- Cuando se hace referencia a una cosa que ya se ha citado:
We bought a house and an apartment. The house is not far from the sea.
- Con los adjetivos cuando se quieren sustantivar, se convierten por medio del artculo en nombres
plurales:
The poor are happier than the rich.
En singular: the poor man.
12

 - Se emplea el artculo determinado en con el comparativo para decir que algo aumneta o disminuye:
The more you giove him the more he wants.
El artculo indeterminado se emplea delante de los nombres discontinuos (contables) que van en singular.
El artculo indeterminado no tiene plural . Cuando en singular tiene el valor de 1 hacindo nfasis en
la cantidad, su plural puede ser some, a few etc.
Usos del artculo indeterminado:
- Con el significado de uno cualquiera:
I would like to have a fur coat.
- Con valor distributivo en expresiones de tiempo y con medidas:
Peter comes twice a year. Cheese costs 90p a kilo
- Delante de cantidades: hundred, thousand, million, dozen:
He knows a hundred English words.
- Con apellidos de personas no identificadas, equivalente al espaol: un tal:
A Mr White came to see you
- Con nombres de profesiones y religiones:
She is a student. I am a teacher.
He became a Protestant.
- Con sustantivos cuando queremos rferirnos a ellos en general:
A car is a useful thing.
- Con las expresiones: What a .. !; Such a ... !; Quite a ... !; Rather a ... ! + nombres contables en
singular: What a pity; its quite a good book.
It was such a nuisance. I read quite an interesting story !
Omisin de los dos artculos:
- Con las palabras: school, church, prison, jail, bed, hospital ... cuando se utilizan para el fin para el que
se hiceron:
We go to school everyday. I feel tired; I'm going to bed
Peter stole a car and he is in prison now
We go to school at 8.30 every morning.

13

 - Con nombres abstractos o nombres concretos no determinados ni limitados:

Happiness, Freedom
Happiness is what I long for.
- Con los nombres de idiomas, deportes, calles, comidas:
I speak Italian, Spanish.
I play football, tennis, basketball.
I have breakfast, dinner, supper.
- Con los das de la semana, que en su lugar llevan on:
On Monday, On Friday.
- No se usa con los nombres propios aunque formen parte de un genitivo sajn, al igual que con Mr, Mrs,
Miss:
Marys teacher lives far from here.
Mary's scarf; Arthurs car;
Mr Smithers; Mr Harrison.
- Con las palabras: next y last, ciando nos referimos al perodo inmediatamente posterior o anterior al
que estamos:
Mary left home last week.
I see you next Friday
pero I met your brother the last week I spent in London (no tiene por qu ser la semana pasada).
USES OF A / AN
With a subject complement
He is a doctor
Mr Smith became an engineer
I was made a director
She remained spinster
She found herself a widow
In distributive phrases (a = each)

14

The cloth costs five pounds a yard

I take this medicine twice a day
These flowers cost a pound a dozen
Coal costs ten pounds a ton
Coffee is sixpence a cup
With complements introduced by AS and FOR
You must fulfil your duties as a son
I wish we had you for a teacher
In expressions of drgree, measurement, number
He is not as rich a man as you
He lives in too expensive a manner
The waiter has quite a hard time
This is rather a long street
I studied for half an hour
He serves a hundred people
He won a hundred pounds
In exclamations with WHAT, and SUCH
What a pity!
What a nice day!
It is such a pity!
It is such a nice day!
He has such a different life!
After WITH and WITHOUT
He wrote with a pen
There is no rose without a thorn
In emphatic negatives

15

I havent a penny!
I cant see a thing!
I dont understand a word!
In adverbial phrases
In On As
to be in a hurry on a large scale as a rule
to speak in a low voice on an average
In some idioms
to have a right to make a noise to make a fortune
A certain
a certain man
A, ONE
Give me a book = any book
Give me one book = one, not two
Monday is a weekday = one of several
He entered a restaurant one day = one certain day
Just a moment, sir = unemphatic
Just one moment, sir = emphatic
USE and OMISSION of THE
Generic and determined nouns
Generic Determined nouns
I admired courage I admired the courage of poor people
Good books are rare The good books I bought are rare
We pray for peace We pray for the peace of the world
Happiness does not depend on money The happiness of most people does not
depend on the money they have

16

He spends his money on pleasure He spends his money on the pleasures

of food
They suffered from cold and hunger The cold and hunger they suffered was
intense
He was sent to prison He was sent to the new prison
They go to school They go to the school in that street
Omitted before titles, honorifics, and some proper names
Persons Places
Mr Brown Cairo
Captain Brawn Mecca
Queen Elisabeth Peru
King George Canada
Pope Pius Lake Superior
Omitted before the names of languages, games, days, meals, streets
English football Monday breakfast Oxford Street
French tennis Tuesday lunch Piccadilly Circus
German cricket Wednesday tea Trafalgar Square
Russian rugby Thursday dinner Mount Avenue
Italian hockey Friday supper Edgware Road
Next, last, the next, the last
next, last the next, the last
I will meet you next week He fell ill and died the next week
I returned from my holiday last week This is the last week of the year
EL PLURAL DE LOS NOMBRES
La Regla General: El plural de los nombres se forma aadiendo S al singular.
Excepciones:

17

 - Los sustantivos terminados en -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x aaden la terminacin -es para formar el plural y
adquieren as una slaba ms:
Glass - glasses, Church - churches; box - boxes.
- Los que terminan en -o aaden tambin -es, excepto si son nombres extranjeros o apocopados
(cortos):
potato - potatoes; negro - negroes; piano - pianos; photo -photos.
- Los que terminan en -f o en -fe, cambian la f por v y aaden la terminacin -es:
wolf -wolves; wife - wives; life - lives.
excepto: handkerchief - handkerchiefs; cliff - cliffs
- Los que acaban en -y si va sta precedida de consonante, cambia a i latina y aade -es, pero si va
precedida de vocal, sigue la regla general, aade -s:
lady - ladies; baby - babies
boy - boys; toy - toys
- Las palabras latinas y griegas forman el plural segn las reglas del latn o del griego:
crisis - crises; thesis - theses; datum - data; radius - radii
Si son palabras de uso muy frecuente se siguen las reglas del ingls:
gymnasium - gymnasiums (gym - gyms).
6. - Finalmente tenemos que destacar que hay una serie de sustantivos que no siguen estas reglas. Al referirnos
a ellos hablamos de plurales irregulares:
man - men; woman - women; foot - feet; tooth - teeth; mouse - mice; loose - lice; goose - geese; child children.
En ingls antiguo y sobre todo en textos religiosos se encuentra el plural brethen, de brother, que hoy est
practicamente en desuso.
Plurales de nombres compuestos:
- En general se pone en plural el ltimo elemento, pero si man o woman son el primer elemento del
compuesto, ambos se ponen en plural:
teapot - teapots; manservant - menservants; raincoat - raincoats.
- Cuando el compuesto est formado por otros elementos y nombres (por ejemplo, preposiciones o
adverbios) slo se pone en plural el nombre:
passer-by - passers-by; looker-on - lookers-on.

18

 - Si el segundo elemento del compuesto es un adjetivo, solo se pone en plural el primero:

court-martial - courts-martial; mouthful - mouthfuls;
La excepcin a esta regla es que los nombres que terminan en el sufijo -ful (del adjetivo full) forman el
plural aadiendo -s.
handful - handfuls; mouthful - mouthfuls.
TIEMPOS VERBALES
Presente Simple, Presente Continuo.El Presente Simple o habitual se utiliza con acciones que estamos haciendo constantemente; hbitos en el
presente:
I get up at 7 o'clock every day.
El Presente Continuo se utiliza con acciones que estamos realizando en el momento en que hablamos, y se
sobreentiende la partcula NOW:
I am reading a book.
Tanto el Presente Simple como el Presente Continuo tienen valor de futuro. En caso del Presente Simple,
el valor de futuro lo da la expresin temporal que le acompaa:
The train leaves the station at 8 o'clock in the evening.
El Presente Continuo tiene valor de futuro cierto a diferencia de shall o will (que indican futuro
simplemente) o la forma going to (que indica futuro prximo o premeditado):
Tomorrow Im playing tennis.
Pasado Simple.Se emplea para accines que empezaron en el pasado y terminaron en un momento del pasado, este
momento puede estar expresado o puede sobreentenderse:
They came last night. He joined the army in 1977.
He sent me a present last week. I bought this in America.
Tambin se em`plea el pasado simple oara hacer preguntas sobre cosas que se sabe que terminaron en un
momento determinado del pasado:
When did you graduate? Where did you get that prize?
Otro uso del pasado simple es para referirnos a costumbres que se tenan en el pasado, o para acciones que
van acompaadas de los adverbios: sometimes, never, often, always etc.; tambin con expresiones de
tiempo que indican repeticin: once a week, three times a month, on Mondays, every Friday night etc.:
He always went to school by bus.
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He visited his father once a month.

John never drank wine.
Presente Perfecto.Se emplea para hablar de una accin, que si bien comenz en el pasado, no se ha terminado an o en
cierto modo tiene relacn con el momento actual, y se emplea por tanto, con expresiones de tiempo no
terminado. Suele emplearse con: this year, this morning, this summer, today etc.:
I have eaten quite a lot today. We have written each other five times this month.
El Present Perfect es un tiempo que se emplea para referirnos a acciones que acaban de terminar hace un
instante. En ingls esta proximidad del momento en que se ha terminado una accin se expresa por medio
de just y el Present Perfect. Su traduccin al espaol es: ACABAR DE + INFINITIVO:
I have just seen your mother in the street. (Acabo de ver a tu madre ...)
We have just moved to a new house.
Tambin se emplea este tiempo para acciones pasadas cuando no se da el momento en que terminaron.
Parece como si la idea de tiempo no terminado la tuviese que dar la vida de uno. Al menos esto facilita el
saber emplear este tiempo:
She has been to France many times (in her life).
I have met lost of clever people in my life.
Si las acciones a las que hacemos referencia van acompaadas de expresiones como: already, lately,
recently, tambin se emplea el Presente Perfecto si estas acciones comenzaron en el pasado:
We havent seen him yet. I havent already been there.
We havent heard much of you recently.
Por ltimo se emplea este tiempo para hacer preguntas sobre el pasado cuando queremos saber si algo ha
ocurrido alguna vez. En ingls se utiliza el adverbio interrogativo EVER:
Have you ever seen anything like that? Has he ever tried to learn English properly?
Presente Perfecto Continuo.Tiene tres usos:
- Acciones que empezaron en el pasado, continuan en el presente o acaban de terminar:
Arthur has been studying very hard.
- Tambin se usa con expresiones com: recently, this morning, today etc. que son expresiones de
tiempo no terminado:
I have been waiting for you this morning.
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 - Se usa con las partculas: How long ......? y las contestaciones con: Since y For.
How long have you been living here? I've been living here since January.
Pasado Perfecto Continuo.Tres usos:
- Reemplaza al Presente Perfecto Continuo cuando nos referimos al pasado:
Arthur is tired because he has been studying very hard. (Present)
Arthur was tired because he had been studying very hard. (Past)
- Tambin se usa en oraciones temporales con acciones anteriores a otra accin pasada:
After Arthur had been driving for six months, he found it quite easy.
- En el Estilo Indirecto como pasado (backshif) del Presente Perfecto Continuo:
Have you been studying English long?
He asked me if I had been studying English long.
Usos de shall y will.Son estos dos verbos especiales que se emplean para formar el futuro de los dems verbos. Son, pues,
auxiliares de tiempo.
El futuro en ingls, cuando lo nico que queremos expresar es que algo va a tener lugar, se construye con
shall para la primera persona de singular o plural y will para las dems, seguidos de infinitivo sin to del
verbo que conjugamos:
I shall work They will work
La contraccin de la afirmativa es ll para todas las personas, y la contraccin de la negativa es shant o
wont.
Pero no siempre se utilizan estos verbos para expresar simplemente el futuro. Hay una serie de casos en que el
futuro se tie de un matiz que puede ser de mandato, splica, sugerencia etc.:
SHALL:
- Cuando se emplea con las primeras personas y terceras puede expresar ofrecimiento en el presente o en el
futuro: (Se traduce al espaol po Querer que + subjuntivo)
Shall I help you? Shall my wife take you home?
- Con la segunda o tercera personas expresa promesa o amenaza:
You shall have a present if you work hard.

21

My wife shall help you as soon as she comes.

- Con todas las personas se emplea shall en las subordinadas finales introducidas por SO THAT, para
expresar determinacin en el presente o en el futuro:
My wife drives very slowly so that I shall not be afraid.
WILL:
- Con todas las personas, si el nfasis recae sobre el, indica determinacin o propsito:
I will not go out (I am determined to stay at home)
- Si no se le d nfasis, expresa deseo de hacer algo, sobre todo de hacerlo en el presente, con todas las
personas:
If he is hungry I will give him something to eat.
- Con la segunda persona suele indicar invitacin o splica, si se emplea en la forma interrogativa: (Se
traduce al espaol por Querer + infinitivo)
Will you close the window, please? Will you do me a favour, please?
- Con todas las personas puede indicar hbito en el presente:
She will sit there for hours waiting for her son.
- Con la segunda y tercera personas expresa tambin deduccin:
He will be there by now.
Usos de MUST y HAVE TO
MUST: Esta es la forma nica de un verbo defectivo que no tiene mas que presente de indicativo. Su tercera
persona no tiene -s y rige siempre infinitivo sin to. La forma contracta de la negativa es mustn't.
Las formas que le faltan a este verbo, que son practicamente todas, se pueden suplir con las expresiones: TO
HAVE TO o TO BE TO (tener que).
Must puede expresar:
- Obligacin: Candidates must answer all the questions.
- Necesidad 8segn la idea del hablante): He must leave early tomorrow morning.
- Suposicin (Deduccin): She must be at least forty.
- Consejo o recomendacin (en tono ms fuerte que should):
You will have to have your hair cut before you join the army.
Must puede anteceder a un infinitivo de perefecto. Indica entnces una suposicin (deduccin) pasada
por parte del hablante:
It must have been a shock to him.
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Have to: Lo empleamos normalmente para completar la conjugacin de must. Para formar la negativa e
interrogativa empleamos do, does, did
Do you have to go now? Did you have to buy a stamp?
Con el mismo significado de to have to podemos usar to have got to:
I have got to go = I must go. Have you got to go? = Must you go?
En el presente de indicativo, que tambin puede utilizarse have to, hay frecuentemente una diferencia de
significado entre esta forma y must. MUST expresa obligacin desde el punto de vista del que habla y
HAVE TO, como en los otros tiempos, desde el exterior, es decir, que la obligacin es externa.
Para expresar ausencia de obligacin o de necesidad, es decir, lo opuesto a MUST, se emplea a veces la
forma NEED NOT (neednt). Otras alternativas son: havent got to, dont have to, dont need to.
Usos de CAN y COULD
Can: Es otro verbo defectivo. Sus formas son:
Presente: CAN Futuro: CAN Pasado y Condicional: COULD
Las contracciones son: cant o cannot y couldnt
Can puede expresar:
- PERMISO: (para pedirlo o concederlo):
Can I speak to you for a moment? You can speak to the patient if you wish.
Con ms nfasis en la idea de permiso usariamos COULD o MAY o MIGHT
Could I speak to you for a moment, please?
- POSIBILIDAD:
You can come if you want to.
Para expresar posibilidad en el futuro no podemos utilizar CAN; tenemos que utilizar TO BE ABLE TO o el
giro MANAGE TO:
- HABILIDAD o CAPACIDAD:
Can you type? (Sabes escribir a mquina?)
MANAGE TO o TO BE ABLE TO no expresa capacidad del sujeto, sino ms bien que la accin ha sido
llevada a trmino o realizada totalmente:
Although he was hurt, he managed/he was able to explain the accident.
- SUPOSICI N: (negativa)

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He cant be forty. It couldnt be her husband; he is died two years ago.

TO BE ABLE TO es el verbo que se emplea para suplir los tiempos que le faltan a CAN. Son todos los
compuestos (porque no tiene participio pasado), el futuro y el condicional (porque no tiene infinitivo).
Usos de MAY y MIGHT
May: Es otro verbo defectivo. Sus formas son:
Presente: MAY Futuro: MAY Pasado y Condicional: MIGHT
Las contracciones de las formas negativas son: maynt y mightnt.
May expresa permiso, lo mismo en forma interrogativa que negativa:
You may open the window if you are feeling hot.
May y Might pueden expresar tambin:
- POSIBILIDAD: He may/might come tomorrow.
En el estilo indirecto utilizamos might si el verbo principal est en pasado:
He said that he might come.
- SUPOSICI N en el pasado: si usamos may/might seguidos de infinitivo de perfecto:
The other road might have been better.
- Podemos usar ambos verbos en las oraciones condicionales:
If you called him he might answer back.
- Usamos MAY o MIGHT seguidos de as well para expresar intencionalidad vaga:
He might as well apply for the job (he doesnt care about it.)
Especulaciones sobre el pasado con MIGHT
Para una posibilidad pasada. En esta estructura MIGHT es sinnimo de MAY + infinitivo de perfecto:
The Sound of Music might have finished by now.
The Sound of Music may have finished by now.
Puede ponerse en las oraciones condicionales (tipo 3, igual que would have):
If he had gone to the agency earlier, there might have been more choice.
En estilo indirecto como tiempo pasado de MAY:
He admitted that he might have made a mistake.
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 Se puede utilizar en quejas:

I didnt know her husband had died. You might have told me!
Usos de GOING TO o WILL
Going to: Esta formas seguida de un infinitivo se utiliza en ingls para acciones futuras que son
premeditadas y que de un modo u otro necesitan una preparacin para llevarlas a cabo. A veces, aunque no
siempre, van acompaadas de una expresin de tiempo:
I'm going to ring my brother up. I need some soap because Im going to wash up
Peter has bought some paint because he's going to paint his bedroom.
Will: Se emplea para acciones futuras no premeditadas. Generalmente se dice que se utiliza para acciones que
no necesitan preparacin, que son expontneas:
Give your coat. I'll take it to my room.
That cake is very good; I will have some more.
La distincin no es tan clara como a simple vista parece. Algunas gramticas dan un ejemplo como el que
vamos a citar, pero no siempre que hablamos nos vamos a encontrar con casos tan claros:
Peter has sold his car. Yes, hes going to buy a new car. (La preparacin est en el hecho que Pedro ha
vendido el coche viejo previamente para comprar despus otro nuevo)
As Peter has sold his car I will buy him a new one. (No hay nada premeditado. El hecho de que Pedro haya
vendido el coche me ha hecho pensar en regalarle uno nuevo).
Will se emplea sin poder ser sustituido por la forma going to en las oraciones condicionales o en las
subordinadas temporales, yendo will en la oracin principal:
If you come with me I will do some shopping.
Tambin hay que emplear will con los verbos que no tienen forma progresiva o continua: believe,
understand, know etc. Pero excepcionalemente con estos verbos se puede emplear going to aunque no es
normal.
Usos de SHOULD y WOULD
Should: Aparte de ser auxiliar de condicional puede expresar deber (leve), consejo o recomendacin, al
igual que ought to.
We should see the doctor if you arent feeling well.
- Se suele usar en oraciones completivas con that detrs de verbos como: suggest, decide etc.:
He suggested that I should see a lawyer.
- Tambin se emplea con sentido final detrs de las conjunciones so that, in order that, in case etc.:

25

He banged the door so that someone should hear him.

- En el estilo indirecto sustituye a shall:
He asked, Shall I help you?
He asked whether he should help me.
- Se suele usar tambin detrs de ciertos adjetivos que expresan placer, sorpresa, disgusto etc.:
It is amazing that she should have laughed at you!
It is fair that your parents should hear from you.
Would: Aparte de ser tambin auxiliar de condicional, es el equivalente de will con referencia al pasado
cuando will se usa como futuro ordinario, normal:
He knows he will be late He knew he would be late.
- Se usa en lugar del verbo want cuando queremos pedir algo de forma educada:
I want to see Mr Steele I would like to see Mr Steele
- Tambin lo usamos para expresar ruego:
Would you open the window?
- Indica tambin hbito o repeticin:
She would sit there for hours waiting for her son.
- Would seguido de rather o sooner ms infinitivo sin to expresa PREFERENCIA:
I would rather walk than sit.
- Al igual que used to, sirve para describir hbitos pasados. Se utiliza especialmente en ingls escrito:
During the weekend he would see him in his flat going through the paper.
Id often go off camping at weekends when I was young.
Usos de OUGHT TO
Ought to es un verbo defectivo que rige infinitivo sin to puesto que la partcula to pertenece al verbo.
Tiene una forma nica: ought to para todas las personas. Ought to puede utilizarse como presente, pasado
y futuro y expresa:
- Obligacin, pero no por parte del hablante (como must), ni de tipo externo (como have to), sino como
un simple recuerdo o llamada a la atencin por parte del hablante; en este sentido es mucho menos
enftico que must y muy similar a la idea que expresa should:
You should not tell lies. You ought not to tell lies.
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 - Tambin se puede emplear expresando consejo, igualmente en este caso con menos nfasis que
must:
You ought to read this book.
- Ought to puede ir seguido de infinitivo de perfecto, igual que should para lamentar algo que no se
realiz:
I cant do anything for you now. You ought to have told me yesterday afternoon.
Las locuciones verbales WOULD RATHER/SOONER y HAD BETTER
Would rather o sooner: expresa preferencia entre dos cosas, por tanto se traduce por preferira esto a
aquello (entre dos acciones)
Id rather go than stay
Si es el mismo sujeto en las dos acciones:
Va seguido por infinitivo de presente sin to para acciones presentes o futuras:
Id rather study English.
Va seguido por infinitivo de perfecto sin to cuando se refiere a acciones pasadas:
Id rather have gone to the cinema yesterday
Cuando son sujetos diferentes en las acciones:
Va seguido de simple past para referirse a presente o futuro:
Id rather Tom went
Va seguido de past perfect al rferirse a acciones pasadas:
Id rather Tom have gone yesterday.
Had better significa ser/sera mejor para el sujeto que sea:
Va seguido de infinitivo de presente sin to para referirse a presente o futuro:
Id better go
Va seguido de infinitivo de perfecto sin to para referirse al pasado:
Id better have gone
Es equivalente a la estructura It would be better for me, you, him ... to ...
Nota: Estas locuciones van siempre seguidas por INFINITIVO sin TO
Uso de auxiliares en afirmativa
27

 Se pueden usar los auxiliares en afirmativas como: mandatos, invitaciones, oraciones

enunciativas para dar ms nfasis:
Come on, Arthur! Do open the door!
En ingls hablado se acenta el auxiliar, y en ingls escrito puede aparecer subrayado, en
cursiva o en negrita, para resaltarlo:
John cant come tomorrow.
-But he can (he told me so)
The Verb TO GET
= to obtain

I got some tickets for the theatre.

to receive

What time do you get the mail every day?

He got very angry when the lawyer came.

= to become
We get older every day.
The news got about that John had gone abroad.
How are you getting along?
= movement
The prisoners got away by climbing the walls.

GET INTO
GET ON
GET OFF
GET OUT
GET OVER
GET TO
GET UP
GET THROUGH

I shall be out this morning but I shall get back by 12 o'clock

The bad boy is always getting into trouble.
I always get on the bus here to get home.
Im getting on well at school.
c) Im getting on well with my parents.
I always get off the bus at the end of my journey.
The teacher told the children to get out their books.
After being ill, you must get out into the fresh air and the sunshine.
I had a grave (serious) illness but finally I got over it.
The train gets to London at 3 o'clock.
I get up at 7 o'clock every morning.
He got through his work in three hours.
He got through his examination.

Usos de verbo to GET

El uso bsico del verbo get es obtener, conseguir:
Has Mary got a job yet?
get + past participle o adjective, significa become (hacerse, llegar a ser); en este caso verbaliza al
participio o al adjetivo
ill = enfermo to get ill = enfermar
28

tired = cansado to get tired = cansarse

wet = mojado to get wet = mojarse
married = casado to get married to = casarse con
get + object + past participle: uso causativo (al igual que have + object + past participle); significa que
alguien hace algo por uno, por tanto tiene significado pasivo):
I must get my hair cut. I must have my hair cut
have got + infinitivo con to: indica obligacin lo mismo que have to:
Ive got to go now.
get to: significa llegar a un sitio (cubierto), normalmente a una estacin de tren:
What time do we get to London?
The Verb TO HAPPEN
HAPPEN to somebody or something
What has happened to John.

Where is he?

A strange thing happened to me.

Its not here.

What has happened to my pen?

It doesnt work.

What has happened to this radio?

HAPPEN to + infinitive
= I know it by chance.
I happen to know the answer.
= John was there by chance.
John happened to be here.
As it HAPPEN; Whatever HAPPENS
As it happens, I know the answer.

= By chance, I know it.

You must tell the truth whatever happens

The Verb TO FEEL LIKE
+ NOUN
= I feel that I am ...
This morning I feel like the strongest man in the world.
= I want to have ...
This morning I feel like a long way
+ -ING

= I want to walk.

This morning I feel like walking.

= Do you want to play ...?

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Do you feel like playing cards?

+ IT
= because I dont want to.
This morning Im not going to work because I dont feel like it.
+ ANYTHING
This morning I dont feel like anything.
Significados de to FEEL

=I dont want to eat or drink

anything.

Con adjetivos: estar en un estado emocional o fsico:

Arthur had felt terrible all day.
Con adjetivos cuando el sujeto es una parte del cuerpo significa dar la impresin:
His chest felt painful
Con objetos significa tocar, palpar:
Mary felt his forehead.
Feel like = want, en coloquial significa apetecer, dar la gana. Rige gerundio.
I dont feel like going to Baiona tomorrow.
Concompletivas de that significa tener una opinin, creer:
I feel that we may have made a mistake.
The Verb TO HELP
1.- HELP SOMEONE (TO) INFINITIVE:
Arthur Mrs Steele collect the dirty glasses
Sheila helped Mrs Steele (to) do the washing up.
Mr Smithers Mrs Harrison move the chairs and tables.
2.- With the meaning of remedy, AVOID:
I cannot (cant) help coughing
I cannot (cant) be helped
3.- When HELP is needed in a emergengy:
Help! Yelled the trapped children.
4.- HELP is frequently used in informal contexts:
Help your mother; help with the housework;
Help Father with the gardening; help with the washing up.
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The Verb TO NEED

+NOUN
I need a friend.

+ INFINITIVE with TO
I need to go.

I dont need friends.

I do not need to go.

Do you need friends?

The Verb TO DARE

Do you need to go?

+ PERSONAL OBJECT
I dare you to go.

+ INFINITIVE with TO
I dare to go.

+ INFINITIVE without TO
I need not (neednt) go
Need you go?

+ INFINITIVE without TO
I dare not (darent) go

He dared me to sing.

I do not dare to go.

He dared us to say anything.

The Verb TO LOOK

Do you dare to go?

Dare you go?

a) To LOOK + adjective = to seem, appear

= He seems happy.
He looks happy
= They seem sad.
They look sad
= John appears tired.
John looks tired
= He didnt appear old.
He didnt look old
To LOOK LIKE + Noun = to resemble,

to have the appearance of

The soldier looked like a boy

= He had the appearance of a boy.

He looks like a policeman

= He has the appearance of a policeman.

I look like my father

Look here!

= Look at this! Listen!

= I resemble my father.
= Mira!

Look out!

= Be careful!

= Cuidado!

He looked up

= He raised his eyes.

= levantar

He looked down

= He dropped his eyes.

= bajar

I will look in on you

= I will visit you.

= visitar

I looked away

= I looked in another direction

= desviar

Look at

Look at your book!

Look at it!

seek

Look for your book!

Look for it!

be careful

Look out for the traffic.

Look out for it!

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examine

Look into the problem!

Look into it!

Look up to

= admire

Children should look up to their

parents.

Look down on

= despise
I look down on liars.

The Verb TO SEEM

1.- SEEM TO / SEEM THAT ...
I seem to be right.
They seemed to know him.
It seems that I am right.
It seemed that they knew him
The Verb TO MIND
1.- To MIND = To LOOK AFTER:
Ill mind the baby while you are out.
Will you mind my luggage, please, for a few minutes?
2.- To MIND = To BE CAREFUL:
Mind that chair! Dont fall over it!
If it rains, mind you dont get wet!
Mind you get the tickets! Dont forget!
Mind you dont spend too much money during your holidays!
3.- To MIND = To TAKE NOTICE:
Never mind! Its not important.
Dont mind John. Hes not really angry.
4.- Do you MIND ...? / Would you MIND ...?:
Do you mind closing the window? Would you mind closing the window?
Do you mind if I close the window? Would you mind if I close the window?
Usos de MUCH, MANY, LITTLE y FEW
Para expresar en ingls poca cantidad empleamos LILTTLE y FEW.
FEW se emplea con los nombres contables y significa pocas cosas.
LITTLE va con nombres incontables y significa poco/poca.

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Tanto LITTLE como FEW tienen valor negativo y niegan la existencia de una cantidad. En lengua hablabda
no es muy frecuente el uso de little y few a menos que vayan precedidos de too, extremely, very etc. Es
ms frecuente el uso de NOT MANY, HARDLY EVER o NOT MUCH con el verbo en forma afirmativa
o emplear MUCH o MANY con el verbo en forma negativa:
As en vez de decir: He said little about his illness,
en conversacin se prefiere:
He didnt say much about his illness o He said hardly anything about his illness.
Cuando FEW y LITTLE van precedidos de artculo indeterminado a, entnces tienen valor afirmativo,
con el significado de unos cuantos (a few) o una pequea cantidad (a little).
Dont worry if you havent any money. I have a few pounds here.
He was very thirsty but he has drunk a little water and he feels better now.
Para expresar mucha cantidad empleamos en ingls MUCH y MANY. Tanto much como many son
adeverbios de cantidad.
MUCH se emplea con los nombres incontables con el significado de gran cantidad:
He hasnt drunk much this morning.
Pero su uso debe quedar restringido a las oraciones negativas e interrogativas a menos que sea el sujeto de la
oracin o que califique al sujeto:
Much has been said about him but nobody believes it.
Much money has been spent in that building.
Excepto en ejemplos como los que hemos dado, a veces incluso en casos as, much se sustituye por a lot, a
lot of, plenty of, a great deal of, lots of etc. en las oraciones afirmativas:
He always eats a lot of bread for breakfast.
There is a great deal of noise in this room.
MANY con el mismo significado que MUCH, se emplea con los nombres contables en plural:
There were many people outside the church.
Have you seen many films this summer?
MANY se usa indistintamente en oraciones afirmativas, negativas e interrogativas aunque a veces se emplea
en afirmativas expresiones como VERY MANY. La nica excepcin en el empleo de MANY es cuando se
utiliza con un nombre en singular precedido del artculo a:
Many a person has died because of that (=many people).
Colocacin de BOTH y ALL
33

Cuando son sujeto de la oracin en una frase larga pueden ir delante del sustantivo al que acompaan:
Both

live far from here

(of) the children

All
are English
Tambin pueden ir detrs del sustantivo:
both
The boys (they)

love chocolate

All
Si un verbo normal como el del ejemplo, van colocados antes de l. Si el verbo es auxiliar va detrs de
l:
both
The girls are

our friends

all
Cuando son sujetos de una oracin, pero sta es corta, o cuando se trate de respuestas breves, si hay verbo
auxiliar tenemos dos posibiliadades:
Que vayan entre el pronombre y el auxiliar.
Que vayan delante del auxiliar emplendolos con la preposicin of o sustituyendo la forma del sujeto del
pronombre por la de complemento, como exige la preposicin:
(a)
both
They

can
all

(b)
Both
of them can
All
Si en estas respuestas breves prescindimos del verbo, la construccin que empleamos es la b)
Both of them
Who can go?
All of them
Cuando acompaa al sustantivo que hace oficio de complemento, en oraciones largas, podemos emplearlos
inmediatamente detrs del verbo utilizando la preposicin of y la forma del complemento del pronombre.
Tambin hay posibilidad de posponerlos a la forma de complemento del pronombre prescindiendo de la
preposicin of:
(a)
both
The girls ate

the sandwiches
all
34

(b)
both
They didnt eat

the sandwiches
all

(c)
both
They wanted

them
all

(d)
both
They wanted them
all
Si van con el complemento pero en las respuestas cortas o en frases tambin cortas, se usan seguidas de of
y el pronombre complemento:
Both
of us
All
Usos de EITHER ... OR // NEITHER ...NOR
Las oraciones coordinadas disyuntivas se construyen en ingls con la conjuncin OR si son afirmativas y
con NOR si son negativas:
Will you come or will you stay?
I dont know, nor can I guess.
Cuando queremos darle ms fuerza a la oracin que ofrece la alternativa, en vez de emplear slo OR
utilizamos EITHER ... OR...:
You must either stay or go with me.
He can either keep it or give it to his sister.
Si la oracin es nagativa, esta disyuntiva se expresa con NEITHER ... NOR... y el verbo en forma
afirmativa, o con EITHER ... OR ... y el verbo en forma negativa. Se puede emplear cualquiera de las dos
construcciones, aunque quizs la de uso ms extendido es la primera:
Neither my brother nor my sister found the money you had lost.
They are neither German nor Russian.
They arent either German or Russian.
Por regla general en estas construcciones hay concordancia entre el verbo y el sujeto que est prximo a
l, aunque a veces suene extrao:

35

Either Mary or you are wrong.

Neither Peter nor I am feeling well.
Normalmente y para evitar sto se emplea la construccin similar a la de Addition to Remarks:
Either Mary is wrong or you are.
Peter is not feeling well, neither am I.
Comparacin del ADJETIVO y del ADVERBIO
Los Adjetivos Calificativos tienen tres grados. POSITIVO, COMPARATIVO, SUPERLATIVO
bright ---------------- brighter --------------------- brightest
intelligent----------- more intelligent --------- most intelligent
La Comparacin puede ser de tres tipos: IGUALDAD, SUPERIORIDAD, IFERIORIDAD:
La Comparacin de igualdad se forma con AS ... AS y el adjetivo en grado positivo:
Mary is as clever as Peter
That book is as interesting as mine.
La Comparacin de superioridad se construye con la forma del comparativo del adjetivo seguido de
THAN:
Your brother is taller than your father.
Geography is more difficult than I thought.
El Comparativo de los adjetivos se forma siguiendo las siguientes reglas:
1.- Los adjetivos de una slaba toman el sufijo -ER, doblando la consonante final en los casos en que vaya
una vocal slo entre dos consonantes:
Old ---------------- older; hard ---------------- harder; big ----------------- bigger
2.- Los adjetivos de tres o ms slabas llevan antepuesto MORE al grado positivo del adjetivo:
more helpful; more intelligent; more interesting.
3.- Los adjetivos de dos slabas siguen una de las dos reglas ya expuestas: unos toman el sufijo -ER y a
otros se le antepone MORE. Como regla general los que terminan en -y, -w, -er, -ly toman el sufijo -ER y los
que terminan en -re, o -ful se le antepone MORE:
pretty ----------------- prettier; helpful ----------------- more helpful.
El Comparativo de inferioridad se forma con LESS y el grado positivo del adjetivo, pero es ms frecuente
construirlo con NOT AS ... AS o NOT SO ... AS:
36

Your dress is less long than Marys

Your dress is not (as) so long as Marys.
El SUPERLATIVO se forma siguiendo las mismas reglas del COMPARATIVO pero con la terminacin
-EST en vez de -ER y anteponiendo MOST en vez de MORE. El uso del Superlativo en ingls as
formado corresponde al superlativo relativo espaol. Es decir, no expresa una cualidad en grado mximo
unicamente sino que lo que hace es compraralo con un grupo:
Mary is the most intelligent girl in her class.
Soria is the smallest capital in Spain.
La preposicin espaola DE despus de superlativos en ingls se traduce por IN seguido de un
sustantivo de lugar y por OF cuando no es de lugar.
Cuando se emplea el superlativo sin artculo su valor es similar al que tiene el adjetivo precedido de
VERY, TERRIBLY, TREMENDOUSLY etc.
Hay que destacar una serie de excepciones idiomticas en las que interviene el comparativo o el superlativo:
THE seguido de comparativo .... THE seguido de comparativo indica que algo aumenta o
disminuye. Su equivalente al espaol es: Cuanto mas/menos ... mas/menos:
Comparativo and comparativo. Equivale a: CADA VEZ MS:
HAD BETTER seguido de infinitivo sin TO. Significa: Ser/Sera mejor que con subjuntivo:
Hay una serie de comparativos y superlativos irregulares que no se forman siguiendo las reglas dadas y que
son los siguientes:
Positivo
Good/well

Comparativo
Better

Superlativo
Best

Bad/badly

Worse

Worst

Much/many

More

Most

Little

Less

Least

Near

Nearer

Nearest (distancia)

Far

Farther

Next (orden)

Old

Further

Farthest (para distancia

ambos)

Late

Older
Elder

Furthest (para algo

adicional)

Later

Odest

37

Latter

Eldest (persona misma

familia)
Latest
Last

Resumen:
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES:
Form: One-syllable and most two-syllable adjectives: adjs + -er/est: tall - taller, tallest
(except adjs: -ed/ing) adjs + ier/-iest: heavy - heavier, heaviest
Irregular: better/best; worse/worst; less/least; more/most; farther/farthest
Two or more syllables: more convinient/most convinient.
Intensifiers: quite/fairly/rather/very/too/extremely/increasingly (good)
a bit/a lot/much/very much/a food deal (better)/more (convinient)
Use: Comparing two: John is as tall as Mary (AS ................. AS)
John is not as/so tall as Mary (NOT AS/SO ... AS)
John is taller than Mary (-ER/-IER ... THAN)
Comparing more than two:
John is the tallest/the most intelligent student in our class.
Caractersticas de los VERBOS DEFECTIVOS
Se denominan verbos defectivos a aquellos que carecen de alguna forma vebal, es decir, todos los verbos en
ingls tienen tres formas bsicas: infinitivo, pasado, participio pasado, alrededor de las cuales se forman
todos los tiempos verbales. Pues bien los verbos que carezcan de alguna o algunas de estas formas se
denominan DEFECTIVOS:
Todos ellos carecen de infinitivo (por tanto no se le puede poner la partcula to, ni tampoco pueden
hacer el futuro ni el condicional) y participio de pasado (con lo que no pueden hacer tiempos
compuestos ni tiempos pasivos).
Van seguidos siempre de infinitivo sin to (bien sea de presente o perfecto), excepto OUGHT TO y
USED TO, puesto que este to pertenecen a estos defectivos.
Nunca llevan -s en las terceras personas de singular del presente de indicativo.
Como verbos auxiliares-defectivos hacen la interrogativa y negativa por s solos.
Si van seguidos por infinitivo de presente se refieren a acciones presentes o futuras
Si van seguidos por infinitivo de perfecto se refieren a acciones pasadas.
PRINCIPALES VERBOS AUXILIARES MODALES o DEFECTIVOS
must; can/could; may/might; will/would; shall/should; ought to; used to; need/dare (se denominan
tambin semimodales, puesto que pueden ser modales o lxicos).
38

MUST / NEED / CAN / MAY

Verbos que suplen las
deficiencias
can
could
to be able to
may
might
to be allowed/permitted
must
--to have to
Must en afirmativa implica OBLIGACION interna, es decir, impuesta por el que habla o escribe, a diferencia
de have to en donde la OBLIGACI N es externa, sta la imponen terceras personas o circunstancias.
Tambin puede implicar DEDUCCI N, dependiendo del contexto.
Presente/Futuro

Pasado/Condicional

Must en negativa (Mustnt) implica PROHIBICI N. Tambin dependiendo de contextos, puede

implicar que es erroneo o equivocado llevar a cabo ciertas acciones.
Neednt es la negativa de must como obligacin, por tanto indica ausencia de obligacin y se traduce
por no es necesario.
Cant es la negativa de must como deduccin. No se puede confundir la forma cant con cannot, esta
ltima solo puede ser tomada como negativa de can (poder).
Diferencia de CAN y MAY
Can tiene tres sigificados: May tiene dos significados:
Poder (capacidad fsica). - Poder (posibilidad).
Habilidad (saber = how to know). - Permiso.
Permiso (darlo o concederlo).
Donde se pueden confundir los significados de los dos verbos es en cuanto a permiso y la diferencia es que
may se utiliza mucho ms que can con este significado, puesto que can implica adems esa capacidad
fsica.
Ver ejemplos en los apartados de los Usos de CAN / COULD // MAY / MIGHT.
He may come = quizs
He might come = posibilidad remota
COULD = accin no terminada: He could swim across the river.
WAS ABLE = accin terminada: He was able to swim across the river.
CANT: significa DEDUCCI N en negativa (cant # cannot (negativa de can)).
MUSNT: aparte de PROHIBICI N puede tambin significar que algo es erroneo,
peligroso, o tonto el hacerlo.
SHOULD y OUGHT TO: significan debera. Should es deber de consejo. Ought to es ms
bien deber moral.
39

You should read more books.

You ought to read more books.
OBLIGACI N: must - have to - should - ought to de mayor a menor fuerza de obligacin
USED TO: slo tiene forma pasada. Significa sola. Se utiliza para costumbres en el
pasado. Siempre va seguido de Infinitivo:
I used to read
Si se quiere expresar costumbre en presente:
I usually read.
Como verbo defectivo puede hacer la interrogativa y negativo por si solo, o tambin con el auxiliar did:
I used not (usednt) to read I did not use to read
Used you to read? Did you use to read?
Sin embargo en las respuestas cortas se hace con auxiliar (Yes, I did.)
Una caracterstica propia para todos los auxiliares defectivos, independientemente de que
vayan en forma PRESENTE o PASADA:
Si van seguidos de INFINITIVO de PRESENTE se refieren a acciones presentes o futuras.
Si van seguidos de INFINITIVO de PERFECTO se refieren a acciones pasadas.
Used es adjetivo con el significado de acostumbrado cuando va precedido de verbos como to
be/become/seem/appear. Rige tambin la preposicin to, por tanto a continuacin hay que poner este
caso gerundio (la forma -ING), puesto que en ingls la regla general es que despus de preposicin hay
que poner siempre GERUNDIO:
Im used to reading
to funciona como preposicin si aparte del infinitivo espaol puede entrar un pronombre personal de
complemento o un sustantivo.
NEED + GERUNDIO (-ING)
Need seguido de GERUNDIO tiene siempre significado pasivo:
Im afraid the flat needs doing up a bit.
Esta estructura significa: IT IS/WAS NECESSARY + FOR + OBJECT + TO BE DONE.
Diferencias entre SAY/TELL/SPEAK/TALK
SAY: Normalmente no va seguido por la persona a la que uno se dirige:
40

What did you say?

TELL: Con frecuencia va seguido de la persona a la que nos dirigimos:
Construccin de infinitivo (o acusativa): He told me to get on with my work.
Tambin se utiliza con partculas interrogativas + infinitivo con to:
He told me what to do.
En frases hechas:
To tell lies / Tell me a story / Tell me the truth
SAY: Significa: expresar por medio de palabras, y TELL significa DECIR en el sentido de contar,
relatar, narrar.
SPEAK: tiene cuatro significados:
Con idiomas:
Do you speak English?
Con objeto: tiene el sentido de dar una conferencia, echar un discurso:
Today Im going to speak about Shakespeare.
En el telfono: cuando se descuelga:
This is Vigo 430387. Whos speaking?
Con el significado de decir algo rige las preposiciones to (con) y about (de):
She was so angry with me that she didnt speak to me all day.
TALK: Tiene dos significados:
Charlar, conversar. Rige las preposiciones to y about:
What were they talking about?
Alborotar (make a noise with words):
Stop talking and get on with your work!
Diferencias entre SEEM y LOOK
Ambos significan parecer. Y la diferencia est en que cuando van seguidos de adjetivo, se usa LOOK
cuando queremos resaltar la apariencia fsica de algo o alguien. Mientras que si despus va un infinitivo
hay que usar siempre SEEM.
LOOK tiene, sin embargo, otros significados, dependiendo de la preposicin que le acompae: look at
(mirar a); look for (buscar); look up (buscar algo en el lugar apropiado); look out! (cuidado!); look forward
41

to (esperar allgo con ilusin, ansiar); look on to (admirar a alguien); look down on (despreciar); look like
(parecerse a).
THINK / SUPPOSE / HOPE
I think so - creo que si I dont think so - creo que no
I suppose so - supongo que si I suppose not - supongo que no
I hope so - espero que si I hope not - espero que no
Im afraid so - me temo que si Im afraid not - me temo que no
no se puede negar nunca LA COMPLETIVA DE THINK !!!
Significados de la palabra LEFT
Right // Left.
To Leave Left Left = dejar, partir, marchar, irse.
Sobrante, que queda de sobra left-overs = sobras (de la comida).
Diferencia entre BEEN TO y GONE TO
Ella ha ido al banco: - She has gone to the bank.
- She has been to the bank.
BEEN TO = ir, implicando estar de vuelta, que ya ha vuelto.
Have you ever been to England?
GONE TO = que ests all, implica solo ida.
Expressing WISHES and REGRETS
Si nos referimos a presente o futuro. Se hace con wish + simple past:
I wish he had a bit more more money ...
Do you wish you could speak Portuguese?
Con el verbo to be, se utiliza were para todas las personas (subjuntivo)
I wish the kitchen were a bit longer.
Estos deseos som imposibles. Wish suele traducirse por: Ojal.
Si nos referimos al pasado. Se hace con wish + past perfect:
I wish I had seen you yesterday.
I wish you had married me instead of him.
42

I WISH and IF ONLY

Se utiliza wish y if only + simple past or could cuando queremos que algo cambie en el presente:
I wish I could sing ( I can't sing)
If only I wasn't ill (I am ill)
Se utiliza wish y would para quejarse de alguna situacin o circunstancia:
I wish he would stop smoking!
I wish they would be quiet!
Se utiliza wish o if only + past perfect o could + infinitivo de perfecto cuando queremos cambiar una
situacion pasada:
Matt wishes he had apologized (he didn't apologise)
If only I had told the truth (I didn't tell the truth)
Its (ABOUT) TIME + Simple Past
Va seguido siempre de pasado simple con significado de presente o futuro:
Its (about) time we found a flat.
Its time he was here. He is late.
Its NO GOOD + -ING
Its no good / It isnt any good siempre va seguido de gerundio (-ing) con significado de there is no
advantage:
Its no good looking up hundreds of flats.
GERUNDIO
Como forma no personal del verbo tiene todas las funciones del sustantivo:
Como sujeto de la oracin:
Living in London is expensive.
La misma funcin tambin la tiene el infinitivo con to y la diferencia que hay en poner de sujeto
un gerundio o un infinitivo est en que con el gerundio se ha experimentado la accin, mientras
que con el infinitivo no necesariamente:
To live in London is expensive.
La estructura de gerundio como sujeto equivale a: ITS + ADJETIVO + TO-INFINITIVE:

43

It is expensive to live in London.

Despus de los siguientes verbos hay que utiizar gerundio:
admit anticipate avoid consider delay deny
detest enjoy excuse* finish forgive* imagine
involve keep mind miss postpone resist
rest stop help (en cant help) stand (en cant stand)
A los verbos que llevan asterisco se le suele poner un adjetivo posesivo antes del gerundio.
Arthur didnt enjoy cleaning the flat.
My husband detests doing his own cooking.
Se pone gerundio despus de ciertos phrasal verbs, principalmente en aquellos phrasal que van
seguidos de dos partculas, dnde la segunda partcula siempre es preposicin: carry on, give up,
keep on, leave off, put off, do away with, put up with...
Many firms are giving up employing their own typists
La regla en ingls es que despus de preposicin hay que poner siempre gerundio; por tanto hay que
poner gerundio despues de los verbos que rigen preposicin, dentro de esos verbos, los ms utilizados
son: accuse someone of, approve of, to be fond of, to be good/bad at, to be used to, to feel like, to insist
on, to look forward to, to succeed in, to think of/about, what about ...?
She left without saying anything.
Tambin hay que poner gerundio despus de los adjetivos posesivos:
Mary insisted on Arthurs helping / on his helping.
En ingls hablado o en ingls informal se puede cambiar este posesivo por un nombre o pronombre
personal de complemento:
Mary insisted on Arthur helping
Will you excuse my leaving early? // Will you excuse me leaving early?
Puede hacerse tambin con la estructura de condicional, evitando as el posesivo:
Will you excuse me if I leave early?
Participio de presente
El uso bsico del participo de presente es para la formacin de tiempos continuos. Se forma al igual que el
gerundio aadindole -ing al infinitivo.
Usos:
44

 Con los vebos de percepcin (de los sentidos): see, hear, smell, watch, notice.
En la estructura impersonal there is/are.
Para aadir algo nuevo a una oracin.
Come adjetivo activo.
Va siempre despus de los verbos come y go, si es un verbo de actividad fsica
Im going to swimming this afternoon.
Despus del verbo keep.
Im sorry to keep you waiting.
Despus de los verbos: spend y waste.
Se puede utilizar en vez de oraciones causales, reemplazando a las conjunciones: because, since, as
I went to the station expecting to meet you but you didnt arrive as I thought at first.
Participio de pasado
Su uso principal es para la formacin de los tiempos compuestos (con have) y los tiempos pasivos (con to
be) de los verbos.
Como participio pasivo o pasado para aadir algo nuevo a una oracin:
There were a lot of bottles thrown into the river.
Cars parked on double yellow lines will be taken away.
Como adjetivo pasivo:
He tried to sell me a stolen watch.
PARTICIPIOS en vez de ORACIONES SUBORDINADAS
a) en vez de ORACIONES DE RELATIVO (Present and Past Participles).
b) en vez de ORACIONES TEMPORALES DE PRESENTE (Present Participle).
c) en vez de ORACIONES TEMPORALES DE PASADO (Perfect Participle).
d) en vez de ORACIONES CAUSALES (Present and Perfect Participles).
a) en vez de oraciones de relativo (Present and Past Participles):
He stays in a cottage in Wales belonging to his aunt.
The cottage was in a village called Penol.
There were heavy winds blowing across the motorway.
Leave a note out telling him what you want.

45

Tanto el Participio de Presente como el Participio de Pasado se pueden usar en lugar de oraciones de relativo.
b) en vez de oraciones temporales de presente (Present Participle):
While walking down Earls Court Road, he happened to bump into as fellow student.
When thinking about Wales, one remembers that the Welsh are renowned for their singing.
He drove down the road thinking about his problems.
Aqu el Participio, con o sin while o when reemplaza a una oracin temporal de presente para
mostrar que las dos acciones estan teniendo lugar simultaneamente.
c) en vez de oraciones temporales de pasado (Perfect Participle):
Having made a reasonable amount of maney, Arthur didn't need to do any more work.
Having got to Camarthen, he took a wrong turning.
El Participio de Prefecto se puede usar -generalmente en ingls escrito- como alternativa de oraciones
subordinadas introducidas por "when", "after", "as soon as" etc.
d) en vez de oraciones causales (Present and Perfect Participles):
Consisting of mountains, castles and seaside resorts, North Wales is the best known to tourists.
Not knowing what to do, she decided to do nothing.
Having lost his job, he is now unemployed.
En estas oraciones los Participios se usan como alternativas para oraciones subordinadas introducidas
por as, because or since.
Falsos Participios
Se les llama as porque se les aade -ED a un sustantivo. Es la combinacin de un adjetivo por medio de
guin con un sustantivo en -ED. Se pueden hacer falsos participios con todos los sustantivos:
We have a house with four bedrooms We have a four-bedroomed house.
Verbos que no se pueden poner en tiempos continuos
La siguientes verbos no se pueden poner en tiempos continuos, aunque algunos de ellos se pueden encontrar
en tiempos continuos pero con otro significado:
to see* to like to trust to appear (seem) to hear
to think* to be* to smell to keep (continue) to wish
to believe to seem to notice to care to expect*
to belong to contain to realize to recognize to remember
46

to forget to refuse to forgive to understand to matter

to know to mind to mean to suppose to concern
to want to possess to love to hate to consist
to own to dislike to have* to feel (think)
Hay 5 verbos que si se pueden poner en tiempos continuos:
El verbo to see: cuando tiene el significado de visitar (visit, meet):
Tomorrow Im seeing to my doctor
I shall be seeing John tonight if you want me to give him the message.
To think: se puede utilizar en continuo cuando no se da ni se pide opinin:
What are you thinking about?
To be: se puede emplear en continuo cuando es auxiliar de tiempos continuos pasivos de los demas
verbos:
Many buildings are being built in this street.
Tambin cuando tiene el significado de comportarse (to behave):
You are being very silly!!!
To expect: se puede utilizar en continuo cuando es sinnimo de wait for (esperar fisicamente,
mientras que expect no implica esperar fsico):
Im expecting a telephone call from Ireland.
Im expecting a letter tomorrow.
To have: se puede poner en continuo si es sinnimo de comer, recibir, tomar ... es decir, cuando le
acompaan palabras que son su complemento directo:
Dont disturb, hes having a rest.
They were having lunch when I arrived.
Verbos seguidos por INFINITIVO sin TO
Los verbos seguidos por infinitivo sin to son los verbos de los sentidos (percepcin), los verbos to make
(que toma infinitivo con to cuando se conjuga en pasiva) y to let, el verbo to help (que puede ir seguido de
infinitivo con o sin to) y las locuciones verbales would rather/sooner y had better (que van casi siempre
contraidas con el pronombre personal sujeto: Id rather/sooner, Id better).
Verbos seguidos por INFINITIVO con TO

47

To agree to expect to learn to refuse

to appear to fail to manage to regret
to arrange to forget to neglet to seem
to ask to help to prepare to swear
to care to hesitate to pretend to tend
to decide to hope to promise to want
Arthur managed to find a seat.
Tambin se puede poner construccin negativa (not + to-infinitive) con algunos de estos verbos:
to agree to decide to manage to seem
to appear to hope to pretend to swear
to ask to learn to promise to tend
Arthur decided not to wait.
Verbos seguidos de Objeto + INFINITIVO con TO
Es la construccin acusativa o de infinitivo, en dnde el objeto del verbo principal es a su vez sujeto de
infinitivo (es la estructura procedente del infinitivo no concertado latino, donde el sujeto del infinitivo va en
caso acusativo):
Esta estructura en ingls se da con verbos de voluntad, mandato, consejo etc... en oraciones compuestas
sustantivas en funcin de Complemento Directo (donde nunca se puede hacer con completivas de
THAT (that-clause))
to advice to order to allow to permit
to ask to prefer to expect to teach
to forbide to tell to help to warn
to invite to want
He told him to come back the next day.
Do you want me to help you?
Verbos seguidos por HOW TO + TO-INFINITIVE
Los verbos son: ask, discover, explain, find out, forget, remember, tell, understand, wonder:
Another student explained to Arthur how to register.

48

Adjetivos seguidos de INFINITIVO con TO

able happy afraid likely
angry sad delighted sorry
disgusted suppose disappointed surprised
glad unable
The principal was delighted to see so many students.
Tambin la estructura IT IS/WAS + Adjective + TO-INFINITIVE se usa con los siguientes
adjetivos: difficult, easy, hard, impossible, possible:
It is difficult to light a pipe when you are driving a car.
Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO sin cambio de significado
to begin to bother (fastidiar) cant bear to continue
to love to hate to like to prefer
to start
It started snowing/to snow while we were on the train.
Los verbos: to like, to love, to hate y to prefer tienen que ir slo seguidos por INFINITIVO con
TO cuando van conjugados en condicional
Would you like to come to the cinema tonight or would you prefer to go to a solitary place?
Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO o GERUNDIO con cambio de significado
to remember to forget to try to stop
to regret to mean to allow/permit
To REMEMBER:
Va seguido de gerundio cuando significa recordar algo que ya se ha hecho, es decir, cuando nos
referimos al pasado:
I remember seeing the Queen when I was 10 years old.
Va seguido de infinitivo cuando significa acordarse de que uno tiene que hacer algo, es decir,
cuando nos referimos al futuro:
I must remember to go to the bank tomorrow.
Este verbo puede ir seguido de un completiva de that (that-clause), cuando los sujetos de cada
parte de la oracin son diferentes:
49

She remembered that Arthur had forgotten to take his overcoat.

To FORGET:
Tiene el mismo cambio de significado que remember. Sin embargo, cuando va seguido de gerundio
puede colocarse la preposicin about:
Surely, you havent forgotten (about) meeting her already.
I forgot that you asked me to go to the bank.
To TRY:
Seguido por gerundio significa experimentar, probar o hacer algo para ver que efecto tiene:
He tried taking a couple of aspirins, but they didnt have any effect.
Con infinitivo significa intentar:
He tried to do this exercise.
To STOP:
Seguido de gerundio significa dejar de, parar de hacer algo (not continue)
Will you please stop making that noise?
Seguido de infinitivo significa parar de hacer lo que est en curso para hacer otra cosa
When we got to the top of the hill we stopped to look at the view.
To REGRET: Significa lamentarse en general
Con gerundio toma el significado de sentir que uno ha hecho algo
I dont regret leaving my last job at all.
Con infinitivo significa sentir que uno tenga que hacer algo
Dr Newton regrets to say that that he cannot answer readers questions.
Sin embargo, este verbo a menudo va seguido de la completiva de that (that-clause) con ambos
significados:
I dont regret that I left my last job at all.
To MEAN:
Con gerundio significa involve (tener que ver con), usado slo impersonalmente:
Having a bad-chest means going without cigarettes.

50

 Con infinitivo significa intentar:

To ALLOW / To PERMIT: Van seguidos de gerundio cuando la persona o personas no son mencionadas.
Por otra parte si se menciona la persona o personas, entnces tienen que ir seguidos de infinitvo:
Dont allow smoking in class!
I dont allow my students to smoke in the classroom.
Verbos seguidos de OBJETO + INFINITIVO sin TO o PARTICIPIO DE PRESENTE
Todos los verbos de sensacin: see, hear, feel, smell ... y los verbos listen to y watch pueden ir seguidos de
OBJETO + INFINITIVO o PARTICIPIO DE PRESENTE (-ING):
I have ever seen so many people all waiting to be served.
I have already heard him tell some of those stories on TV.
Hay una diferencia entre emplear infinitivo o participio de presente, especialmente si la accin es corta. Sin
embargo, el uso del infinitivo indica que la accin est finalizada:
I heard the Beatles play Yesterday on the radio. (escuch toda la cancin)
I heard the Beatles playing Yesterday on the radio. (puede que no escuchara la cancin entera)
Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVOS PASIVOS
En la lista de verbos mencionada hay ciertos verbos que van seguidos de infinitivos pasivos
Some policiemen themselves would prefer to be armed.
VERBO + OBJETO + INFINITIVO PASIVO con TO
They wanted the car to be returned on Monday morning.
c) ADJETIVO + INFINITIVO PASIVO con TO
I was surprised not to be invited to the party.
Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO CONTINUO
Acenta o enfatiza el aspect continuo de la actividad, es decir, lo que sucede en el momento de
hablar: appear, expect, hope, pretend, regret, seem, be supposed to:
Some students appeared to be taking notes.
Verbos seguidos de INFINITIVO de PERFECTO
Se utiliza para referirse a algo que ya ha sucedido o se supone que habr sucedido, y se utiliza con
los veerbos: appear, expect, fail, hope, pretend, promise, seem, be supposed to:
Galileo is supposed to have invented the telescope.
51

INFINITIVO de PROP SITO o FINALIDAD

Indica la finalidad o propsito de la accin (Vease oraciones finales):
The students were waiting to hear what the Principal had to say.
TO BE + INFINITIVO con TO
Sirve para describir planes o acciones futuras. Va seguido de infinitivo de presente. Con esta misma
funcin puede emplearse el presente contnuo o futuro contnuo. Pero cuando los planes o
acciones son pasadas no hay posible alternativa:
In the second week of the term they were to visit a car-factory in Vigo
Tambin puede describir planes que han fracasado o no se han llevado a cabo. En este caso el verbo
to be va seguido de infinitivo de perfecto:
The new car model was to have been out last month, but there was a strike.
Obligacin: particularmente cuando el hablante est repitiendo rdenes dichas por terceras
personas:
You are to be back at the bus at 2 oclock.
PREPOSITIONAL VERBS y PHRASAL VERBS
Se entiende por preposional verb, la combinacin de un verbo con una preposicin. Son todos
transitivos, puesto que despus de una preposicin siempre tiene que haber algun elemento sea
sustantivo, gerundio, pronombre o frase preposicional.
Un phrasal verb es la combinacin de un verbo con un adverbio, la mayor parte de las veces no tiene
nada que ver con el significado original del verbo. A su vez pueden ser transitivos o intransitivos.
TAKE OFF (tr.) something = to remove
(tr.) someone = to imitate
He took off his hat.
TAKE OFF (intr.) = to leave the ground
The plane took off at 12.30 p.m.
En cuanto a la posicin del complemento directo en los phrasal, hay que tener en cuenta tres
aspectos:
Si el C.D. es corto, es decir, compuesto de una o dos palabras, puede ir antes o despus del adverbio:
He took off his hat.
He took his hat off.

52

 Si el C.D. es largo, es decir, compuesto por varios elementos, hay que colocarlo inmediatamente despus
del adverbio para que el phrasal no pierda as su significado.
He took off his hat which was too large.
Si el C.D. es un pronombre personal de complemento, hay que colocarlo entre el verbo y el adverbio, de lo
contrario sera falta gramatical:
He took it off.
una excepcin: en cuanto al phrasal get over, donde hay diferencia en cuanto a significado:
He got over it (recuperarse, recobrarse de una enfermedad ...recover)
He got it over (deshacerse, desembarzarse de .... get rid of)
Si se trata de prepositional vebrs, el complemento tiene que ir colocado siempre despus de la
preposicin:
Arthur and Mary talked to their old friends (they talked to them).
La Puntuacin
1) Exclamation mark (!): Se utiliza despus de mandatos, exclamaciones e interjecciones:
Go away! What a beautiful day! Hell!
2) Semi-colon (; ): Se utiliza para unir oraciones de igual importancia, yustapuestas:
This is s very good car; in fact it is the best.
Colon (: ): Se utiliza para introducir una lista, o tambin para unir oraciones cuando la segunda es
consecuencia o explicacin de la primera:
Let me give you some advice: dont trust him!
Learn the following: the present, the past, the future and .....
Inverted commas or quotation marks ( ): Se utilizan en el estilo directo o tambin para resaltar o
destacar en un artculo algo, o para acotaciones:
I dont know, said Mary, why did you tell it to me?
The advertisement was put in the paper by a large expanding company
Comma ( , ):
Se utiliza delante o despus del nombre de la persona a la que uno se dirige:
Come on, Arthur! Mary, are you in?
Delante de la tail questions o question-tags:

53

You arent happy, are you?

Despus de Yes o No en las respuestas cortas y despus de expresiones de introduccin.
Yes, I did. No, I didnt. Well, never mind!
Delante o despus de palabras o expresiones entre parntesis y nombres en aposicin:
Arthurs tutor, Mr Traddford, gave him his timetable.
Despus de cada palabra o expresin en una lista de ms de dos, pero no delante de la palabra and
(aunque en ingls americano se ponga):
The Registrar, the Librarian and the Lodging Officer said a few words.
f) Antes y despus de la oraciones de relativo explicativas:
The Open University, which is open to all, is a unique institution.
Despus de la oraciones subordinadas cuando van delante de la oracin principal:
When I was a boy, I used to drink milk.
En el estilo directo para separar la oracin del verbo introductor de la oracin de estilo directo (la que va
entre comillas) y tambin para separar palabras en acotaciones del resto de la oracin:
All you need, he said, is love
POSICI N DE ADVERBIOS y FRASES ADVERBIALES EN LAS ORACIONES. Adverbios de modo: Contestan a la pregunta con HOW? y se colocan despus del C.D. si lo hay, si no,
despus del verbo:
The first term seemed to go by very quickly.
The rest of the day was spent in a very relaxed way.
Los adverbios de modo se forman normalmente aadindole al adjetivo la terminacin -LY: quick -->
quickly; sta misma terminacin si se le aade a un sustantivo da su correspondiente adjetivo: friend
--> friendly.
En los casos en que las palabras terminadas en -LY sean adjetivos, como en el ltimo caso, para formar en
espaol su correspondiente adverbio de modo se recurre a la estructura: in + adjetivo + way: in a friendly
way.
Adverbios de lugar: Contestan a la pregunta con WHERE?, siguen al C.D., y si no lo hay, al verbo:
Mary did all the Christmas shopping in Oxford Street.
Adverbios de tiempo: Contestan a la pregunta con WHEN? o HOW LONG? normalmente se colocan al
final de la frase, pero a veces pueden aparecer al principio:

54

It continued snowing for the rest of the day.

Adverbios de frecuencia: Contestan a la pregunta con HOW OFTEN?, tienen tres colocaciones:
- Despus de los tiempos simples del verbo to be:
Arthur was often late to work.
- Antes de los tiempos simples de los dems verbos:
Jennifer always preferred to play with Arthurs trains.
- Dnde haya uno o ms auxiliares se coloca despus del primero:
I have never heard such awful music.
Adverbios de grado: Son los que modifican a un adjetivo o a otro adverbio y se colocan delante de las
palabras a las que modifican:
The weather was usually cold.
Algunos de estos adverbios de grado modifican a verbos, entnces se ponen delante del verbo principal o
despus del primer auxiliar:
He almost had an accident in his car.
El adverbio YET: Normalmente se coloca al final de frase, pero puede aparecer, sobre todo en ingls
escrito, despus de un auxiliar. Con el verbo en negativa significa: todava; y con el verbo en
interrogativa significa: ya. Como no puede ir con el verbo en afirmativa, hay que poner already con el
significado de ya; y still con el significado de todava. Tanto already como still tienen la misma
colocacin que los adverbios de frecuencia en la frase (Repasar las partculas any more/any longer o
no more/no longer):
Jennifer had not arrived home yet o Jennifer had not yet arrived home.
Jennifer had already arrived home.
Churches are still well attended.
Otras caractersticas: Si hay dos o ms adverbios en una oracin la colocacin sera
MODO-LUGAR-TIEMPO. Pero si se trata de VERBOS DE MOVIMIENTO, la colocacin sera
LUGAR-MODO-TIEMPO:
Arthur and Mary went to Applefield by train at Christmas.
La Partcula AS
Como CONJUNCI N:
CAUSAL (=because, since)
Arthur did not go as he does not like to be pushed.
55

She put the puddings on the stove as they take a long time to cook.
TEMPORAL (=when, while)
I got to the station just as the train was leaving.
Como PREPOSICI N: La diferencia entre as y like es que as tiene el significado de igualdad, es decir,
que lo es realmente, mientras que like indica comparacin, es decir, que no lo es:
He spoke as a lawyer (Habl como un abogado (es abogado))
He spoke like a lawyer (Habl como un abogado (pero no es abogado))
He works as a slave.
he works like a slave.
QUITE/RATHER/SUCH + A/AN + NOMBRE SINGULAR CONTABLE.La forma ms dbil de expresar gradacin es quite a/an y la forma ms fuerte es
such a/an:
It was quite a good play, i suppose (not bad, but not really good either).
Arthur sat down to breakfast with rather a long face.
PREPOSICIONES FINALES
Estas preposiciones se ponen al final de la frase cuando se trata de preguntas directas o indirectas, y en las
oraciones de relativo (especificativas) cuando el verbo que lleva en las frases rige preposicin:
Who are we waiting for?
I wonder what she is thinking about.
The play our teacher spoke about was rather amusing.
ANY + COMPARATIVOS
Despus de verbos negativos y la preposicin WITHOUT se emplea ANY delante de adjetivos y
adverbios en grado comparativo:
Arthur didnt need to do any more work.
Can you push any harder?
Without any further delay Arthur phoned David.
WH-WORDS + TO-INFINITIVE
Se emplean para hacer preguntas indirectas para pedir consejo o informacin de algo:
56

Arthur had no idea what to do with his artichoke.

If you dont know where to look, start with the book-case.
Tanto which como what pueden funcionar tambin como adjetivos interrogativos, es decir, pueden
preceder a un sustantivo:
Can you tell me which bus to take?
Your teacher will advise you what books to read.
LAS PARTICULAS: TOO e ENOUGH
Too siginifica demasiado cuando va con adjetivos y adverbios y significa tambin cuando va al final
de frase despus de coma. Se coloca delante de los adjetivos y adverbios pero cuando hay sustantivos hay
que intercalar las partculas much o many entre too y el sustantivo. Los adjetivos y adverbios siempre
tienen matiz negativo y para resaltar este matiz se suele hacer con la estructura for + pronombre personal
de complemento + infinitivo con to:
This window is too dirty for me to see through.
Enough significa bastante, suficiente. Se coloca despus de adjetivos y adverbios, pero delante de los
sustantivos (good enough, enough money). Va siempre, al contrario que too, con palabras que tienen matiz
positivo; y para resaltar este matiz tambin se hace con la estructura for + pronombre personal de
complemento + infinitivo con to:
This window isnt clean enough for me to see through.
Estructuras cuando queremos decir lo mismo:
This window was so dirty that we couldt see through it
This window was too dirty for us to see through.
This window wasnt clean enough to see through.
SO/SUCH ... THAT
Las partculas so/such ... that se utilizan para hacer oraciones con el significado de tan/tanto .... que. SO
se emplea con adjetivos (donde se incluyen much,many,little y few + sustantivos) y advebios. Por otra parte
SUCH se emplea con sustantivos (se pondr SUCH A/AN si el sustantivo es contable singular y SUCH
solamente si el sustantivo es incontable o plural):
It was so cold that the river froze.
There were so many people that we couldt see.
He is such a fool that he doesnt understand anything.
It was such a hot day that I took off my shirt.
ALTHOUGH / THOUGH
57

Though es la forma apocopada (corta) de Although. Son conjunciones concesivas y significan aunque, sin
embargo. La diferencia entre ellas est en la colocacin en la frase:
Tanto Although como Though pueden ponerse ambas al principio de frase:
Although/Though they were poor they were happy.
Though puede ponerse al final de la frase despus de coma. Although puede ponerse tambin en
medio de la frase:
They were happy. They were poor, though
They were happy although they were poor.
CONSTRUCCI N ACUSATIVA o INFINITIVA INGLESA
Se da esta estructura en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en funcin de Complemento Directo que
dependa de verbos de voluntad, mandato, consejo, deseo, en donde el C.D. del verbo principal es a su vez
sujeto del infinitivo y este infinitivo se traduce al espaol por subjuntivo que le sigue (es igual al infinitivo
no concertado latino):
Quiero que l venga = I want him to come
Si el verbo principal no es de voluntad, se hace con that + indicativo o con gerundio precedido de adjetivo
posesivo:
No creo que ella haya dicho eso = I dont believe that she has said that
I dont believe her having said that.
EXLAMACIONES
Normalmente en ingls se hacen las exclamaciones de dos maneras:
What + a/an + sustantivo contable singular
What + sustantivo (plural o incontable)
What a beautiful day!
What beautiful days!
What weather!
How + adjetivo o adverbio + pronombre sujeto + verbo:
How beautiful she is!
How beautifully she dances!
PRONOMBRES, ADJETIVOS y ADVERBIOS INTERROGATIVOS con EVER

58

 Se usa ever para enfatizar el pronombre, adjetivo o adverbio, expresando sorpresa. Con todos,
ever se une directamente excepto con WHY, con el que se pone por separado:
Whatever are you doing now?
Why ever can they get back on time?
Ever es sinnimo de any o every, y se traduce por cualquiera que, quienquiera que, lo que
quiera que etc... y se utiliza para traducir el subjuntivo en ingls, llamndose sto
traduccin por reduplicacin:
Whatever = anything that, everything that.
Whoever = anyone that, everyone that.
Se utilizan estas partculas para introducir oraciones nominales, bien como sujeto o como
complemento directo del verbo principal:
Whoever is tired of London is tired of life.
Ill do whatever you want.
Puede ser sinnimo de NO MATTER, e introducir oraciones adverbiales, equivalente a la
estructura: It doesnt matter what-/who-/which-/where-/when-/how...:
Whatever else he did, he had better get a vacation job.
Wherever you go there is always someone we have to wait for.
However busy you are Im sure you have time for a cup of tea.
IN CASE / UNLESS
IN CASE se utiliza para evitar cosas que no se desean como sinnimo de providing eventualities. Se
utiliza para resguardarse contra algo que est sucediendo o para evitar que suceda, y se traduce por si acaso.
Suele ir con tiempos o locuciones verbales que indican tiempo presente (normalmente subjuntivo):
Paddy brought his overalls in case Arthur needed any help.
Take your umbrella in case it rains
UNLESS es una conjuncin condicional negativa que significa IF NOT (= a menos que) y se emplea para
hacer amenazas o dar avisos:
Most people employed a professional painter, unless they were very hard up.
PRONOMBRES REFLEXIVOS
Se forman para primeras y segundas personas con el adjetivo posesivo aadiendole -self (singular) o -selves
(plural); y para las terceras con el pronombre personal de complemento ms -self o selves: myself, yourself,
himself, herself, itself, (singular) ourselves, yourselves, themselves (plural):

59

Usos:
Como objeto de un verbo cuando el sujeto y el objeto del verbo son la misma persona. Sirve para convertir
todos los verbos en verbos reflexivos:
I cut myself yesterday when I was having a shave.
Did you hurt yourself when you fell doown?
Se utilizan despus de preposiciones cuando el sujeto del verbo y el objeto de la preposicin es la
misma persona:
What did you say? Nothing, I was talking to myself.
Mary looked at herself in the mirror.
Se usan tambin para enfatizar nombres y pronombres, por tanto se coloca despus del
nombre o pronombre al que dan nfasis. En ingls hablado suelen ir al final de frase:
I dont soeak Spanish myself. Do you?
Arthur himself cooked the dinner.
HACER COMPARACIONES
AS ... AS // NOT SO ... AS:
Con as ... as se pueden compara cosas, personas o acciones. Se usa tanto con adjetivos con con adverbios.
Cuando la comparacin es negativa se puede cambiar por not so ... as, aunque en ingls hablado se
prefiere utilizar la primera frmula:
The living-room was almost as bad as the kitchen.
Painting is not so difficult as papering.
Jumbo Jets dont fly as fast as Concordes.
AS con MUCH/MANY se utiliza tanto con nombres como con pronombres:
Nombre: As much money; As many people; As many of the questions.
Pronombres: As much of it; As many of them (the questions)
You have got aas much of it (pintura) on the floor as you have on the wall.
He earns as much money as his two brothers put together.
AS ... AS + CLAUSE:
El segundo as va seguido de una oracin subordinada. Generalmente se emplea con adverbios, aunque puede
emplearse tambin con adjetivos:
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He writes Russian as well as he speaks it.

As fast I put it in, it falls out again.
She is as tall as she is thin.
AS ... AS en smiles:
Los smiles son frases hechas, por lo que hay que procurar no transliterar, puesto que difieren de uno a otros
idiomas y puede resultar negativo. Hay que expresar todo el conjunto. Si no se sabe la comparacin u ofrece
alguna duda se recurre a la estructura que vale para cualquier smil: as ... as anything:
As heavy as lead As drunk as a lord
As light as a feather As white as a sheet
As strong as an ox As soft as putty
As weak as a kitten As sour as vinager
As cold as ice As black as night
As quiet as a mouse As clean as a new pin/whistle
As pretty as a picture As deaf as a post/wall
As brave as a lion As quick as a flash/lightening
As proud as a peacock As ugly as sin
As pale as a ghost As old as the hills
As mad as a March hare As poor as church
As easy as ABC As fresh as a daisy
As obstinate as a mule As ... as anything
GET SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING
Get + Object + To-infinitive significa persuadir a alguien, convencer. Si el objeto es una cosa significa
causar, provocar que esa cosa suceda:
We couldnt get the car to move because of the mud.
They were determined to get the Department of Environment to think again.
I got our new M.P. to ask a question in the House.
MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING
Make + Object + Infinitive (sin TO) tiene ms el significado de imponer, forzar, obligar que de
61

persuadir:
Do you think you can make the ministry change their minds?
Those people in Essex managed to make them think again.
ALL + CLAUSE
All seguido de una oracin subordinada tiene dos significados:
The only thing cuando sujeto o complemento del verbo TO BE:
All he wanted to do was to go to bed.
This is all that one has to pay.
All you need is love.
Everything (todo) cuando se utiliza como complemento de cualquier otro verbo o despus de
preposicin. Existe la excepcin de un refrn, que se construye
con el verbo TO BE y significa todo (ltimo ejemplo):
He told me all I wanted to know.
After all that had happened I was tired out.
ALL THE GLITTERS IS NOT GOLD. - (refrn)
TAIL QUESTIONS o QUESTION-TAGS
Llamamos question-tags o tail questions en ingls a aquellas preguntas breves que aadimos aun
comentario para pedir a nuestro intelocutor la confirmacin de lo que decimos.
Su uso es muy frecuente, especialmente en la lengua hablada y su correspondencia en espaol es:
verdad?; no es verdad?; verdad que si?; verdad que no?
En ingls estas preguntas siempre se hacen con los auxiliares. Cuando hay un verbo auxiliar en la frase, se
repite ste, y es otro verbo cualquiera se emplea do, does, did; en cualquier caso el sujeto es siempre un
pronombre o there si la oracin es impersonal.
Si la oracin es afirmativa, la pregunta que hacemos es nagativa, y al contrario:
You can speak English, cant you?
Marys parents live in Middleford, dont they?
You got up early, didnt you?
Lo mismo que el sujeto siempre tiene que ser un pronombre o there, el auxiliar en interrogonegativa siempre
tiene que ir contraido; y como la primera persona del presente del verbo to be am no se puede contraer con
not, pasa a la segunda forma del verbo:
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I am a student, arent I?
Tambin la question-tag del imperativo se hace con will:
Close the window, will you?
Repetir lo que ya se sabe
Este tipo siempre es afirmativa, indiferentemente de uqe el verbo principal vaya en afirmativa o negativa, en
donde el hablante se limita a repetir o confirmar algo que ya sabe. Va a menuda precedida de so y la
entonacines en sentido creciente:
Youre Mr Newton, are you?
So you know the sort of things we make, do you?
Ponerse de acuerdo con alguien
En este tipo la entonacin es decreciente y la question tag es afirmativa o negativa segn el verbo principal.
El auxiliar del verbo principal se acenta y si no hay auxiliar hay que ponerlo:
Arthur looks smart today.
Yes, he does look smart, doesnt he?
He must have bought a new suit.
Yes, he must, mustnt he?
Jack isnt very friendly today.
No, he isnt very friendly, is he?
Cuando se est casi seguro de la respuesta
Aqu el auxiliar tambin debe acentuarse, o aadirlo en caso de que no lo hubiese. La entonacin es
decreciente:
You are coning to my party, arent you?
Stalin did die in 1951, didnt he?
Napoleon wasnt born in Sardinia, was he?
Cuando se est completamente seguro de la respesta
Aqu el auxiliar del verbo principal no se acenta. La quention-tag tiene entonacin decreciente y el
hablante est bastante seguro de los hechos o quiere simplemente confirmacin:
Bruce was sent to prison for armed robbery, wasnt he?
Applefield is near Reading, isnt it?
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 Cuando se busca una respuesta de SI o NO

Estas quetion-tags son dichas con entonacin creciente y el hablante es pera la respuesta de si si la
question-tag es negativa o no si es afirmativa:
Arthur took the job, didnt he?
He wont go back to Middleford, will he?
ORACIONES CONDICIONALES
Las oraciones condicionales se clasifican en diferentes tipos de acuerdo con la correspondencia temporal ente
la oracin condicional introducida por la partcula IF y el tiempo en que vaya la oracin principal:
If you study, you pass your exams.
If we hurried, we shall catch the 10 oclock train.
If we hurried, we would catch the 10 oclock train.
If we had hurried, we would have caught the 10 oclock train.
Los ejemplos dados representan los tres tipos ms usuales de oraciones condicionales en ingls.
Los ejemplos 1 y 2 corresponden a las oraciones condicionales que llamamos probables, posibles, reales o
de validez general, es decir, aquella en que se cumple la condicin.
El ejemplo 3 corresponde al tipo de oraciones improbables o hipotticas; es menos probable que la
condicin se realice; puede o no realizarse.
El ejemplo nmero 4 es el que corresponde a las oraciones llamadas imposibles; la condicin no puede
cumplirse de ninguna manera.
La secuencia de los tiempos para cada uno de los tipos es el siguiente:
1.- Oraciones Posibles
Oracin Condicional
PRESENTE

Oracin Principal
PRESENTE

If you study,

you pass your exams

PRESENTE

FUTURO

If you study,

you will pass your exams

PRESENTE

Auxiliar modal en presente + Infinitivo de presente si

to

If you study,
you can pass your exams
PRESENTE
IMPERARIVO
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If you want to pass your exams

2.- Oraciones Improbables

Study

Oracin Condicional

Oracin Principal
CONDICIONAL SIMPLE

PASADO SIMPLE
If you studied,
PASADO SIMPLE
If you studied,

You would pass your exams

Auxiliar modal en pasado + Infinitivo de presente sin
to
you could pass your exams

3.- Oraciones Imposibles

Oracin Condicional
PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPRFECTO
If you had studied,
PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO
If you had studied,

Oracin Principal
CONDICIONAL COMPUESTO
You would have passed your exams
Auxiliar modal en pasado + Infinitivo de perfecto sin
to
you could have passed your exams

Observaciones:
1.- En el tipo 1 de las correspondencias temporales de presente, es el nico caso en que if puede ser
sustituido por when, con lo que se denomina condicin abierta, de validez general, es decir, que siempre se
da:
When you study, you pass the exams.
2.- En el tipo 2 de condicional cuando se trate del Pasado Simple del verbo to be, hay que poner were para
todas las personas (subjuntivo):
If I were you, I would study much harder.
3.- En el tipo 1 de condicional cabe la posibilidad de utilizar en la oracin condicional el defectivo should,
que en este caso nada tiene que ver con que sea auxiliar de condicional sino que el significado es: por si
acaso:
If I should go, you will come with me.
4.- En estos dos ltimos casos, al igual que con el Pluscuamperfecto del tipo 3 de condicional tenemos la
posibilidad de omitir if al invertir el orden del sujeto y del verbo sin que la oracin pierda su matiz de
condicional:
As en vez de decir: podriamos decir:
If I were you, ... Were I you, ...
If I should go, ... Should I go, ...
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If you had studied, ... Had you studied, ...

Por ltimo hay otras conjunciones y giros que pueden introducir oraciones condicionales, aparte de la
partcula if, por ejemplo: unless, as long as, provid, providing that, even if, supposing (that):
You can come provided you tell your mother first.
We wont leave the town unless they send us away.
Supposing the plane is late?
Tenemos que hacer notar que unless es sinnimo de if not, Normalamente se utiliza en el primer tipo de
condicional:
I won't give you a ticket unless you pay me.
As long as and providing that significan lo mismo que but if only if. Se utilizan normalmente en el primer
tipo de condicional:
They'll find the hotel as long as they follow the map
Even if significa lo mismo que if, pero enfatiza la condicin. Se puede usar para referirse al pasado, present
y futuro:
Even if we had ordered a taxi, we wouldn't have arrived on time.
El Verbo: TO SUGGEST
Suggest significa sugerir y se emplea para hacer sugerencias. Tiene varias estructuras:
Si suggest va en presente puede ir seguido por simple indicativo o that-should, es decir, por una oracin
completiva con that:
Mr Steele suggests (that) Arthur works harder.
Mr Steele suggests (that) Arthur should work harder.
Si suggest va en pasado solo puede ir seguido por that-should o por gerundio (la forma -ing) que
tambin puede ir precedida por adjetivo posesivo, aunque existe tambin la forma coloquial que en
vez de ir precedida la forma -ing por adjetivo posesivo puede ir precedia por pronombre personal de
complemento (aunque gramaticalmente es incorrecto):
Mr Steele suggested Arthur should work harder.--> (forma literaria)
Mr Steele suggested his working harder. --> (forma standard)
Mr Steele suggested him working harder. --> (forma coloquial)
She suggested that they should meet at the cinema
She suggested their meeting at the cinema.

66

She suggested them meeting at the cinema.

LA VOZ PASIVA
La Voz Pasiva en ingls se forma con el verbo to be en el tiempo correspondiente y el participio pasado
del verbo que se conjuga.
La Voz Pasiva se emplea con mucha ms frecuencia en ingls que en espaol: Su uso nos permite
colocar al principio de la oracin, como sujeto, al complemento de una oracin activa para darle ms
realce, pues siempre es la primera palabra de una frase la que mayor efectoppsicolgico presente:
Moll Flanders was written by Henry Fielding.
En este ejemplo nos ineteresa hacer notar el hecho de que Moll Falnders, y no otro libro, fu escrito por
Henry Fielding; por eso empleamos la voz pasiva: por el contrario si quisieramos hablar de Hrmry Fielding
diramos:
Henry Fielllding wrote Moll Flanders
Como en las oraciones pasivas el sujeto es el complemento directo de la oracin activa, solo los verbos
transitivos se pueden poner en pasiva. Todos los tiempos de la voz activa tienen sus correspondientes tiempos
en la voz pasiva, aunque algunos, los continuos sobre todo, se usan muy raramente.
He gives ----------> He is given
He is giving ------> He is being given
He will give ------> He will be given
He has given ----> He has been given
Transformaciones:
Esta es igual a la espaola, se da en las oraciones transitivas formadas por sujeto + verbo +
complemento directo:
C.D. activo ----------------> Sujeto pasivo
Verbo activo ----------------> Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo)
Sujeto activo ----------------> Complemento Agente (con by)
Arthur bought a book A book was bought by Arthur.
Se da en las oraciones transitivas que aparte de llevar complemento directo, llevan tambin
complemento indirecto, normalmente este complemento indirecto siempre es de persona, por lo que pasa a
ser sujeto en la pasiva:
C.ID. activo ----------------> Sujeto pasivo
Verbo activo ----------------> Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo)

67

C.D. activo ----------------> Queda igual (no cambia)

Sujeto activo ----------------> Complemento Agente (con by)
Arthur bought Mary a book Mary was bought a book by Arthur.
Se da en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en funcin de complemento directo; es tipicamente
inglesa y sigue la siguiente estructura:
Sujeto de la subordinada Sujeto pasivo
Verbo de la principal Verbo pasivo (en el mismo tiempo)
Sujeto de la principal Complemento Agente
de presente (accin simultanea o posterior)
Verbo de la subordinada Infinitivo con to
de perfecto (accin anterior)
Act. They expected that everyone attended Solidarity Services.
Pas. Everyone was expected to attend Solidariry Services.
Es la que coincide con la espaola en las oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en funcin de complemento
directo, se hace poniendo en pasiva la oracin principal dejando igual la oracin subordinada sustantiva,
que es la frmula que tenemos en espaol, y se emplea principalmente con los verbos de diccin o
pensamiento, que es forma de traducir el morfema pasivo espaol se de la pasiva refleja. No obstante se
prefiere la transformacin del apartado c) en ingls.
Act. They say that Mary is the most beautiful girl in the school
Pas. It is said (by them) that Mary is the most beautiful girl in the school. c) Mary is said to be the most
beautiful girl in the school.
NOTA: Cuando el sujeto de la activa es un pronombre personal, pronombre indefinido o un sustantivo no
limitado ni determinado no suele ponerse en ingls de Complemento Agente; sin embargo si es un nombre
propio o un sustantivo determinado hay que ponerlo como Complemento Agente (con by) en la pasiva.
REPORTED SPEECH
Hay dos formas de informar lo que una persona ha dicho:
ESTILO DIRECTO: las palabras exactas dichas por el hablante original que son repetidas y situadas entre
comillas (). (Poniendo dos puntos (:) o coma (,) antes de las comillas):
John said, I enjoy playing cricket
He said, I am learning English
ESTILO INDIRECTO (Reported Speech):
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 Expresar el significado exactos sin utilizar las palabras originales del hablante.
La frase del estilo indirecto se convierte en el complemento directo gramatical del verbo introductor:
John said that he enjoyed playing cricket.
He said that he was learning English.
HE SAID = REPORTING CLAUSE (frase introductora)
REST = REPORTED CLAUSE (frase del estilo indirecto)
Los tipos principales de oraciones ( Oraciones subordinadas sustantivas (Statements), Preguntas (Questions),
Mandatos (Commands), como tmbin Exclaciones (Exclamations) se pueden expresar en estilo indirecto.
Las construcciones son como sigue:
I) STATEMENTS ( That-clause)
A) Cambios de tiempos Verbales. Varios casos:
Cuando el verbo introductor esta en presente simple, pretrito perfecto o futuro, la oracin directa se
hace sin efectuar ningun cambio de tiempo verbal:
He says/will say/has said, This work is too difficult
that this work is too difficult.
Pero cuando el verbo introductir est en un tiempo verbal en pasado, que es lo normal, es normal que el
verbo de la frase indirecta pase a un tiempo verbal anterior, lo que se denomina en ingls BACK-SHIFT
(=cambio a una referencia temporal anterior). Dos tipos posibles de back-shift:
PRESENTE (NOW) a PASADO (THEN)
Presente Pasado
Preteriro Perfecto Pretrito Pluscuamperfecto
Presente de defectivos Pasado de defectivos
PASADO (THEN) a PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO (BEFORE THEN)
PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO (BEFORE THEN) No back-shift (no es posible ningun cambio a
tiempo anterior porque en Ingls no hay ningn modo de expresar BEFORE-BEFORE-THEN ni en
tiempo ni aspecto verbal.
CAMBIOS: en la oracin de estilo indirecto:
Simple Present ---------------- Simple Past
Simple Past--------------------- Past Perfect
Future shall/will --------------- Conditional should/would
Present Progressive---------- Past Progressive
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Present Perfect---------------- Past Perfect

DOS POSIBILIDADES DE BACK-SHIFT
Presente---------------------------Pasado
Pasaso-----------------------------Preterito Pluscuamperefcto
I am tired she complained that she was tired.
I love cricket he said that he loved cricket.
He is being a fool Everybody thought that he was being a fool.
I saw them yesterday She told me that she had seen them yesterday.
Presente Pasado Pluscuamperfecto
E.D. NOW THEN BEFORE THEN
E.I. THEN (pasado) BEFORE THEN (Pluscuamperfecto) (Nothing at all)
E.D. Max had already gone when I phoned him this morning
E.I. Jim said that Max had already gone when he phoned that morning
Explicacin del BACK-SHIFT: el tiempo de la oracin original, que sea presente NOW para el estilo
directo, pasa a ser pasado THEN para el estilo indirecto y se est en pasado THEN pasa a pluscuamperfecto
BEFORE THEN haciendo el cambio respecto al PUNTO DE ORIENTACION.
EXCEPTIONS:
Cuando lo expresado por la oracin de estilo indirectohe idea coincide en tiempo y hora con lo expresado
en estilo directo (o el estado de cosas reflejadas todava existe en el momento de hablar), no hay
necesidad de hacer cambios en los tiempos verbales. Es decir, cunado el evrbo introductor est en tiempo
pasado, el tiempo presente se mantiene en la oracin del estilo indirecto cuando exprese una verdad
universal ( o una generalidad exacta, verdades generales o hechos habituales).
Socrates said: Virtue is knowledge
Socrates said that virtue is knowledge.
Peter said: The moon is 50.000 miles away
Peter said that the moon is 50.000 miles away.
Jim said: I eat at two o'clock everyday
Jim said that he eats at two o'clock everyday.
El Back-shift desde Pasado Simple / Pasado Continuo a Preterito Pluscuamperfecto puede tambin no
aplicarse en las oraciones causales, si de algun modo cambia el significado de la frase en aspecto verbal,
70

aunque generalmente el pasado pasa a pluscuamperfecto:

She said:I decided not to buy the house because it was in the main road
She said that she had decided not to buy the house because it was in the main road.
El Pasado y el Pasado Continuo no cambia en las oraciones temporales:
He said: When we were living in London, we had a lot of friends
He said that when they were living in London, they had a lot of friends.
Auxiliares Modales: WOULD, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, MIGHT, USED TO, COULD, MUST (ind.), HAD
BETTER normalmente no cambian:
He said: I might be there
He said that he might be there.
She said:I would help him if I could
She said that she would help him if she could.
MUST (como Obligacin) puede cambiar tambin a HAD TO:
She said:You must go
She said that you must/had to go.
SHOULD (after I/We) se cambia a WOULD, pero cuando implica Obligacion permanece sin cambio:
He said:I should be grateful if I ...
He said that he would be grateful if he ....
I said:You should be more careful
I told him that he should be more careful.
He said:If my children were older I should emigrate
He said that if his children were older he would emigrate.
Oraciones Condicionales del tipo 2 permanecen tambin invariables. Como tambin lo hacen los
Tiempos Pasado (= subjunctive) utilizados despus de WISH, IT IS TIME, WOULD RATHER ...
He said:I wish I knew
He said that he wished he knew.
She said:Id rather Tom went

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She said that she'd rather Tom went.

Otros cambios que son necesarios cuando se pasa de Estilo Directo a Indirecto:
La conjuncin that se puede poner inmeditamente despus del verbo introductor, pero no es esencial y
muy a menudo se suprime.
C) Los Pronombres y Adjetivos Posesivos generalmente cambian de 1st o 2nd a 3rd persona (excepto cuando
el hablante est informando con sus propias palabraas); es decir, cuando el verbo de la frase del estilo
indirecto tiene el mismo sujeto que el verbo de la frase de estilo directo:
I said:I like my new house
I said that I liked my new house.
He said:I have forgotten the combination of my safe
He said that he had forgotten the combination of his safe.
Algunas veces se le puede aadir un nombre para evitar ambigedad:
Tom said:He came in through the window
Tom said that the thief had come in through the window.
Palabras que se refieren a LUGAR y TIEMPO y denoten cercana pasa a sus correspondientes palabras
que denoten lejana. Si el estilo Indirecto se hace en el mismo da a lugar estos cambios no son
necesarios:
thisthat herethere
thesethose tomorrowthe next day/the day after
nowthen yesterdaythe day before/the previous day
agobefore the day before yesterdaytwo days before
todaythat day the day after tomorrowin two days' time
We met at the bridge and he said:I'll be here again tomorrow
We met at the bridge and he said that he'd be there again the next day.
If the speech is reporting on the same day, these changes aren't necessary:
At breakfast this morning he said:I'll be very busy today
At breakfast this morning he said that he'll be very busy today.
II) QUESTIONS (Wh-clauses)
Las reglas anteriores se aplican tambin a las preguntas indirectas; sin embargo hay unos puntos
72

adicionales que hay que significar o tener en cuenta:

El verbo introductior SAY se cambia a ASK o algun verbo similar de acuerdo a lo que intentemos querer
decir: INQUIRED/WONDERED/WANTED TO KNOW ...
La palabra de unin de la frase del verbo introductor con la frase del estilo indirecto es IF or
WHETHER, excepto cuando las preguntas directas empiecne con unpronombre o partcula interrogativa
tales como WHO/ WHY/ WHAT/ WHERE/ HOW /WHEN... etc. que ser la que haga de unin.
La estructura interrogativa de las preguntas directas se reemplaza por la CONSTRUCCION AFIRMATIVA
en el Estilo Indirecto; tanto los auxiliares DO/DOES/DID cono el SIGNO de INTERROGACI N se
omiten:
Do you live here?
He asked me if I lived there.
Did you go to England last year?
The teacher asked the student if he had gone to England the previous year.
He said:I have left my watch at home. Can you tell me the time, please?
He said that he had left his watch at home and asked me (politely) if I could tell him the time.
Does Peter speak Spanish?
He asked if Peter spoke Spanish.
What's your name?
He asked her what her name was.
Which chair shall I sit in?
He wonderedwhich chair he should sit in.
IF/WHETHER.- El uso generalmente favorece a IF cuandoquiera que la distincin entre ellos no sea
necesaria:
He asked me if (or whether) I had seen the film.
WHETHER expresa una duda o una eleccin entre dos alternativas as muy a menudo va seguido de OR:
Is it your turn or Susan's?
She asked whether it was his turn or Susan's.
WHETHER (y no IF) se utiliza en:
Cuando la pregunta indirecta precede a la oracin principal:
Whether this is true or not, I cannot say.

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 Delante de un INFINITIVO:
She hasn't decided whether to sail or fly to America.
He wondered whether to leave.
Cuando introduce una Oracin Concesiva:
Whether he works or not, I don't think he will pass his/the exam.
Las preguntas que empiezan con SHALL I/WE pueden ser de cuatro formas:
Pueden ser especulaciones acerca del futuro o pueden pedir informacin de algun acontecimiento futuro
tambin. estas preguntas siguen la Regla Ordinaria (shallwould). El verbo introductor es normalmente:
WONDER
Las Especulaciones son normalmente introducidas por WONDER:
Where shall I be (this time) next year?
He wondered whre he would be in a year's time
When shall I know the results of the test?
The student asked when he would know the results of the test.
Shall I ever understand women?
He asked himself if he would ever understand women.
Ofrecimientos: El verbo introductor es: OFFER
Shall I bring you a cup of tea?
He offered to bring me a cup of tea or
He offered me a cup of tea.
Sugerencias: Verbo introductor: SUGGEST + that-should o -ING
Shall we meet at the theatre?
He suggested that they should meet at the theatre. (formal)
meeting at the theatre.
their meeting at the theatre. (standard)
them meeting at the theatre. (colloquial)
Peticin de instrucciones o consejo: alternativa WAS/WERE TO
Shall we send it to your flat, Sir?
74

He asked the customer if they should send it to his flat.

were to send it to his flat.
What shall we do with your mail while you're away?
His landlady asked Paul what she should do with his mail while he was away.
what she was to do with his mail while he was away .
WILL YOU/WOULD YOU/COULD YOU
Preguntas Ordinarias:
He said: Will you be here tomorrow?
He asked her if she would be there the following day.
Peticiones: ASK + Object + To-infinitive
He said, Will you help me, please?
He asked me (politely) to help him
Invitacion/Ofrecimiento: verbo tansitivo OFFER
He said, Will you have a drink?
He offered me a drink.
Mandatos: Depende de la entonacin:
Will you be quiet for a moment !
Do be quiet for a moment ! He told them to be quiet
COMMANDS
Las reglas que afectan a pronombres, adjetivos y otros cambios tambin se pueden aplicar a los mandatos
indirectos, excepto que no hay backshif porque no hay verbos en forma personal (son oraciones subordinadas
de infinitivo, que es una forma no personal)
Additional notes:
El vebro introductor SAY ... cambia a un verbo of MANDATO or PETICION tales como
TELL/ORDER/COMMAND... de ascuerdo a la intencin que queramos expresar:
My mother said to me: Go home !
My mother told me to go home.
Se tiene que introducir un Complemento Directo que representa la persona a la que va dirigida el mandato:

75

I was there and he said: Stand up !

I was there and he told me to stand up.
La forma imperativa del verbo en el mandato directo pasa a su corresponsdiente forma de infinitivo con to,
si el mandato es negativo se le antepone NOT al infinitivo con to (Mandato Negativo = NOT +
TO-INFINITIVE):
Be quiet ! I told Peter to be quiet.
Fire ! The captain ordered the soldiers to fire.
Run quickly ! He told me (us) to run quickly.
Put on you space-suits !
He told/commanded/instructed them to put on their space-suits.
En ingls hay muchas posibilidades de expresar un mandato, for example: WILL YOU?
Shut the door, will you? (Es un mandato)
He told him to shut the door.
Es muy fuerte y dependede la entonacin:
Will you stop talking !
The teacher told the students to stop talking.
Mandatos Negativos: NOT + TO-INFINITIVE
His friend said: Don't be rude !
His friend asked him not to be rude.
Don't move, boys ! He told the boys not to move.
Please, don't forget ! She begged me not to forget.
Otras formas de Estilo Indirecto de espresar Mandatos Indirectos:
1) La Construccin: To BE + TO-INFINITIVE
He said:Don't open the door !
He told me not to open the door or
He said that I was no to open the door.
a) El verbo introductor en tiempo presente:

76

He says:Meet me at the station !

He says that we are to meet at the station.
Mandato precedido po una oracin subordinada:
Tiempo
Condicional
He said:If she leaves the house follow her
He told me to folllow her if she left the house or
He said that if she left the house I was to follow her.
EXCLAMATIONS:
Las Exclamaciones en el estilo indirecto pasan a ser Oraciones Subordinadas (that-clauses). Una
exclamacin es en cierto modo una oracin:
What como un determinante en un frase nominal.
How como gradacin con adjectivo/adverbio.
What a beautiful present ! He said that it was a beautiful present
What a lovely house ! He said that it was a lovely house.
What a terrible noise ! He said that it was a terrible noise.
What a different situation she is in ! He said that she was in different situation.
How marvellous ! He said that it was marvellous.
How beautiful she dances ! He said that she danced beautiful.
Para expresar emcionesse utilizan INTERJECCIONES:
Ugh ! / x/ (disgust)
Oh ! /Ou/ (surprise)
Ouch !/ t/ (pain)
He gave an exclamation of disgust/surprise/pain.
He exclaimed with disgust/surprise/pain.
Otros casos no tienen reglas y todo depende del significado de la exclamacin:
He said:Good morning He greeted me/wished me a good morning.
He said:HappyChristmas He wished me a Happy Christmas.
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He said:Liar He called me a liar.

He said:Congratulations He congratulated me.
He said:Damn ! He swore
Dos casos especiales: PLEASE y THANK YOU
I should like some tea, please ! (please is not use in R.S.)
He said politely that he would like some tea or
He asked politely for some tea.
He said:Thank you
He thanked me.
LET'S/LET HIM/LET HER/LET THEM.Genralmente expresan una sugerencia y se hace con el verbo SUGGEST en Estilo Indirecto. Hay otras varias
formas de expresar sugerencia: What about ... etc.
Se utiliza el verbo SUGGEST como verbo introductor seguido de:
-ING form (precedida de una adjetivo posesivo o pronombre personal)
That-clause with SHOULD
He said: Lets have a good breakfast !
He suggested their having a good breakfast. (standard English)
He suggested them having a good breakfast. (spoken English)
He suggested that they should have a good breakfast (formal English)
He said:Lets wait here till the rain stops
He suggested their waiting there till the rain stopped.
He suggested that they should wait till the rain stopped.
Formas Negativas:
He said:Lets not say anything about it
He suggested their not saying anything about it.
He suggested that they should not say anything about it.
Otras formas de expresar SUGERENCIAS:

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 What about + -ING: What about going to the cinema this evening
He suggested going to the cinema that evening.
Shall + 1st person
How about + -ING form
Do you feel like + -ING
Suppose + simple present.
YES/NO ANSWERS:
Se expresan en el estilo Indirect con SUJETO + verbo auxiliar apropiado:
He said:Can you swim? and I said: No
He asked me if I could swim and I said that I couldn't.
He said:Do you like it? and she said:Yes
He asked her if she liked it and she answered that she did.
Yes/No: se pone en el estilo indirecto con el auxiliar solo, y la negacin si la contestacin es No:
Would you be here for the next ten minutes? she said, and I said:Yes
She asked if I would be there for the following ten minutes and I answered that I would.
MIXED TYPES: (Question + Statement or Command), poco a poco:
I don't know the way, do you?, he asked
He said that he didn't know the way and asked me if I did.
You pressed the button, said the mechanic. Don't do it again. You might have a nasty accident.
She had pressed the button and the mechanic told her (warned her) not to do it again because (as) she might
have a nasty accident.
Could you show me to work it? I'm not used to electric typewriter's, she said
She asked me if I could show her to work it as (adding that/ explaining that) she wasn't used to electric
typewriter's
Ugh ! there is a slug in my lettuce, writer !, she cried
She gave an exclamation of /she exclaimed with/ disgust because (that) there was a slug in her lettuce and
cried for the waiter.
What about going for a swim. It is quite fine now, he said
He suggested going for a swim because it was quite fine then.
FREE INDIRECT SPEECH.79

 Un recurso muy comn en la narrativa.

Consiste en expresar una oracin poniendo el verbo en un tiempo anterior mientras se omite (o se pone
entre parentesis) las oraciones del verbo introductor, que son las siglas convencionales E.I.
Los pronombres y tiempos verbales se cambian como en el estilo indirecto normal, pero por otra parte la
estructura permanece como en el E.D. (se mantiene la inversion) porque no hay verbo introductor.
Es un medio ms flexible para expresarse que el normal (=dependent) E.I., ms concision: nada de he
said, he exclaimed ...
es utilizado por Virginia Wolf, James Joice etc.
Mary, Why do they always have to pick on me? -------------- D.S.
Mary asked why did they always have to pick on her? --------- R.S.
Why did they always (grooned Mary) have to pick on her? --- F.I.S.
or Why did they always have to pick on her? ------------------------ F.I.S.
RELATIVES CLAUSES
Pronombres Relativos
Personas
Cosas
Nom.
WHO (THAT)
WHICH (THAT)
Ac.
WHOM (THAT)
WHICH (THAT)
Gen.
WHOSE
WHOSE(*)
(*) El pronombre WHOSE tiende a ser utilizado solamente para personas, aunquegramaticalmente es correcto
utilizarlo tambin para cosas cada da este uso esmenos frecuente recurriendo a otras estructuras para
evitar usarlo:
En vez de This film whose tittle is "Lipstick" is quite good.
Diramos This film the tittle of which is "Lipstick" is quitegood.
DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES.Estas oraciones llamadas tambin RESTRICTED son las oraciones ESPECIFICATIVAS en espaol, que
identifican o establecen la identidad del ANTECEDENTE:
Paul found the book (which) you lost
This is the room where the tragedy ocurred.
Las personas o cosas se distinguen por la oracin especificativa, la que da una informacin esencial del
antecedente y no pueden ser omitida porque cambiara el sentido general de la frase, igual ocurre en
espaol.
El relativo THAT solo se puede usar en las DEFINING (especificativas), tanto de SUJETO como de
OBJETO, sustituyendo a personas y a cosas.
This is the driver who/that overtook us five minutes ago.
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 Cuando el pronombre relativo no es sujeto de la oracin generalmente se omite (principalmente en

ingls hablado) dando lugar a las CONTACT.
The man (whom/who/that) I saw yesterday is a lawyer.
Cuando es sujeto de la oracin no se puede omitir, excepto si va con un tiempo continuo o pasivo, que al
suprimir el pronombre relativo tambin hay queomitir el verbo "TO BE" quedando solo el Participio de
presente (en tiemposcontinuos) o el Participio de pasado (en tiempos pasivos).
The boy (who is) walking along the street is my cousin.
The church (which was) built in the 19th century has beautiful windows.
Ni el pronombre WHO ni THAT ni WHOSE admiten preposiciones delante de ellos, as que quellos
verbos que rigen preposicin, sta siempre se pone al final de la oracin de relativo.
This is the book (contact) he looked at.
En estilo formal o literario la preposicin puede preceder al pronombre WHOM o WHICH, pero nunca a
los del apartado anterior (WHO, THAT o WHOSE):
The people from whom they had hired the car wanted it to be returned:
No obstante algunas preposiciones no pueden ser postpuestas especialamente aquellas preposiciones que
tienen que ver con nociones temporales:
That was the meeting (that) I kept falling asleep during (incorrect).
That was the meeting during which I kept falling asleep (correct).
NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES.Estas oraciones llamadas tambin NON-RESTRICTED son las oraciones EXPLICATIVAS en espaol,
que no definien ni restringen el ANTECEDENTE:
Mr Smith, who is an ingeneer, lives in Oxford.
The Victoria Line, which was open in March 1969, was London first
complete new tube for 60 years.
No definen ni distinguen al antecedente sino que solamente dan una informacin adicional del antecedente.
Van siempre entre comas y aunque se precinda de ellas no cambia el sentido general de la frase, igual ocurre
en espaol.
Peter has a sister, who works at the U.N. headquarters in Geneve.(implica que
solo tiene una hermana).
Observaciones:
No se puede usar nunca el pronombre THAT.
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 Se pueden dividir en dos oraciones.

Van siempre entre comas.
El pronombre relativo no se puede suprimir nunca aunque no sea el sujeto de la oracin, si es persona
WHO (sujeto)/WHOM (objeto) y si es cosa WHICH:
Liz Taylor, who acted in Anthony and Cleopatra, judged the competition.
The London train, which should arrive at 2.30, is ten minutes late.
George Sand spent many holidays in Majorca with Chopin, whom she first met
in Paris.
The headmaster has recently been to Canada, which he described in detail
in a lecture.
Tipos de pronombres relativos:
Pronombres relativos como sujeto:
On the sunny days which/that began their holiday, they really appreciated the peace and quiet.
Pronombres relativos como objeto: se pueden suprimir en las especificativas:
Jennifer was home for one of the few weekends (which/that) she had during his training.
Pronombres relativos con preposicin; stas van al final de la oracin de relativo:
The man (who/that) I worked for isnt the most generous man in the world.
WOSE siempre precede a la cosa poseida:
The girl whose foot you trod on happens to be my girlfriend.
WHERE (in which), en estos contextos actua como adverbio relativo:
Trust Arthur to find the one place where it had been raining.
WHY:
Surely the reason why he stole the money is obvious.
Adverbio relativo: BEFORE:
On the eveing before they were due to live, Arthur telephoned his mother.
Adverbio relativo: AFTER:
It began to rain during the week after they arrived.
ORACIONES TEMPORALES
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Las oraciones temporales son las introducidas por las conjunciones: when, as soon as, whenever, after,
before, as, while, until, etc...
Se clasifican en ingls en tres tipos de acuerdo a la correspondencia verbal:
Oraciones temporales referidas al presente:
Correspondencias verbales
Oracin Principal

Oracin Temporal

Simple Present
Mary takes her umbrella with her when it rains.

Simple Present

Arthur has his supper as soon as he gets home.

I turn the radio off whenever they play pop.
Oraciones temporales referidas al pasado:
Oracin Principal

Oracin Temporal

Simple Past

Simple Past

Simple Past

Past Prefect

Past Perfect

Simple Past

Simple Past

Past Progressive

Past Progresive
I turned the TV on when I got home.

Simple Past

Mr Steele went to the office as soon as he arrived.

Mary had already left before Arthur arrived.
We saw an accident as/when we were going to work.
I was listening to the radio when the telephone rang.
Oracines temporales referidas al futuro:
Present Continuous

Simple Present

Future

Simple Present

Going to form

Present Perfect

Auxiliar modal en prsente

Im going to have a bath when I get home tonight.

Present Perfect

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Ill do my homework before I go to bed.

Arthur cant go home until he has finished work.
Were going out as soon as weve had dinner.
Observaciones:
Cuando se usa el pasado simple en las dos oraciones indica que la segunda accin sigue inmediatamente a
la primera.
Cuando se utiliza en alguna de ellas el pasado perfecto o pluscuamperfecto, es cuando nos referimos a una
accin anterior a otra accin pasada.
Cuando se utilizan pasados continuos en las dos nos indica que las dos acciones son
simultaneas.
Nota importante: La subordinada temporal nunca puede ir en TIEMPO FUTURO.
ORACIONES FINALES
Hay dos tipos de oraciones finales en ingls:
Aquellas en las que el sujeto de la oracin principal es el mismo que el de la subordinada, o en las que el
complemento directo de la oracin principal es el sujeto de la subordinada.
Las que tienen sujetos distintos (diferentes), es decir que el sujeto de la oracin principal es distinto del de
la oracin subordinada.
El primer tipo de oraciones se suele expresar por madio del infinitivo con to o bien con in order o so as
seguidos del infinitivo con to:
I went ro London to see you.
That boy is working hard in order to pass his exam.
In order y so as se emplean cuando la oracin final es negativa y cuando el complemento de la oracin
principal (si es una persona) no es el sujeto de la subordinada:
I have taken my umbrella so as not to get wet.
Yesterday John took his brother to the cinema so as to feel less lonely.
La segunda clase de oraciones se expresan con so that + will/would o can/could o may/might o shall/should
+ infinitivo sin to y con in order that + may/might o shall/should + infinitivo sin to.
Las formas verbales can, will, may (raramente shall) se emplean cuando el verbo principal est en presente,
futuro o pretrito perfecto. Si el verbo principal est en pasado se emplean could, would, might o
should:
Peter has bought a car so that his children can go for a ride every Sunday.
She puts on the light so that they will able to read.

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He learnt French so that his friends could be impressed.

Cuando las oraciones son negativas, se expresa del mismo modo, poniendo el verbo auxiliar en negativa:
He finished his homework so that his father wouldnt be able to punish him.
Pero ms frecuenta que esta frmula de negacin es el uso de to prevent o avoid from, seguidos de
gerundio (-ing):
He lent us some mney to prevent us from going to the bank.
POSITION OF ADVERBS
Adverbs of MANNER
a) Adverbs of MANNER after a short object:
He repeated the word SLOWLY.
He explained the exercise CAREFULLY.
b) Adverbs of MANNER before a long object:
He repeated SLOWLY everything the teacher said.
He explained CAREFULLY what he wanted the students to do.
c) Adverbs of MANNER before the verb for emphasis:
He SLOWLY repeated all the words.
SLOWLY he repeated all the words.
He CAREFULLY explained what had to be done.
CAREFULLY he explained what had to be done.
Adverbs of INDEFINITE TIME
Adverbs of INDEFINITE TIME before the verb:
The king ALWAYS asked the same questions.
The students GENERALLY speak in English.
We NEVER see Dick nowadays.
The soldiers OFTEN came from countries far from Prussia.
They SOON learned enough to understand it.
Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME
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a) Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME at the end:

I came here YESTERDAY. They left London EARLY.
The news came ONE MORNING. Say the sentences AGAIN.
This never happened BEFORE. We'll go back home TOMORROW.
b) Adverbs of DEFINITE TIME at the beginning, for emphasis:
YESTERDAY I came here. ONE MORNING the news came.
BEFORE this never happened. TOMORROW we shall go back home.
Adverbs between auxiliary and participle:
Such a thing had NEVER happened.
We had RECENTLY joined Frederick's army.
The king was ALWAYS shouting.
We have OFTEN been in London.
Adverbs of DEGREE
Adverbs of DEGREE before verb or participle:
The soldier HARDLY spoke German.
The king JUST asked a few simple questions.
The king NEARLY fell off his horse.
He could HARDLY speak.
Adverbs after "TO BE" not before:
We were NEVER happy in that town.
I am ALWAYS at home.
The young soldier was JUST twenty.
Jhon is SELDOM ill.
SUFFIXES
Suffixes (adjectives)
-FUL

careful, fearful, hopeful,useful, beautiful.

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-LESS

cloudy, foggy, hilly, noisy, rainy, stormy, sunny.

-Y

careless, fearless, hopeless, useless.

-WARD (adj.)

homeward, downward, upward, southward.

-WARDS (Adv.)

homewards, downwards, upwards, southwards.

Suffixes (nouns)
-ER

baker, butcher, driver, painter, writer, builder

-OR

actor, author, conductor, doctor, sailor, tailor.

-M AN

policeman, fireman, fisherman, businessman.

-MAKER

dressmaker, shirtmaker, watchmaker, shoemaker.

-IST

artist, dramatist, pianist, violinist.

metal-worker, coachbuilder, shopkeeper, car-driver.

-ETC.
Suffixes (abstract nouns)
-DOM

kingdom, freedom, wisdom, dukedom.

-HOOD

childhood, manhood, fatherhood, neighbourhood.

-NESS

carefulness, happiness, hardness, likeness

Prefixes
unable, unafraid, uncertain, uncommon, unhappy
= negative
in several
directions
bad, badly
too much
too little

indistinct, impossible, illegal

disagree, discontinue, dishonest, disloyal
disperse, distend, display, disseminate.
a mistake, a misdeed, a misunderstanding, to mislay
to overeat, to overcharge, to overflow, to overload, to
overestimate, to overheat, to overwork, to overdo.
to underpay , to undercharge, to undervalue,
to underestimate.

GLOSSARY - BACHILLERATOS
Aprobar un exmen = TO PASS
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Aprobar, dar aprobacin a algo, aprobar una medida = TO APPROVE (OF)

I passed the exam.
I approve the law.
Suspender un exmen = TO FAIL : I failed the exam.
Suspender, tener colgado algo = TO SUSPEND : I suspended the clothing.
Copiar un exmen, engaar = TO CHEAT : I cheated the exam.
Asignatura = SUBJECT: I have eight subjects.
Firma = SIGNATURE: I like your signature.
Firmar = TO SIGN: I signed the paper.
Ao Acadmico = YEAR / LEVEL: I study 3rd year/level.
Cursillo = COURSE: I attended to English course. I haven't passed the course.
Carrera Universitaria = UNIVERSITY COURSE: He studies a University course.
Carrera Profesional = CAREER: This career is very (dangerous) difficult.
Carrera de correr = RACE: The race will be tomorrow.
Ttulo Universitario = DEGREE: He has a degree.
Ttulo de Bachiller / Licenciado = BACHELOR DEGREE: He has a bachelor degree.
Doctorado (Letras) MASTER OF ARTS // (Ciencias) MASTER OF SCIENCE
Your uncle is Master of Arts / Sciences
Catedrtico = (Proffesor) DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY // PHILOSOPHY DOCTOR
His father is Doctor of Philosophy
Notas = MARKS/QUALIFICATIONS: Your marks are good
Hacer un exmen (lo hace el alumno) = TO TAKE: The pupil took an exam.
Hacer un exmen (lo prepara el profesor) = TO MAKE: The teacher made an exam.
Apuntes = NOTES: He lost his notes.
Presentarse a un exmen = TO SIT IN // TO SIT FOR: The pupil sat for an exam.
Deberes escolares = HOMEWORK: My son did his homework yesterday.

88

Tarea de casa = HOUSEWORK: My mother is making the housework.

Derecho(s) = RIGHT(S):
Deber(es) = DUTY/DUTIES: People have rights and duties.
Colegio Privado = Public/Private/Independent School: I study in a public school.
Colegio Pblico = STATE SCHOOL: He studies in a state school.
Guardera = NURSERY SCHOOL: In this nursery school there are few children.
Escuela Primaria = PRIMARY SCHOOL: The primary school starts at six years old.
Escuela Secundaria = SECONDARY SCHOOL: The secondary school starts at 11.
Selectividad=ADVANCED LEVEL EXAMINATION: I'll take the advanced level exams.
Educacin Superior = HIGHER EDUCATION The higher education starts at 14.
UNIVERSIDAD:
- Ingenierias = Polytechnic: In Vigo there is a Polytechnic.
- Magisterio = College of Education: In Vigo there is a College of Education.
- Dems Carreras = University: In Vigo there is a University.
F.P. 2 Grado = College of Further Educaction In Vigo there is a College of .....
Formas de expresar la edad
He is 40.
He is 40 years old.

He is a baby ( 0 - 2)

He is 40 years of age.

He is a child ( 2 - 8)

He is about/around 40.

He is a boy ( 8 - 14)

He is about/around 40 years old.

He is a teenager ( 13 - 19)

He is in his fourties (40-49)

He is a young man ( 19 - 35)

He is in his early fourties (40-45)

He is a middle-aged man ( 35 - 55)

He is in his late fourties (45-49)

He is an elderly man (anciano)

He is fourty something (40 y algo)

False Friends
miserabe # miserable (triste)
89

No tiene donde caerse muerto = He is poor because he hasn't any money.

Eres un miserable, tacao = You are a mean man and egoistic.
He is miserable (triste) because his father was dead.
Realize # realizar (= darse cuenta) // realizar = do/make/carry out/ perform
They realized that she was wrong.
They made a cake.
Actually # actualmente (= realmente) // actualmente = at present/currently/nowadays
in fact, indeed
Actually it is wonderful.
At present he is a singer.
Actual # actual (= real) // actual = modern/current/present/fashionable
The story is actual
It's a current issue (tema de actualidad).
Boring # bored, etc. adjs. (= aburrido =es aburrido // = aburrido=estar aburrido)
Story # history (cuento, (historieta) // historia (asignatura))
End # ending (fin/final) = finish,close,purpose,extremo // final, conclusion, desenlace
After # afterwards (prep, conj.// adverb.)
Know # meet (saber, conocer // encontrarse con, toparse con)
Exit # Success (salida // xito)
Notice # News
Program / Programme
On the one hand / On the other hand
To realise something / to make a dream come true
Avoid # prevent (evitar, eludir // impedir a uno que haga algo)
Follow / Continue (seguir, entender // seguir, continuar)
Cook # Cooker ( cocinar, cocinera // cocina, electrodomJstico)

90

Econimic = econmico, rentable (developmen, growth, policy)

Economical = econmico (method/style/appliance), puede ir con more, less, very etc.
Classic = clsico, tpico, memorable (study, text, play)
Classical = clsico, culto (theory/idea/method/music)
Work # job (inc.=trabajo, empleo // con.= trabajo, empleo, tarea)
Travel = viaje, viajar en general
Trip = viaje, excursin (incluye estancia)
Journey = viaje, trayecto (solo desplazamiento)
Like / as (para comparaciones, ejemplos // como, en calidad de)
Solve # Resolve (= solucionar/solution // decidir/resolution/decide)
They solved the problem.
They resolve to go to the party.
Used to // Usually (= hbitos en el pasado // hbitos en el presente)
They used to sleep longer in summer
They ussually sleep less in winter.
Another (sing,) uno ms igual al anterior.
Please, give me a book ..... give me another (book).
Other (sing. o plural) otro ms distinto al anterior.
Please, give me a book ..... give me other (# book).
Pass (movement, go by)
I passsed in front of you and you didn't look at me.
Spend (occupy time, spend time = pasar el tiempo)
(buy things, spend money = gastar dinero)
I spent my holidays in Italy.
I spent a lot of maney.
Waste (malgastar el dinero)

91

(perder el tiempo)
I wasted my money.
I wasted the time.
Be (in position, place = estar en un lugar)
He is in Vigo.
Stand (on your feet = estar de pi)
He is tired because of standing in the bus.
Stay (not to go away = quedarse)
He didn't go to the party, he stayed at home.
I'm sitting = estoy sentado.
I'm standing = estoy de pi.
I'm kneeling = estoy arrodillado.
I'm lying = estoy tumbado.
To lie lied lied = mentir
He used to lie.
To lie lay lain = yacer, tumbarse
She lies in peace with her husband.
When she was dead, she lay in peace.
To lay laid laid = poner horinzontal (la mesa), colgarse
When she starts to lay from the tree, she broke one leg.
To raise raised raised = (tr) levantar, alzar
The soldiers raised the flags.
To rise rose risen = (intr) levantarse, salir el sol
I like to see the sun rising.
To hang hanged hanged = colgar, ahorcar, ejecutar a uno
The thieves were hanged by the police.

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To hang hung hung = colgar, estar colgado

Mary hung the clothes.
Hard (adj.): difficult The problem is hard.
(adv.): much I'm tired because I worked hard.
Hardly (adv.): scarcely = apenas I'm not tired because I hardly worked.
To live (verb) = vivir
lives (3rd person) = vive

I live in Vigo.

life (sust. sing.) = vida

He lives in Vigo.

lives (sust. plur.) = vidas

My life is very happy.

live (adj.) = en vivo, en directo

Their lives are very sad.

alive (adj.) = vivo no muerto (not dead)

The live concert was very good.

living (adj.) = que tiene vida interna,

He isn't dead, he is alive.

funcionamiento interno

it is a living essence.

(inner working)
Last = the final one (no hay m<s despuJs)
This has been my last exam in COU.
= the one before (el inmediatamente anterior)
Last night i went to the party.
Latest = the most recent (el m<s reciente): the latest one
I have just read Cela's latest novel (adn no muri\ y puede escribir m<s)
The last one = the last one up to now (el dltimo hasta el momento)
I have just read Shakespeare last novel (ya muri\, no puede escribir m<s)
Latter: the former ... the latter (el primero ... el dltimo de una enumeraci\n)
We went there with Peter and Mary; the former (Peter) invited us, the latter (Mary) paid for our dinner.
Late = after the time fixed (llegar despuJs de un tiempo)
You are always late.
Later = comparativo de "late"
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You are always later than me.

SIN NIMOS
look worried love hate break talk mend
watch preocupied like dislike crash speak repair
see anxiuous enjoy loathe crack chat fix
observe nervous keen on detest split converse
glance afraid adore can't stand destroy say
gaze frightened be fond of can't bear crush whisper
scan scared smash exclaim
fracture dialogue
gossip
critic
mad friend
crazy collegue
insane partner
fool classmate
nuts folk
pal
comrade
Distintos significados segn la pronunciacin
ROW /rou/ = remar/remo (paddle) The row (paddle) is broken.
/rou/ = fila de butacas: The last row in the cinema.
/rau/ = bronca, discusi\n: The row was very violent.
LEAD /li:d/ = dirigir, conducir: He led us towards that old castle.
/led/ = plomo: Lead is a metal.
LIVE /liv/ = (verb) vivir I live in Vigo.

94

/laiv/ = (adj.) en vivo, en directo The live concert was very good.
CONTENT /acento en "O"/ = contenido: The content of that film was very good.
/acento en "E"/ = contento: I'm content because I passed the exam.
OBJECT /acento en "O"/ = objecto: What is the object?
/acento en "E"/ = poner observacin a algo: OBJECT TO: I object to the law.
DESERT /'dezet/ = desierto: I went to desert.
/di'ze:t/ = desertar, abandonar: The soldier deserts the battle.
DESSERT /di'ze:t/ = postre: What is there for dessert?
WIND /wind/ = viento: The wind blew the roof.
/waind/ = dar cuerda: The company didn't give wind to the problem
ATTEND = asistir: He attended to school.
= atender: He attended his ill brother.
ASSIST = ayudar
RIGHT = derecho:Go straight/along the King Street, turn to the right and you get the coach station
= de acuerdo I'll see you tomorrow. All right!
= derechos (rights): People have rights and duties.
WILL = (aux. futuro): I'll see you tomorrow.
= testamento: The will was written by Mary.
FOOD = comida comprada en supermercado: When we go to supermarket I buy food.
MEAL = comida que se sirve en la mesa: Mary makes the meal every day.
LUNCH = comida del medioda He always have lunch at 2.00 a.m.
BREAKFAST = desayuno We always have breakfast at 7.30 a.m.
DINNER = cena We always have dinner at 6.00 a.m.
SUPPER = cena This is the last supper.
Prepositions
ON con das (si se menciona el da):

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DAYS week On Monday.

date On February 24th, 1953
On weekends
On holidays On Christmas Day
On my birthday On Christmas Eve
IN con unidades de tiempo menor o mayor que un da:
centuries In the 20th century
years In 1999
seasons In Winter
months in January
Partes del da In the morning/afternoon/evening.
Edades cronolgicas In the Middle Age.
AT con horas, clock, time // y excepciones de las anteriores:
At night/at noon/at dawn/at midday/at Christmas/at Easter
at midnight/at the moment/at lunchtime/at the age of. etc.
PROVERBS
Silence gives consent.

Quin calla, otorga.

From smoke into smother.

De Herodes a Pilatos

March winds and April showers bring forth May

flowers.

Marzo ventoso, Abril lluvioso sacan a Mayo

florido y hermoso.

The nearer the church, the farther from God.

Detrs de la Cruz est el diablo.

That is true which all men say.

Voz del pueblo, voz del cielo.

Bussiness is bussiness.

Los negocios son los negocios.

Travellers tell strange tales.

A luengas tierras, luengas mentiras.

Birds of a feather flock together.

Cada oveja con su pareja.

Ill weeds grow apace.

Mala hierba nunca muere.

Every dog has his day.

A cada puerco le llega su San Martn.

96

It is no use crying over spilt milk.

A lo hecho, pecho.

Misfortunes never come singly.

Las desgracias nunca vienen solas.

It never rains but it pour on the poor.

A perro flaco, todo son pulgas.

Watched pot never boils.

El que espera, desespera, y el que viene, nunca

llega.

The longest day will have an end.

No hay bien ni mal que cien aos dure.
What is bred in the narrow comes out in the bone.
La cabra siempre tira al monte.
Like master like man.
De tal palo, tal astilla.
Health is better than wealth.
La salud vale ms que el dinero.
God helps them that help themselves.
A dios rogando y con el mazo dando.
The pan calls the kettle black.
Dijo la sarten al cazo: "Apartate, que me tiznas.
All is not gold that glitters.
No es oro todo lo que reluce.
Where there is a will there is a way.
Querer es poder.
Hunger is the best sauce.
A buen hambre no hay pan duro.
There is many a slip 'twist the cup and the lip.
Del plato a la boca se pierde la sopa.
Look before you leap.
Antes que te cases, mira lo que haces.
There is no smoke without fire.
Cuando el rio suena, agua lleva.
More noise than work.
Mucho ruido y pocas nueces.
The early bird catches the worm.
Al que madruga Dios le ayuda.
No pains no gains.
No hay atajo sin trabajo.
Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones.
Love me, love my dog.

El que vea la mota en el ojo ajeno, vea la viga en

el propio.

One cannot make an omelet without breaking the eggs. Quin bien quiere a Beltrn, bien quiere a su
can.
Out of the frying pan into the fire.
No se pescan las truchas a bragas enjutas
There are none so deaf as those that won't hear.
Salir de las llamas y caer en las brasas.
Enough is as good as a feast.
No hay peor sordo que el que no quiere oir.
Cat after kind (or king).
Un "NO" a tiempo vale mucho dinero.
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Deeds are fruits, words are but leaves.

Dios los cra y ellos se juntan.

Hechos son amores y no buenas razones.

PROVERBS (2)
It's the last straw that breaks the camel's back.

Es la gota que colma el vaso.

The leopard cannot change its spots.

Genio y figura hasta la sepultura.

Life is not al beer and skittles.

No todo el monte es organo. La vida no es

coser y cantar. No es color de rosa.

Little pitchers have big ears.

Los nios tienen la costumbre de escuchar.
That is all my eye and Betty Martin.
That's all nonsense.
Big fleas have little fleas.
Todo lo grande o pequeo tiene sus problemas.
A burnt child dreads the fire.
Gato escaldado del agua huye.
Old birds are not caught with chaff.
The child is father of the man
The cobbler should stick to his last.

No es fcil engaar a un perro viejo. Ms

sabe el diablo por viejo que por diablo.
Viendo al nio que quiere saber que va a ser de
mayor.

Don't count your chickens before they are hatched.

Zapatero a los zapatos.
It's no use crying over spilt milk.
No hay que hacer castillos en el aire.
Every dog has his day.
The early bird catches the worm.

No vale la pena lamentarse de algo que no tiene

arreglo.

Even a worm will turn.

A todo cerdo le llega su San Martn.

All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

A quin madruga Dios le ayuda.

Take time by the forelock.

A la persona ms tranquila se le acaba la

paciencia en un momento determinado.

There's many a slip between cup and lip.

Todo el mundo necesita descanso y diversin.
There's no smoke without fire.
Coger la oprtunidad por los pelos.
You can't make silk purse out of sow's bristles.
Del plato a la boca se pierde la sopa.
There is no royal road to learning.
Cuando el ro suene agua lleva.
Rome was not built in a day.
Aunque la mona se vista de seda, mona es y mona
When poverty comes in at the door, love flies out of the se queda.
window.
No se aprende sin esfuerzo.
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One swallow does not make summer.

Zamora no se hace en una hora.

You can't make an omelette without breaking eggs.

Poverty mrried life is a great danger.

Don't look a gift horse in the mouth.

Una golondrina no hace verano.

A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

El que wuiere pesca que moje el culo.

As you make your bed, so you must lie on it.

A caballo regalado no le mires el diente.

Birds of a feather flock together.

Ms vale pjaro en mano que cien volando.

Blood is thicker than water.

Quin mala cama hace en ella yace.

You can't get blood out of a stone.

Dios los cria y ellos se juntan.

Those who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. Son muy fuertes los lazos de parentesco.
All is not gold that glitters.

No se puede sacar agua de las piedras. No le pidas

peran al olmo.

When Greek meets Greek, then comes the tug of war.

Nadie tira piedras contra su tejado.
Make hay while the sun shines.
No es oro todo lo que reluce.
Where ignorance is bliss, `tis folly to be wise.
A encounter between equals.
It's an ill wind that blows nobody any good.
Hacer el agosto. Aprovechar las circunsts.
In for a penny, in for a pound.
The labourer id worthy of his hire.

Es mejor ser ignorante, pues ser sabio crea

problemas.

What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander.

No hay mal que por bien no venga.

Every cloud has a silver lining.

Preso por mil, preso por 1.500.

A miss is as good as a mile.

A cada uno hay que darle lo que le corresp.

A fault confessed is half redressed.

Lo que es bueno para uno, es bueno para el otro.

Never say die.

No hay mal que por bien no venga aunque 100

aos dure.

A rolling stone gathers no moss.

Lo mismo de librase por poco que por mucho.
A stitch in time saves nine.
Si has cometido algo y lo ves compensado.
One man's meat is another man's poison.
nimo, mientras hay vida, hay esperanza.
It never rains but it pours.
Let not the sun go down upon thy wrath.

Si ests rodando continuamente, no llegas a

ninguna parte.

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He who pays the piper calls the tune.

Ms vale prevenir que curar, pero pronto.

Lo que para uno es bueno, para el otro es veneno.
Llueve sobre mojado, una desgracia nunca viene
sola.
No te vayas a la cama sin hacer las paces.
El que paga tiene derecho a escoger.

- PROVERBS - (Cont.)
absence Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
actions Acttions speak louder than words.
apple An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
bed As you make your bed so must you lie on it.
beggars Beggars must not bechoosers.
bed Early to bed, early to rise
Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.
bird A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
An early bird catches the worm.
Birds of a feather flock together.
bitten Once bitten, twice shy.
blood Blood is thicker than water.
You cannot get blood out of a stone.
boys Boys will be boys.
brooms New brooms sweep clean.
cake You cannot eat your cake and have it.
cat A cat may look at a king.
When the cat's away the mice will play.
charity Charity begins at home.
chickens Don'count your chickens until they are hatched.
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cloud Every cloud has a silver lining.

coat Cut your coat according to your cloth.
cooks Too many cooks spoil the broth.
courtesy Courtesy costs nothung.
dog Barking dogs seldom bite.
Every dog has his day.
Let sleeping dogs lie.
drowning A drowning man will clutch at a straw.
eggs Don't pull all your eggs in one basket.
enough Enough is as goos as a feast.
example Example is better than precept.
exchange Exchange is not robbery.
feathers Fine feathers make fine birds.
fire Where there's smoke there's fire.
first First come, first served.
fool A fool and his money are soon parted.
fortune Fortune knocks one at every man's door.
friend A friend in need is a friend indeed.
fruit Forbidden fruit tastes sweetest
frying-pan Out of the frying-pan into fire.
God God helps those who help themselves.
grasp Grasp all, lose all.
habit Habit is second nature.
hanged As well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb.
haste More haste, less spped.
hay Make hay while the sun shines.

101

heads Two heads are better than one.

heart Faint heart never won fair lady.
honesty Honesty is the best policy.
hunger Hunger is the best sauce.
hungry A hungry man is an angry man.
imitation Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.
lamb A pet lamb is a croos ram.
late Better late than never.
laugh Laugh and grow fat.
He laughs best who laughs last.
leak A small leak will sink a grat ship.
least Least said soonest mended.
listeners Listeners hear no good of themselves.
loaf Half a loaf is better than no bread.
look Look before you leap.
meat One man's meat is another man's poison.
miss A miss is as good as a mile.
necessity Necessity is the mother of invention.
news No news is good news.
pence Look after the pence and the pounds will look after themselves.
penny A penny saved is a penny gained.
In for a penny, in for a pound.
Penny wise, pound foolish.
EXERCISE.1.- Don't pull all your eggs in one basket.

A.- People mix with those who have tates similar to their
own.

2.- A rolling stone gathers no moss.

B.- Live within your means.
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3.- One man's meat is another man's poison.

C.- It is unwise to reckon your gains until you actually get

them.

4.- Make hay while the sun shines.

D.- Even when things seem gloomy there is alwasy hope.
5.- Empty vessels make most noise.
E.- You should not risk all you have in a single speculation.
6.- Cut your coat according to your cloth.
F.- What suits one prson may not suit another.
7.- Birds of a feather flock together.
8.- Every cloud has a silver lining.
9.- Out of the frying-pan into the fire.

G.- In trying to get yourself out of trouble you often get into
a worse one.
H.- It is the people who have nothing in their heads who talk
most.

10.- Don't count your chickens before they are

I.- One who often changes his job will never be rich.
hatched
J.- Work while you can; don't put things off till tomorrow.
PHRASAL VERBS
Verbos con adverbio/preposicin
To BREAK To LOOK
- away = irse, escaparse - at = mirar a
- down = averiarse, abatirse - after = cuidar de
desglosar, descomponer - down on = despreciar
- in = adiestrar, acondicionar - into = examinar
- into = violentar - for = bucar
- off = desgajar, dejar sin terminar - forward to = desear, tener ganas de
- out = estallar, hacer estallar - out = tener cuidado
- through = abrirse camino - over = ojear, echar un vistazo
- up = levantar la sesi\n - up = visitar, buscar en un diccionario, listin, etc.
To COME
- about = suceder, acaecer To CARRY
- across = atravesar, tropezarse con - on = continuar, seguir, comportarse
- off = desprenderse - out = sostener
- on = avanzar, adelantar - through = terminar

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- out = salir, nacer, adelantarse

- over = suceder To BRING
- round = volver en s, restablecerse - about = originar, provocar
- up = surgir - back = devolver
- round = persuadir
To GET - out = revelar, publicar
- away = huir - up = educar
- down = bajar, apearse, entristecerse
- off = bajarse de un vehiculo To GO
- on = subirse a un vehiculo - about = circular, emprender, intentar
progresar, llevarse bien con alguin - back = volver
- on with = progresar, llevarse bien con alguin - back on = retractarse
- out of = salir de - for = ir en busca de, favorecer, apoyar
- over = recuperarse, deshacerse de - in = entrar
- up = levantarse - in for = tomar parte en, favorecer
- into = meterse
To HOLD - off = dispararse, morirse
- up = parar, atracar - on = seguir, ocurrir
- on = esperar, aguantar - round = dar la vuelta
- out = aguantar, mantenerse firme - through = atravesar, pasar, sufrir
- over = aplazar, diferir - with = estar de acuerdo con, acompaar
- without = pasarse sin
To KEEP
- back = retener, suprimir, preservar To PUT
- down = sujetar - down = depositar, poner abajo
- on = seguir, proseguir - off = posponer, apagar, desconectar

104

- up = mantener, conservar, continuar - on = ponerse, conectar

- up = levantar, hospedar
- up with = soportar
To GIVE To RUN
- away = regalar, dar - away = huir
- back = devolver - away with = fugarse
- off = despedir, echar - down = difamar, hablar mal de
- on to = dar a - into = chocar, toparse con
- out = cansarse, rendirse - out of = quedarse sin existencias
- up = rendirse, dejar de (+-ING) - over = atropellar
To SEE To MAKE
- off = despedir, ir a despedir - for = contribuir
- about = averiguar - out = descubrir, descifrar, componer
- through = comprender, conocer - over = ceder
- to = atender - up = inventar, maquillarse, costear
To TAKE To TURN
- aback = dejar atnito, desconcertar - down = bajar el volumen, doblar
- after = parecerse a - into = convertirse en
- away = apartar, quitar - off = apagar, desconectar
- back = hacer volver, retroceder - on = encender, conectar
- down = escribir, tomar nota - up = aparecer
- in = incluir, admitir, engaar - out = apagar, resultar, suceder
- on = aceptar, comprender - over = entregar, invertir
- out = extraer, quitar - to = redundar en
- off = quitarse la ropa, despegar un avin
- over = tomar posesin de To WORK

105

- up = empezar, adoptar - out = calcular

THE GENDER
Kinds:
1.- Male
2.- Female
3.- Either male or female
4.- Neither male or female
These concepts reflected in grammatical gender of nouns
1) Masculine: man, bull
2) Femenine: woman, cow
3) Common words: student, friend
4) Neuter: tree, table
Sex in Modern English Grammar is expressed in various ways:
1) By the meaning of the noun itself:
COMMON MASCULINE FEMENINE
parent father mother
child boy girl
son daughter
spouse husband wife
youth lad lass
sovereign king queen
horse stallion mare
sheep ram ewe
deer (=ciervo) stag doe (hind)
swine (cerdo) boar sow
fowl cock hen

106

Some words have only masculine form:

MASCULINE FEMENINE
widower widow
bridegroom bride
bachelor spinster
nephew niece
lord lady
uncle aunt
master mistress
dog (hound) bitch (breach)
drake duck
brother sister
monk nun
gentleman lady
wizard (brujo) witch
gander (ganso) goose
cob (swan) cisne hen
2.- Masculine and Femenine are also indicated by addition of a suffix:
a) The most common femenine suffix is -ESS:
MASCULINE FEMENINE
abbot abbess
actor actress
baron baroness
duke duchess
emperor empress
god goddess

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host hostess
lion lioness
major majoress
prince princess
negro negress
tiger tigress
waiter waitress
b) Other femenine suffixes are:
-TRIX -INE -INA -ETTE -I -EUSE -ENNE
MASCULINE FEMENINE
administrator administratix
victor victrix
prosecutor prosecutrix
executor executrix
hero heroina
Joseph Josephina
Gzar Gzarina
Baron Baronette
fianc fiance
proteg protege
masseur masseuse
comedian comedienne
3.- By using an extra word which clearly shows the gender, either as suffix or prefix:
MASCULINE FEMENINE
doctor lady doctor
male nurse nurse

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boyfriend girlfriend
dog fox bitch fox (wixen)
Jackass Jenny ass
billy goat nanny goat (=niZera)
laundry man laundry woman
milkman milkmaid (milkwoman)
landlord landlady
tom cat tabby cat
cock pigeon hen pigeon
cock robin Jenny robin
4.- By use of pronouns = personal pronouns which refer to the nouns are the most common gender indicators
in English. The 3rd. person singular pronouns have different forms for masculine, femenine or neuter:
The student hadn't got her book with her.
My friend said that he had sold his house.
Sometimes the 3rd. person singular pronouns are prefixed to words to distinguish gender:
MASCULINE FEMENINE
a he-donkey a she-dankey
a he-devil a she-devil
a he-bear a she-bear
5.- Sometimes the words MALE/FEMALE are prefixed to othe words:
MASCULINE FEMENINE
a male cat a female cat
a male rabbit a female rabbit
COMMON GENDER.In English there are many words for animate beings that do not indicate their gender. That is to say, these
words indicate both masculine and femenine:
cousin friend person fool neighbiur

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When making a sentence using one of these words, when the gender is not known you can use "he/she/they":
Your cousin wrote but he/she didn't say his/her name.
All substantives coming from verbs to denote agents are common gender:
reader teacher drunkward inhabitant copyist liar
Some substantives coming from other substantives also denote common gender:
criminal librarian musician prisoner
Because of social conditions many common gender words are used only of:
1) males: baker, tailor, merchant, soldeir, shoemaker, captain
2) females: nurse, milliner (sombrerera), cook, flirt (maja), dressmaker
Some words having masculine or femenine forms have become common gender by using one of the forms to
denote the genus:
Masculine: man, dog, lion, jew
Femenine: duck, goose, hen, bee
UNNATURAL GENDER.Names of people.- They become neuter when the idea of personality is little developed:
baby. She was a baby. It is a girl.
When we wish to speak scornfully of a person we use the pronoun "that" or "it":
Would you like to be married to that? Fancy seeing it every day.
Name of animals.- domestic and large beasts are normally personified according to their sex:
I have a dog. His name is Sam.
With smaller animals and birds, the neuter is generally used, but some are referred to as masculine and some
as femenine:
Masculine: cuckoo, rabbit, mouse.
Femenine: dove, sparrow, lark, thrush, mole, bee, hare.
Name of things.- countries and cities are generally neuter, but in literary English they can be referred to as
femenine:
England ruled the seas thanks to its/her navy.
Sexless things.- generally referred to as femenine: moon, nature, sea, ships, engines, aircraft, motor-cars
110

... and abstract ideas.

Sexless things.- referred to as masculine: sun, rivers, mountains, war, death etc.
GENDER IN PRONOUNS.First and second person pronouns do not denote gender because it is clear from context:
I me my mine you your yours
For the third person there are three forms: Masculine, femenine and neuter. Sometimes this causes difficulties
in expression: it is necessary to use constructions like "he/she/they":
Nobody knows how to do that, do they?
The reader's heart, if he or she has a heart ...
Some pronouns are two-sex and some no-sex:
two-sex no-sex
Interrogative Who? what?
Relative Who which
Indefinite somebody something
anybody anything
everybody everything
VERBS USED WITH PREPOSITIONS
1.- The following verbs are used without a preposition in English, but with preposition in Spanish:
to abuse
to approach
to attend
to lack
to mock
to marry
to stop
to cease
to finish
to begin
to distrust
to enjoy
to doubt
to enter

Never abuse friendship

He approached the house
I attended the meeting
The poor man lacked means
They mocked me
John married Mary
He stopped working
I ceased working
He finished working
He began working
I distrust Michael
He enjoys good health
I doubt his word
They entered the shop

abusar de
acercarse a
asistir a
carecer de
burlarse de
casarse con
dejar de
cesar de
terminar de
empezar a
desconfiar de
disfrutar de
dudar de
entrar en
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to smoke
He smokes a pipe
fumar en
to play
They played football
jugar a
to ride
I like riding horses
montar a
to sound
This sounds hollow
sonar a
2.- The following verbs are used with a preposition in English, but without a preposition in Spanish:
to ask for
He asked for a book
pedir
to listen to
They listened to the radio
escuchar
to hope for
We hoped for a fine day
esperar
to look at
She looked at the picture
mirar
to look for
I was looking for my watch
buscar
to operate on
They operated on Mary
operar
to pay for
I will pay for the ticket
pagar
to point at
He pointed at me
sealar
to search for
He searched for his papers
buscar
to wait for
I was waiting for the bus
esperar
to rob of
They robbed me of my watch
robar
to steal from
They stole my watch from me
robar
to remind of
That reminds me of England
recordar
3.- The following verbs are used with a preposition in English, but a different preposition in Spanish:
to buy from
I bought a book brom the bookseller
Comprar a
to congratulate on
I congratulated him on his success
felicitar por
to consist of
All consisted of doing it
Consistir en
to demand of
They demanded too much of John
exigir a
to depend on
It depends of the circumstances
Depender de
to fall into
He fell into the river
caerse en
to live on
He lives on charity
vivir de
to marvel at
He marvelled at the news
Maravillarse de
to play a trick on
They played a trick on John
gastar una broma a
to think of
He thought of his children
pensar en
to translate into
Translate this into English
traducir al
to dream of
I dreamt of you last night
soar con
to smell of
This smells of soap
oler a
to taste of
This tastes of fish
saber a
VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE PREPOSITIONS: OF/FROM/IN/ON/TO/AT/FOR and WITH
OF: accuse, approve, assure, beware, boast (or ABOUT), complain (or ABOUT), consist, convince (or
ABOUT), cure, despair, dream (or ABOUT), expect (or FROM), hear (or FROM), be/get rid, smell, suspect,
taste, think (or ABOUT), tire(d), warn (or AGAINST)
FROM: borrow, defend (or AGAINST), demand (or OF), differ, dismiss, draw, emerge, escape, excuse (or
FOR), hinder, prevent, prohibit, protect (or AGAINST), receive, separate, suffer
IN: believe, delight, employ(ed), encourage, angage(d), experience(d), fail, help (or WITH), include, indulge,
instruct, interest(ed), invest, share, involve(d), persist.
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ON: act, base(d), call, comment, concentrate, congratulate, consult (or ABOUT), count, decide, depend,
economize, embark, experiment, insist, live, rely, lean (or AGAINST), operate, perform (or IN), write (or
ABOUT), pride (oneself), vote (ON a motion; FOR someone).
TO: accustom(ed), amount, appeal, apply (or FOR), attach(ed), attend, belong, challenge, compare (or
WITH), condemn(ed), confess, consent, convert, entittle(d), listen, mention, object, occur, prefer, react (or
AGAINST), respond, reply, see, submit, surrender, turn, yield.
AT: amuse(d) (or BY), arrive (or IN), astonish(ed) (or BY), exclaim, glance, guess, knock, look, point (or
TO), shock(ed) (or BY), stare, work (or ON), surprise(d) (or BY), wonder (or ABOUT).
FOR: account, ask (or OF), act (or ON), apologize, blame, beg, call, charge, exchange, hope, look, mistake,
mourn, pay, prepare, provide, search, thank, vote (or ON), wait (or ON).
WITH: agree, begin, communicate, compare (or TO), complete (or AGAINST), comply, confuse, contrast (or
TO), cope, correspond, disgust(ed), finish, help (or IN), interfere (or IN), mix, occupy(ied), part, please(d),
quarrel (or ABOUT), reason, satisfy(ied) (or BY), threaten(d).
WORDS FOLLOWED BY FOR/WITH/OF/TO/AT/FROM/IN/ON and ABOUT
FOR: eager, enough, famous, fit, gateful (or TO), qualified (or IN), sorry, ready (or TO), responsible,
sufficient, thankful (or TO), valid.
WITH: angry (WITH someone; AT something), busy (or AT), consistent, content, familiar (or TO), identical,
patient, popular.
OF: afraid, ahead, aware, capable, careful (or WITH), certain, conscious, envious, fond, guilty, ignorant,
independent, jealous, kind (or TO), north/south/east/west, short, shy, sure, worthy.
TO: close, contrary, cruel, dear, equal, faithful, fatal, harmful, inferior, indifferent, liable, new, obedient,
obvious, polite, previous, rude, similar, sensitive, useful.
AT: bad, clever, efficient, expert (or IN), good, indignant, quick, slow, sad (or ABOUT), skilful (or IN).
FROM: away, different, far, safe.
IN: deficient, fortunate, honest, weak.
ON: dependent, intent, keen.
ABOUT: curious, doubtful (or OF), enthusiastic, relunctant (or TO), uneasy, right (or IN).
This section consists of a list of verbs, adjectives and particles with the particular preposition that usually
follow them. The vebs list has been compiled in the form of sentence examples. The adjective and particle
lists give a phrase only:
They abandoned their fellow soldiers TO the enemy
(left)

He died FOR his beliefs

He died FROM/OF starvation

They were alsolved FROM blame for the mistake

My ideas differ FROM yours
He was too absorved IN his work to hear the bell
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She had to answer/account TO her father for her

behaviour

We differ IN our ideas

We differ ON this idea

They were accused OF stealing

We differ WITH each other ON this
They were acquitted OF blame for the mistake libertar
She directed her remarks AT her father
absolver
He was accustomed TO a large breakfast

She directed him TO the station

She acquainted him WITH the situation (informar a

uno sobre)

He disagreed WITH her ON/OVER the matter

Money problems only added TO their unhappiness

The dustman disposed OF five tons of rubbish

yesterday

He could not adjust TO thr new conditions

They dreamt OF winning a fortune

The question admits OF several answers

Wide-eyed, they drank IN the beauty of the place

He admitted TO being the thief (confesarse culpable

de)

They drank TO better days

The evening ended IN confusion (result)

They admitted him TO their plans

The evening ended WITH a dance (conclude)
They agreed ON/ABOUT the question
We must enrol FOR the exam before next week
She agreed TO his suggestion
He exchanged his house FOR a bigger one
He agrred WITH his father on the plan
They excluded him FROM the club (deny entry to)
He aimed the gun AT the target
He apologized TO her for his behaviour (disculparse
con)

They excused him FOR his absence (for not bring

there)

Delighted, she approved OF his behaviour

They excused him FROM attending (allow not to be

there)

He armed himself AGAINST possible danger

She failed IN her exam

She asked at the hotel FOR her friend (ask to see)

She failed IN trying to pass the exam

She asked at the hospital ABOUT her friend (ask how He fell INTO the habit of not attending
s/o is)
They feed mostly ON vegetables
She asked a favour OF her (ask s/o to do domething)
She fed him WITH a spoon
They would not associate WITH his friends
She told him not to fuss OVER her
Wise investments assured him OF large income
He was gladdened BY her good news
She was very attached TO her aunt (fond of)
In passing they glanced AT him
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He attached his caravan TO his car

He asked them to glance THROUGH the notebook

She asked him to bear WITH her temper (tolerate)

She grieved AT the bad news

He began BY playing a concerto

She grieved FOR the missing child

He began WITH a concerto

He grieved OVER the past

They believed strongly IN internationalism

She helped him IN/OVER this matter

That book belongs TO me

She helped him WITH the English

He boasted OF his success at billiards

They hid FROM her in the celler

She borrowed a pond FROM his sister

They hinted AT the idea that she was wealthy

Thieves broke INTO the bank

They improved ON the old engine with the new one

He broke himself OF smoking

He inculcated knowledge UPON her

She broke WITH him after a row

She insisted ON coming with us

He brushed the dust FROM/OFF his coat

He was inspired WITH courage by her example

She burst INTO tears at the news

He was inspired BY her

The smouldering rags burst INTO flames

He instilled knowledge INTO her

She did not care ABOUT/FOR reading her uncle

She joined IN the singing

He changed his scooter FOR a car

She joined WITH us in singing the song

He changed FROM elementary to an intermediate

class

They judged her BY/ON her performance

Unkindly they laughed AT her

She changed INTO something warmer (put on warmer clothes)

In support they laughed WITH her

How much were you charge FOR dinner?

He was leaning AGAINST the wall smoking

He was charged WITH careless driving

He leaned ON his brother for support

They commented ON his behaviour (speak about)

Don't meddle IN/WITH other people's affairs

He compared her WITH her friend

They objected TO her bahaviour (dislike, complain)

He compared her TO a flower

The doctor operated ON him for a cyst

They competed WITH one another FOR the job

Although panniless she would not part WITH her

jewellery

She complained TO him ABOUT his friend

They were prohibited FROM buying arms
115

They concealed the news FROM him (keep from)

He played FOR England at Lord's

We concentrated ON doing one job at at time

It is rude to point AT someone

She concluded FROM his remark that he was angry

(deduce)

You may however point TO someone or something

(indicate)

He confused her WITH her friend

They presented him WITH a clock when he retired

She was confused BY his directions

They presented a clock TO him when he retired

I congratulated him ON winning

They prevented him FROM buying a house

Her father consented TO her engagement

He provided FOR her in his will

Civilisation consists IN having a constructed attitude He provided her WITH a car

Porridge consists OF oatmeal and water

They quarrelled ABOUT/OVER money

It downed ON them that they had been tricked

(realise)

They quarrelled WITH their neighbours

A greengrocer deals IN vegetables

We deal WITH the greengrocer at the corner

She reckoned ON inheriting a few thousand when he

died
She had to reckon WITH his mother (deal with, take
into account)

She delighted IN listening to music

He soon recover FROM flu
He depends ON his father for allowance
She succeeded IN passing the exam
They deprived the prisoner OF his property and
money

She succeeded TO her father's property

The word isosceles derived FROM the Greek

He supplied her WITH a car

She asked him not to refer TO the matter again

He supplied a car TO the hotel

He reflected ON her attitude character (think about)

She suspected him OF stealing

He released her FOM her promise

They swore AT the man for his bad driving

She relied ON her father for everything

He swore ON the Bible he was telling the truth

She soon replied TO their letter

She sympathised WITH him in his loss

He reprimanded them FOR arriving late

He threatened them WITH the police

Illness resulted FROM lack of food

He threw the book AT them in anger

The game resulted IN a draw

He threw the coin TO a poor man

He ruled ON the case very carefully (give judgement) She was treated FOR the complaint by a specialist
116

He ruled OVER a large kingdom

He treated her TO a drink

This serviette ring serves AS an egg-cup

She translated an English novel INTO Finnish

He served the summons ON the debtor

He asked the operator not to trouble herself ABOUT

looking up the number

She served WITH the W.R.N.S. during the war

We trust IN him (believe in)
His creditors settled FOR anything they could get
We trust TO his honesty (believe in)
He retired and settled IN a seaside town
We would trust him WITH everything we have
He settled WITH his creditors
These figures vary FROM the official ones (differ)
She shared IN her husband's worries
The tides vary WITH the moon (alter)
She shared the money WITH him
She vouched FOR her friend's honesty
They sheltered FROM the storm, by standing in a
doorway

They watched hopefully FOR the sign that he was

getting better

The markman shot AT the clay pigeon

He shouted AT the man who annoyed him (speak
badly)

The mother watched OVER her child(take care of,

guard )
He wrote to his friend ABOUT the exhibition

He shouted ACROSS the valley TO his friend (call to)

They yielded TO the enemy's demands
She spoke OF the man as an old friend
She spoke ABOUT/OF a matter I thought was secret
He spoke TO his friend
The general spoke WITH the soldiers
In this list the short forms s/o, s/th have been used for someone and something:
abridgement OF a book

destructive OF an abstract idea

absent FROM class

destructive TO something concrete

agreeable TO a suggestion

detrimental TO something

alive TO a possibility

devoid OF a quality

alive WITH ideas/insects

different FROM s/o or s/th

aloof FROM a situation

disappointed BY soemthing

angry WITH someone

disappointed WITH someone

angry AT her behaviour

disgusted AT/WITH s/o or s/th

117

antipathetic TO an idea

disgusted BY something

anxious ABOUT/FOR someone

displeased AT something

apparent FROM a remark

displeased WITH someone

apparent IN her behaviour

eager FOR something

apparent TO everyone

eligible FOR something

appreciative OF someone

employed AT a place

apprehensive FOR s/o's safety

employed BY someone

apprehensive OF someone

employed IN a job

apt + infinitive with TO

envious OF s/o or s/th

ashamed OF someone

equivalent IN (literally)

attentive TO someone

What is the equivalent TO (figuratively)

auxiliary TO something

What is dog equivalent TO in Latin?

averse TO an idea

evident FROM a statement

avoidance OF s/o or s/th

exception TO a rule

aware OF something

exclusive OF tax

awkward AT doing something

except FROM tax

awkward IN a situation

faithful TO someone/something

basis FOR agreement

familiar TO someone (known to someone)

basis IN fact

familiar WITH someone (onclose terms with)

blind TO something

familiar WITH something

bound FOR somewhere

famous FOR something

capable OF something

favorable FOR something

cautious OF acting

favorable TO someone

celebrated FOR a performance

filled WITH something

characteristic OF someone

full OF something

comparable TO something

equivalent OF dog in Latin?

118

compatible WITH something

good AT games

conditional (UP) ON something

good FOR you (health)

conductive TO something

good OF you to do s/th (kind)

consistent WITH something

good TO a needy (charity)

deaf TO an appeal

good WITH children (understanding)

deficient IN something

good WITH food (accompany)

grateful TO someone BY something

qualified BY experience FOR a job

hatred OF someone

quick AT a subject

hostile TO s/o or s/th

quick IN movement

identical WITH something

reckless OF danger

impassive TO something

regardless OF consequences

impatient AT an obatacle

related BY marriage

impat ient OF success

related IN other ways

impatient WITH someone

related TO each other

(im)polite TO someone

responsible TO someone FOR something

inappropiate FOR someone

revenge ON someone FOR something

inappropiate TO something

rich IN minerals

incapable OF something

safe FROM something (an enemy)

indebted TO someone FOR something

safe WITH someone

independent IN attitude

schooled IN something

independent OF someone

sensible OF something (aware, grateful for)

indifferent TO someone/something

sensitive TO unkindness

injurious TO health

sick OF doing something

innocent OF something

sick WITH an illness

inseparable FROM someone/something

solicitious OF something

(ir)relevant TO something

sufficient FOR one's needs

119

jealous OF someone/something

suitable FOR a purpose

kind Of you to call

suitable TO one's needs or position

kind TO friends

surprised AT/BY something

liable FOR something TO someone

surprised INTO doing something

liable TO do something

suspicious OF someone

loyal TO someone

sympathetic TOWARDS someone

mad AT someone

terrified BY someone/something

mad WITH pain

thoughtful FOR/OF people

noted FOR something

thoughtless OF people

obidient TO someone/something

tolerant IN a matter

oblivious OF something

unequal IN skill

the (an) opportunity OF

unequal TO demands

an oportunity TO

unjust TO someone

orthodox IN something

unmindful OF something

parallel TO/WITH something

valued IN ,50

particular ABOUT something

valued FOR her good qualities

peculiar TO somewhere

vexed AT something

pleased BY something

vexed WITH someone ABOUT/FOR something

pleased WITH someone/something

void OF something

popular WITH someone

weak AT languages

presumptuous OF him

weak IN vitamins

proud OF someone/something
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING WITH SUITABLE PREPOSITIONS:
1. She admitted him ______ her plans.
2. Burglars broke ______ their flat.
3. The surgeon operated ______ him for appendicitis.
4. He presented the fireman ______ a medal.
120

NOMBRES COMPUESTOS
BError! Marcador no definido.

BLACK-OUT = mareo, amnesia temporal

HANG-OVER = resaca (bebida/guerra)

BLAST-OFF = lanzamiento

HANGERS-ON = parsitos, pegotes

BREAKDOWN = interrupcin, fracaso

HIDE-OUT = escondrijo, guarida

avera, crisis

HOLD-UP = retraso, demora, ATRACO

BREAK-OUT = evasin, fuga

BREAK-THROUGH = descubrimiento

INTAKE = admisin, entrada (alumnos)

BREAK-UP = separacin

BUILD-UP = concentracin de fuerzas

LAY-BACK = trampa habitual

BY-PASS = carretera de circunvalacin

LAY-OFF = paro involuntario

LAY-OUT = plan, trazado, distribucin

CALL-UP = reclutamiento

LET-DOWN = decepcin, chasco

CARRY-ON = embrollo, lo

LEFT-OVERS = sobras (comida etc.)

CARRYINGS-ON = relaciones amorosas

LET-UP = calma, respiro, tregua, RELAX

ilicitas

LOOKER-ON = espectador, mirn/mirona

CAVE-IN = socavn, derrumbamiento

LOOK-OUT = vigilancia, puesto de

CHANGE-OVER = cambio

observacin

CHECK-UP = chequeo

LOOK-OVER = echar un vistazo

CLEAN-OUT = limpieza a fondo

LOW-DOWN = informes confidenciales

CLOSE-UP = primer plano

COMEBACK = rehabilitacin, acciones

MIX-UP = confusin, lRo

BONDS = obligaciones

COMEDOWN = humillacin, revs, bajn

OFF-SHOOT = vstago (Bot), ramal

CUTBACK = corte

sucursal subsidiaria

OFF-CHANCE = posibilidad remota

121

DOWN-FALL = caida, ruina

OUT-BREAK = brote, estallido, epidemia

DOWNPOUR = chaparrn, aguacero

OUT-BURST = explosin

D. Day = da, momento crtico

OUTCOME = resultado

DRAWBACKS=inconveniente, desventajas

OUT-CRY =grito, protesta pblica (ruidosa)

DRESSING-DOWN=reprimenda, rapapolvo

OUTLAY = desembolso, inversin

DROPPING-OFF = bajada en N de .....

OUT-LET = punto de venta, salida

DROPPING-OUT = darse de baja, retirarse

OUTLOOK = perspectiva, punto de vista,

ACTITUD

FALL-OUT = polvillo radioactivo

OUTPUT = produccin

FLARE-UP =arranque de clera,ria, estalli-

ONSET = comienzo, ataque, arremetida

do sbito, manisfestacin,

ruptura de hostilidades

PAY-OFF = momento decisivo, COLMO

FLASH-BACK = escena retrospectiva

coyuntura crtica

FRAME-UP = conspiracin

ROUND-UP = redada, rodeo, investigacin a gran

escala

GET-AWAY = escapada
RUNNER-UP = subcampen/subcampeona
GET-UP = atavos
U
GO-AHEAD = luz verde, permiso o seal
UPBRINGING = educacin
para construir
UPKEEP = mantenimiento, conservaci\n
GO-BETWEEN = intermediario
UPSHOT = resultado, consecuencia
GOINGS-ON = actividades/conducta
UPSTART = arribista, insolente, presumido
sospechosas
UP-SURGE = acceso, aumento grande
S
UPTAKE = entendimiento, aprensin
SEND-OFF = despedida (por todo lo alto)
UPTURN = mejora, aumento
SETBACK = revs, contratiempo
W
SET-TO = bronca, pelea (coloquial)
WALK-OUT = salida, huelga, retirada
122

SET-UP = situacin, tinglado

WASH-OUT = fracaso total, calamidad

SHAKE-UP = reorganizacin, conmocin

WRITE-OFF = perdida total, depreciacin

SHOWDOWN = confrontacin, conflicto

(coche inservible)

SPLASHDOWN = amerizaje

WRITE-UP = reportaje/crnica muy

STAND-BY = persona de toda confianza,

Elogiosa

recurso seguro
STAND-IN = suplente (CINE = doble)
SHOW-OFF = presumido, ostentoso (pers.)
T
TAKEOVER = toma de posesin, entrada
en funciones, ABSORCION
TAKING-TO = rapapolvos
TIE-UP = enlace, paralizacin (por huelga)
embotellamiento (trfico)
TIP-OFF=advertencia clandestina, SOPLO
aviso
TURN-OUT=concurrencia, N de asistentes
entrada, pdblico
TURN-OVER=volumen de negocios,ventas
rotacin de existencias, N de
mercancias
Uses of main verbs DO and MAKE
The general rule is that DO means "perform an action", while MAKE has a much more concrete meaning of
"build", "prepare" etc. In addition to this, there are, of course, many idiomatic expressions where this basic
rule is not always observed; the most common of these expressions are:
DO = PERFORM AN ACTION MAKE = CREATE
do something make a chair
do nothing make a noise
123

do some work make friends

do an exercise make money
do an examination make profits
do good make the beds
do wrong make war
do a task make peace
do well make a fuss
do badly make a face
do a favour make a trip
do justice make room of
do business make trouble
do one's duty make one's heir
do one's hair make a scene
VERBOS IRREGULARES INGLESES
Infinitive
to be
to bear
to beat
to become
to begin
to bend
to bite
to bleed
to blow
to break
to bring
to build
to burn
to burst
to buy
to catch
to choose
to come
to cost

Pasado
was/were
bore
beat
became
began
bent
bit
bled
blew
broke
brought
built
burnt
burst
bought
caught
chose
came
cost

Participio
been
borne/born
beaten
become
begun
bent
bitten
bled
blown
broken
brought
built
burnt
burst
bought
caught
chosen
come
cost

Significado:
ser o estar
soportar, sufrir
golpear, vencer
hacerse
empezar
doblar, torcer
morder
sangrar
soplar
romper
traer
construir, edificar
quemar
estallar, reventar
comprar
coger, atrapar
escoger, elegir
venir
costar
124

to cut
to dig
to do
to draw
to dream
to drink
to drive
to eat
to fall
to feed
to feel
to fight
to find
to fly
to forbid
to forgive
to forget
to freeze
to get
to give
to go
to grow
to hang
to have
to hear
to hide
to hit
to hold
to hurt
to kneel
to know
to lay
to learn

cut
dug
did
drew
dreamt
drank
drove
ate
fell
fed
felt
fought
found
flew
forbade
forgave
forgot
froze
got
gave
went
grew
hung
had
heard
hid
hit
held
hurt
knelt
knew
laid
learnt

cut
dug
done
drawn
dreamt
drunk
driven
eaten
fallen
fed
felt
fought
found
flown
forbidden
forgiven
forgotten
frozen
got
given
gone
grown
hung
had
heard
hidden
hit
held
hurt
knelt
known
laid
learnt

to leave

left

left

to lend
to let
to lie
to light
to lose
to make
to mean
to meet

lent
let
lay
lit
lost
made
meant
met

lent
let
lain
lit
lost
made
meant
met

cortar
cavar
hacer
dibujar, tirar de
soar
beber
conducir
comer
caer, caerse
alimentar, dar de comer
sentir, palpar
luchar
encontrar
volar
prohibir
perdonar
olvidar
helar, congelar
conseguir, obtener
dar
ir
crecer, cultivar
colgar
haber, tener
oir
esconder
pegar, golpear
sostener, agarrar
herir
arrodillarse
saber, conocer
poner horizontal
aprender
abandonar, salir,
marchar
prestar
permitir, dejar, alquilar
yacer, tumbarse
encender
perder
hacer
significar, querer decir
encont rarse
125

Infinitive
to pay
to put
to read
to ride
to show
to shut
to sing
to sit
to ring
to rise
to run
to say
to see
to seek
to sell
to send
to set
to shake
to shine
to shoot
to sleep
to slide
to smell
to speak
to spell(ed)
to spend
to spin
to spit
to spoil(led)
to stand
to steal
to stink
to strike
to swear
to sweep
to swell
to swim
to swing
to take
to teach
to tear
to tell

Pasado
paid
put
read
rode
showed
shut
sang
sit
rang
rose
ran
said
saw
sought
sold
sent
set
shook
shone
shot
slept
slid
smelt
spoke
spelt
spent
spun/span
spat
spoilt
stood
stole
stank/stunk
struck
swore
swept
swelled
swam
swang
took
taught
tore
told

Participio
paid
put
read
ridden
shown
shut
sung
sit
rung
risen
run
said
seen
sought
sold
sent
set
shaken
shone
shot
slept
slid
smelt
spoken
spelt
spent
spun
spat
spoilt
stood
stolen
stunk
struck
sworn
swept
swollen
swum
swung
taken
taught
torn
told

Significado:
pagar
poner
leer
cabalgar, montar
mostrar, ensear
cerrar
cantar
sentarse
sonar, timbrar
levantarse, salir sol
correr
decir
ver
buscar
vender
enviar
establecer
agitar
brillar
disparar
dormir
deslizarse
oler
hablar
deletrear
gastar, pasar el tiempo
hacer girar
escupir
desarramar, estropear
estar de pi
robar
oler mal
golpear, pegar
blasfemar
barrer
hinchar
nadar
mecer, balancear
tomar, llevar
ensear
rasgar
decir, contar, ralatar
126

to think
thought
thought
to throw
threw
thrown
to tread
trod
trodden
to undergo
underwent
undergone
to understand
understood
understood
to undertake
undertook
undertaken
to wake
woke
woken
to wear
wore
worn
to win
won
won
to wind
wound
wound
to wring
wrung
wrung
to write
wrote
written
TOP FORTY OF THE MOST FATAL MISTAKES

pensar, creer
arrojar, tirar
pisar
sufrir
entender, comprender
emprender
despertar
llevar puesto, usar
ganar
dar cuerda
retorcer
escribir

1,. DIvide your writings into paragraphs.2.- WORD ORDER:

- S.V.O. - Remember nothing can come between the verb and its object.
- Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time, place and manner usually come at the end of the sentence.
- Adverbs of frequency and degree are usually placed before the main verb.
- Adjectives come before the noun (Multiple Premodification)
3.- VERBS:
- If you are telloing a story in the PAST, use the PAST.
- If the verb is irregular, you should know its forms too.
- Don't forget the -s or -es of the third singular person.
- With some verbs you have to use a certain pattern, be careful with:
* Modal verbs (all of them take an infinitive withouit TO, except OUGHT TO and USED TO).
* Make somebody do something.
* Want somebody to do something.
* Explain something to somebody.
* Be/Get used to doing something.
* Used to do something (expresses a habit in the past only, to refer to a habit in the present use the Present
Simple with an adverb of frequency).
* Suggest doing something (includes the speaker).
127

* Suggest that somebody should do something.

* Allow somebody to do soemthing.
* Look forward to doing something.
* Enjoy something/Enjoy doing something/Enjoy oneself.
* Like or Dislike doing something.
* I wish with the Simple Past expresses a wish regarding the PRESENT.
* I wish with the Past Perfect expresses a wish regarding the PAST.
4.- DETERMINERS and PRONOUNS:
- A/ An.
- Revise the use of definite and indefinite articles.
- Be careful with This and These
- Another/Other
- Neither/None
5.- PREPOSITIONS:
- Think OF/ABOUT.
- At that moment.
- Arrive AT/IN.
- UNTIL with expressions of TIME // AS FAR AS with expressions of PLACE.
- Based ON
- Get married TO somebody/Marry somebody (never WITH).
- Fall OFF a bike, a horse, a table, etc.
- ON with dates or days of the week.
- IN with months, seasons (except AT Christmas/Easter), years, centuries, parts of the day (except AT
night/midday).
- ON television/Channel 2, etc.
- BY goes with the agent of the passive voice.
- ON the coast.
128

- Depend ON.
- Consist OF
- Interested IN
- If a verb is followed by a PREPOSITION, the GERUND (-ing form) must be used.
6.- NOUNS:
- Be careful with irregular plurals (men, women, children, feet ...).
- Use a plural verb with a plural noun (people, police ...).
- Remember every verb needs a subject but don't double IT.
- The Saxon Genitive: use it only for people, be careful with the order of elements, the articles and plural
possessors.
7.- GRAMMAR IN GENERAL:
- To express purpose use the infinitive with TO.
- The construction FOR + GERUND is used when you are describing an object.
- To express purpose it is also possible to use IN ORDER TO/SO AS or SO THAT, the problem is that the
latter is only used when there are two different subjects:
(e.g. I study English IN ORDER TO get a better job, but I've opened the window SO THAT we can
breathe some fresh air).
- Relative Clauses.
* Use the appropiate relative in each case.
* If the relative is the subject of the clause do not use another one.
* Punctuation is crucial for the meaning. The distinction between Defining and Non-defining should be clear.
* Double negatives.
8.- SPELLING:
- Nationality words with CAPITALS.
- Days of the weeks with CAPITALS.
- Double consonats.
9.- VOCABULARY:
- BORING / BORED, etc. (adj=aburrido=es aburrido/adj=aburrido=estar aburrido)
129

- ACTUALLY (adv=realmente, en realidad)

- STORY / HISTORY (cuento, historieta/historia (asignatura))
- END / ENDING (fin/final)
- AFTER / AFTERWARDS (prep,conj./adv.)
- KNOW / MEET (saber, conocer/encontrarse con, toparse con)
- EXIT / SUCCESS
- WORK / JOB
- TO REALISE SOMETHING / TO MAKE A DREAM COME TRUE
- TRAVEL / TRIP / JOURNEY
- NOTICE / NEWS
- ON THE ONE HAND / ON THE OTHER HAND
- PROGRAM / PROGRAMME
- ATTEND / ASSIST
- CAREER / UNIVERSITY COURSE
- LIKE / AS
- AVOID / PREVENT
- FOLLOW / CONTINUE
- LAST / LATEST
- COOK / COOKER
- ECONOMIC / ECONOMICAL
- CLASSIC / CLASSICAL
- PASS / SPEND
These pairs of words frequently occur together in English, joined by and. Say which is the order in which they
are generally used. Then put them into sentences that will illustrate their meanings and uses:
example: seek Answer: hide and seek
hide Sentence: The children are playing hide and seek in the garden.
chips dry shoulders prim &
130

fish & high & head & proper

pros & tear buried cock &
cons wear & dead & bull
weather spick & steak & dried
wind & span kidney cut &
cat & song & blood eggs
dog dance flesh & ham &
fast far & bricks & by &
hard & wide mortar large
good & ladies & sick & figures
chattels gentlemen tired facts &
women rules & high-water needles
men & regulations hell & pins &
women & collar & to & waifs &
children tie fro strays
ink tooth & simple sticks &
pen & nail pure & stones
drakes bits & thunder odds &
ducks & pieces blood & ends
forks sound
knives & safe &
GRAMTICA ESPA OLA
1.- El Artculo:
Es el que va colocado delante del nombre para determinar o sealar su gnero y su nmero.
Singular: el, la, lo (masculino, femenino, neutro)
DETERMINADO
Plural: los, las (masculino y femenino)
Singular: un, una (masculino y femenino)
131

INDETERMINADO
Plural: unos, unas (masculino y femenino)
ART CULOS CONTRACTOS: al (a + el); del (de + el)
El artculo concuerda con el nombre en gnero y nmero.
2.- El Adjetivo
Es la parte de la oracin que sirve para expresar ciertas cualidades del sustantivo o para limitar su
sugnificacin.
Ej.: Mesa grande (cualidad)
Esta mesa (se trata de una mesa en concreto)
Por tanto el adjetivo se divide en determinativo y calificativo.
DETERMINATIVO
Son los que limitan la significacin del sustantivo con indicacin de lugar, posesin, nmero ... etc.
Por tanto se dividen en: Demostrativos, Posesivos, Numerales e Indefinidos
Demostrativos: Acompaan al nombre e indican su proximidad o lejana con
relacin al que habla.

Singular

Plural

Masculino
1 persona: este

Femenino
esta

2 persona: ese

esa

3 persona: aquel

aquella

1 persona: estos

estas

2 persona: esos

esas

3 persona: aquellos

aquellas

Posesivos: Acompaan al nombre e indican que lo expresado por el sustantivo

pertenece a algun dueo.

Singular

1 persona:

Masculino
singular
mi

plural
mis

Femenino
singular
mi

plural
mis

2 persona:

tu

tus

tu

tus

3 persona:

su

sus

su

sus
132

Plural

1 persona:

nuestro

nuestros

nuestra

nuestras

2 persona:

vuestro

vuestros

vuestra

vuestras

3 persona:

su

sus

su

sus

Numerales: Son los que limitan la extensin del sustantivo indicando nmero u orden.
Ej.: veinte marcas de vehculos; segunda vez ... etc.
CLASES:
Cardinales: que expresan nmero: uno, dos, tres ... mil etc.
Ordinales: que indican el lugar que un objeto ocupa en una serie ordenada de objetos.
Ej.: las primeras industrias regionales.
Indefinidos: Son aquellos que completan la significacin del sustantivo, pero de
un modo vago y general.
Ej.: algunos empleados; ciertas piezas .... etc.
CLASES:
Indefinidos cuantitativos
Mucho bastante otro alguno

Indefinidos distributivos
cada

Poco tanto tal unos

sendos
Todo cuanto cualquiera ambos
unos ... otros
Varios demasiado cierto entrambos
CALIFICATIVOS
Son los que dicen como son las personas, animales o las cosas.
Ej.: carretero serio; mulas tordas; ruedas verdes
El gnero y nmero del adjetivo siempre es el mismo que el de los sustantivos.
Ej.: caballo delantero; mulas tordas.
Segn el gnero los adjetivos pueden ser de dos terminaciones: buen-o/-a; o de una terminacin: verd-e,
az-ul, valient-e.
Para la formacin del femenino o del plural, el adjetivo sigue generalmente las mismas reglas que el
sustantivo.
Apcope del adjetivo: Hay adjetivos calificativos que suprimen algunos de sus sonidos finales cuando van
delante del sustantivo.
133

Ej.: grande ... gran; bueno ... buen; santo ... san; malo ... mal.
Grados del Adjetivo
Los grados del adjetivo expresan las cualidades de un sustantivo poseidas en unas proporciones distintas.
Ej.: el coche es rpido; el tren es ms rpido; el avin es rapidsimo.
Grados de significacin del Adjetivo:
Positivo: Indica simplemente la cualidad: conquista prodigiosa.
Comparativo: Establece relacin de la cualidad poseda entre dos sustantivos.
FORMAS:
de IGUALDAD: el coche es tan rpido como el tren.
de INFERIORIDAD: el coche es menos rpido que el tren.
de SUPERIORIDAD: el coche es ms rpido que el tren.
Superlativo: Expresa la cualidad de un sustantivo poseda en el ms alto grado:
Ej.: avin rapidsimo
CLASES:
ABSOLUTO: Es el que no compara la cualidad con ningun otro objeto
Ej.: avin muy rpido o rapidsimo.
RELATIVO: Es el que expresa la cualidad de un sustantivo, poseda en el ms alto grado, pero
comparndola con la de otros:
Ej.: Luis es el ms alto de la clase.
Comparativos y Superlativos Irregulares
Positivo Comparativo Superlativo
bueno mejor ptimo
malo peor psimo
grande mayor mximo
pequeo menor mnimo
alto superior supremo
bajo inferior nfimo

134

interno interior ntimo

3.- El Pronombre
El pronombre es la palabra que hace las veces del nombre, es decir, que se pone en
en su lugar para evitar su repeticin.
CLASES:
PERSONALES
Singular

Plural
Yo
Me

1 Persona
Mi
Conmigo
T
Te
2 Persona

Contigo
l, ella, ello
le, le, lo

se, se
2) DEMOSTRATIVOS
Masculino

Singular

Plural

Nos Nos

Vosotros,
Vosotras
Vos Vos

Ti

3 Persona

Nosotros,
Nosotras

Os Os
Ellos, Ellas
Les Les
se se

Femenino
ste

Neutro
sta

Esto

se

sa

Eso

Aqul
stos

aquella
stas

Aquello
Estos

sos

sas

Esos

Aquellos

aquellas

Aquello

3) POSESIVOS
Masculino
1 Persona

Femenino
Mio

Neutro
Mia

(lo) mio
135

Mios

Mias

(lo) nuestro

Nuestro

Nuestra

Nuestros
Tuyo

Nuestras
Tuya

Tuyos

Tuyas

(lo) tuyo

Vuestro

Vuestra

(lo) vuestro

Vuestros
Suyo

Vuestras
Suya

Suyos

Suyas

2 Persona

(lo) suyo

3 Persona
4) REFLEXIVOS
Singular

Plural
Nosostros
mismos
Yo mismo

1 Persona
Me

Nosotras
mismas
Nos
Vosotros
mismos

T mismo
Te

Vosotras
mismas

l mismo

Os
Ellos mismos

Ella misma

Ellas mismas

(ello mismo)

(ellos mismos)

se

se

2 Persona

3 Persona

5) REC PROCOS
Plural
1 Persona

(uno a otro:
dos)
(unos a
otros: + de
dos)

136

Nos
(uno a otro:
dos)
(unos a
otros: + de
dos)

2 Persona

Os
(uno a otro:
dos)
(unos a
otros: + de
dos)

3 Persona

Se
6) RELATIVOS
Singular: que, el que, cual, el cual, quien, cuyo
Masculino
Plural: que, los que, cuales, los cuales, quienes, cuyos
Singular: que, la que, cual, la cual, quien, cuya
Femenino
Plural: que, las que, cuales, las cuales, quienes, cuyas
7) INTERROGATIVOS
Si los pronombres relativos se colocan al comienzo de la frase, sirven entnces para interrogar o
preguntar y por eso de denominan INTERROGATIVOS, stos siempre llevan acento () y no
tienen antecedente
8) INDEFINIDOS
INDEFINIDOS: Son aquellos que designan las personas, animales o cosas de una
Manera vaga, general, sin concretar claramente.
Ej.: Algo tiene que comer. (ALGO indica un alimento pero no concreta de
Cual se trata)
Los ms usados son:
Para PERSONAS: alguin, nadie, cualquiera, uno.
Para COSAS: algo, nada
OTROS:
Variables
alguno todo uno

Invariables
alguien
137

ninguno cierto cualquiera

nadie

varios otro quienquiera

algo

mucho bastante demasiado

nada

poco
CONJUGACI N ESPA OLA (Resumen)
Tiempos Verbales
HABER

SER

(simples)
Presente

He

soy

Preterito Imperfecto

haba

era

Preterito Indefinido

hube

fu

Futuro Simple

habr

ser

sera
habra
Condicional Simple
Las tres conjugaciones: AM-AR, TEM-ER, PART-IR
ConjugacionesIndicativo
1 -AR
2 -ER
3 -IR
Presente
-o
-o
-o
Pretrito Imperfecto
-aba
-a
-a
Pretrito Indefinido
-
-
-
Futuro Simple
-ar
-er
-ir
Condicional Simple
-ara
-era
-ira
ConjugacionesSubjuntivo
1 -AR
2 -ER 3 -IR
Presente
-e
-a
-a
Pretrito Imperfecto
-ara/-ase
-iera/-iese -iera/-iese
Pretrito Indefinido
------------------- ----------Futuro Simple
-are
-iere
-iere
Condicional Simple
------------------ ----------Los tiempos compuestos o perfectos que corresponden a los tiempos simples son:
Simples
Presente
Pretrito Imperfecto
Pretrito Indefinido
Futuro Simple
Condicional Simple

Compuestos
Pretrito Perfecto
Pretrito Pluscuampecfecto
Pretrito Anterior
Futuro Perfecto
Condicional Compuesto

Para formar los tiempos compuestos: se hacen con el correspondiente tiempo simple del verbo
HABER + el Participio perfecto o Pasado de verbo que se conjuga:

138

Pretrito Anterior de amar: Yo hube amado

Para formar la VOZ PASIVA: se hace con el tiempo correspondiente del verbo SER + el Participio
Perfecto o Pasado del verbo que se conjuga:
Pretrito Imperfecto Pasivo de amar: Yo era amado
Correspondencia de tiempos espaoles con los tiempos ingleses
Tiempos simples

Tiempos simples

Espaoles
Ingleses
Presente Simple
Simple Present
Pretrito Imperfecto Simple Past
Pretrito Indefinito
Simple Past
Futuro Simple
Simple Future
Condicional Simple
Simple Conditional
1.- TABLE OF TENSES - ACTIVE VOICE
Past
Simple

Tiempos compuestos

Tiempos compuestos

espaoles
Pretrito Perfecto
Pret.Pluscuamperfecto
Pretrito Anterior
Future Perfecto
Cond. Compuesto

ingleses
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Past Perfect
Future Perfect
Perfect Conditional

I sang

Present
I sing

-->[Author:p]Continuous

I was
singing

I am
singing

Perfect

I had sung

I have sung

Future
Conditional
I shall sing I should sing
I shall be
I should be
singing
singing
I shall have I should have
sung

Perfect

I had been

I have been

Continuous

singing

Singing

sung

I shall have I should have

been singin been singing

Formas no personales del verbo

Simple Infinitive

to sing

Continuous Infinitive

to be singing

Perfect Infinitive

to have sung

Present Continuous Infintive

to have been singing

Present Participle

singing

Past Participle

sung

Perfect Participle
having sung
2.- TABLE OF TENSES - PASSIVE VOICE
Past

Present

Future

Conditional

139

Simple

I was sung

Continuous

I was being
sung
I had been

Perfect
sung
Perfect

I had been
being sung

I am sung
I am being
Sung

I shall be sung I should be sung

I shall be being
I should be being
sung
sung

I have been
sung

I shall have
been sung

I have been
being sung

I shall have
I should have been
been being sung being sung

Continuous
Formas no personales del verbo
Simple Infinitive

To be sung

Continuous Infinitive

To be being sung

Perfect Infinitive

To have been sung

Present Continuous Infintive

To have been being sung

Present Participle

Being sung

Past Participle

Having been sung

I should have been

sung

Expressing contrast
Expressing personal opinions
However
In my opinion
Nevertheless
From my point of view
On the one hand
In my view
On the other hand
Personally
Although
As far as I'm concerned
In spite of / Despite
Expressing facts
Adding information
As a matter of fact
Apart from this / that
In fact
Moreover / In addition
Actually
Giving examples

Rephrasing

For example / For instance

That is (to say)

Such as
Causes and results

In other words
Modifiers

140

Because of this / that

To a certain extent

For this / that reason

More or less

That's why

At least

Therefore

Basically

As a result of

Especially

Consequently

In particular

So...
Personal letters

Above all

Thanks for your letter

Writing dialogues

It was great to hear from you

Really?

I'm writing to tell you

You know, it's fast and cheap

How's it going

It doesn't fill you up, do you know what I mean?

By the way, how's your sister

On the top of all that, it's so fatty

Well, Middleford isn't very big

To tell you the truth, I love fast food

Anyway, I must stop writing now

You're joking!

Write soon and tell me all your news

Of course not.

Best wishes.
Time connectors
First of all
Formal letters
Next / Then
Dear Sir / Madam
After that
I'm writing to you about
While
I look forward to hearing from you
In the meantime
Yours faithfully
All of a sudden
Yours sincerely
Finally
In the end
Summarising: In short / In conclusion

141

On the whole / To sum up

CONJUNCIONES Y CONECTORES DE FRASES
1.- Tipos y usos:
Conjunciones coordinantes: and, or, but
Conectores: however, indeed
Conjunciones subordinantes:
- Temporales
After

As

As long as

As soon as

Before

Since

Till

Until

When

While

Whenever

Etc.

de lugar: where, wherever

causales: because, since, as
de finalidad: so that, in order that
consecutivas: as a result, so, then, so + adjetivo/adverbio + that,
such + nombre + that
concesivas: although, though, even though
de manera: as, as if, as though
2.- Significados
2. 1 Relacin aditiva
And

Also

As well

Besides

Furthermore

Likewise

Both ... and ...

Too

In addition to this

Moreover

And what's more

Again

Not only ... but also...

2.2 Relacin alternativa

As well as

142

Or, either ... or...

Otherwise

Neither ... nor...

Or else

Whether ... or...

2.3 Relacin contrastiva

Etc.

But

However

Still

Nevertheless

Whereas

While

Yet

Notwithstanding

Despite
2.4 Relacin de causa-efecto

On the other hand

So

Therefore

Consequently

Because

Due to the fact that

2.5 Relacin de ordenacin

Etc.

Cronolgica: conjunciones temporales

Lgica: Firstly ..., secondly..., and finally
Comprensin de texto: Respuestas
According to the text...
The text states that...
The text mentions...
The text refers to...
The text says that...
Resumen del contenido del texto: Introducelo diciendo
The text is about...
This is the story of...

The author states

/suggests/criticizes/explains/points out
/lists/highlights/argues/puts forwards...

The text deals with...

Preguntas hipotticas: Respuestas
Where would you like to spend your next few years? I would like to...
Preguntas que solicitan tu opinin: Respuestas
What do you think of...?

I think that...

Do you believe...?

Well, personally, I feel...

143

I believe...
In my opinion...
From my point of view...
ASKING ABOUT LANGUAGE
Asking for definitions

Possible Answers

What does `leather' mean?

It's a sort of...

What's a tracksuit?

It's a kind of...

What's the meaning of `shy'?

It's used to...

Do you know the meaning of `garden centre'?

Asking for explanations

It's an object/thing ... used to/for...

Asking for repetition

How do you say (...) in English?

Pardon?

What do they call (...)?

Excuse me?

How could I say (...) in English?

Could you repeat it, please?

Do you know any other word/expression for (...)

I didn't hear you. Can you say it again?

How do you spell/write (...)?

Read and learn this dialogue:

I can't understand you. Can you say it more slowly?

Laura: Richard, please. What does `leather' mean?

Richard: Excuse me?
Laura: What's the meaning of `leather'?
Richard: It's a kind of material made of animal skin. It is used to make shoes, jackets ...
Laura: How do you spell it?
Richard: L-E-A-T-H-E-R.
Laura: Thank you. Just another question. How could I say `I don't feel very well' in other words?
Richard: Well, you can say `I feel down', or `I feel blue'.
Laura: Thanks a lot. You're a really good friend.
ABOUT DIFFERENT FEELINGS AND ATTITUDES
Asking how someone feels

Saying you are curious

144

Are you all right/OK?

Can someone tell me what is going on?

Is everything OK?

I'm interested to know...

Are you sure you are all right/OK?

Can someone tell me about...?

You're not nervous/worried/unhappy (about)..., are you?

I'd like to know more about...

Is anything the matter?

How do you feel about...?
What's wrong?
How are you doing?
Expressing pessimism
Expressing optimism

Mm, I'm not so sure.

Everything will be fine.

I doubt that.

You wait and see. It's all going to be OK.

I'm not at all sure.

Things will work out fine/all right.

I don't really believe...

I feel quite sure (about)...

There is no way...
I'm not too happy about...

Read and learn this dialogue:

John: Hello, Mary! Is everything all right?
Mary: Yeah, I guess
John: Are you sure you are OK? You aren't worried about anything, are you?
Mary: Well, I don't want to bore you with my problems.
John: Please, I'm interested to know what is happening to you.
Mary: I'm not sure my maths teacher like me. In fact, I think he hates me.
John: Why are you saying that? I doubt it. He is a very pleasant man who seems to like everyone. I don't
Really believe he can dislike you.
Mary: Are you sure about that? I took a maths exam I don't think I'm going to pass.
John: You wait and see. It'll all turn out fine, and I'm sure that you will pass.
Mary: I really hope so.

145

EXPRESSING LIKES AND PREFERENCES

Asking and answering about likes
Asking and answering about preferences
Do you like/enjoy (+ noun or -ing)...?
Do you prefer (+ noun or -ing) to (+ noun or -ing)?
Are you keen on...?
We can ... or ..., what do you think?
What are your feelings about...?
Do you like ... better/more than ...?
I like/enjoy/adore/love/hate/dislike...
Which do you prefer ... or ...?
I'm (not) keen on...
I'd rather (+ inf. s/to) than (+ inf. s/to).
I've always liked/hated/loved/enjoyed...
I like/enjoy ... better/more than ...
I've been mad about...
I much prefer ... to ...
I think ... is great/brilliant/fantastic/fun.
... appeals to me more than ...
There's nothing I like/enjoy more than...
Read and learn the following:
Student 1: Do you enjoy jazz festivals?
Student 2: Well, I'm not very keen on jazz.
Student 3: We can go to a concert or to the cinema. What do you prefer?
Student 4: I much prefer listening to music to watching a film.
Student 5: Laura, do you enjoy listening to classical music?
Student 6: There's nothing I enjoy more than listening to classical music.
Student 7: Do you prefer folk music to opera?
Student 8: Not really, I much prefer opera to pop music.
ASKING FOR AND GIVING PERMISSION
Formal

Would it be possible...? Would it be possible if I came back home later?

Informal Would you mind if...?

Yes, of course.

I wonder if I could...?

Would you mind if she finishes my work?

May I...?

No, I don't mind it at all.

Do you mind...?

I wonder if I could see your dictionary.

Do you think I could...? Sure./ I'm sorry, but I'm already using it.
146

Could I...?

May I come in?

Can I...?

Yes, you may.

Do you mind if Arthur comes to the party with us?
No, I don't. Please tell him to come.
Do you think I could go to the U2 concert tomorrow?
I'm afraid you can't.
Could I have a ham sandwich?
Yes, here you are.
Can I go with my sister to the cinema tonight?

Yes, you can.

Read these dialogues and find out which expressions are used when you talk to somebody for the first
time:
Amy, let me introduce David Lpez. This is Amy Anderson, the language coordinator.
Please to meet you Mr Lpez
How do you do Mrs Anderson?
Is this your first time in Ireland?
Yes, it is.
And what do you think about it?
(...)
Hello, Liz. I'm Iris. Your mother talked to you about me, didn't she?
Yes, she did. Nice to meet you, Iris. Are you enjoying your stay in Dublin?
Sure, Dublin is a wonderful city. Could you show me around?
Of course, Let's see. First, we could go to the city centre and then visit Stephen's Park. Then, ...
IDIOMS
An IDIOM is an idiomatic expression. There are many idioms in English and people like using them very
much in conversation. They are quite colloquial.
There are idioms related to colours such as to be the black sheep, to be in the red, to feel blue, to have got
green fingers, etc. Most of them are body idioms which are related to parts of the body:
Choose the right colour to complete these colour idioms.
She was white/green with envy.
The police caught the thief green/red-handed.
How are you?, I'm in the pink/blue as my holiday starts today.
When I started driving i was very red/green and I had to learn a lot.
He was white/red in the face with cold.
A blue/white lie is sometimes justified.
Read these situations and choose a body idiom for each one.
147

1) To turn one's ________ on somebody. 6) To make one's ________ stand on end.

2) To be wet behind the _______. 7) To be all ________ and thumbs
3) To put one's ________ down. 8) To pull somebody's ________.
4) To _________ the music. 9) To be a pain in the ________.
5) To _________ one's way. 10) To pay through the ________.
You buy something and pay a very high price for it.
You have done something bad and you are going to be criticised or punished for it.
You can use this expression when talking about a horror film.
You say this about a person who can't do anything with his/her hands.
If you do this to a friend, you don't help him/her when he/she needs it.
When you go to s disco and there are many people, you do this to be able to move around.
When a person doesn't have much experience of things and doesn't realised all the dangers of
something.
When you tell someone something that is not true and they believe you, but they will laugh when they
realise that it is not true.
You use this idiom to refer to a person you find very annoying and irritating.
When you do this, you are firm in your position, you use your authority to prevent something from
happening.
Practise the idioms above as in the example:
I've bought a new CD.
How much was it?
30.
You paid through the nose, didn't you?
EXPRESSING CERTAINTY, UNCERTAINTY, POSSIBILITY, AND IMPOSSIBILIY
To express you are sure

To express you are not sure

I am (completely) sure that...

I am not really sure...

I know for sure that...

I am not convinced that...

I am a hundred per cent sure that...

I can't say for sure that...

I am positive that...
To say that something is possible or probable

I am not certain that...

To say that something is impossible or
improbable

That will probably...

It's impossible/not possible/not probable that...
It's possible/probable that...
That's unlikely...
It's likely that...
It is very doubtful that...
I bet that...
I can't believe that...
148

There's a good chance that...

I don't think that is the case.

Perhaps/Maybe...
Example:
A: I am positive this is a television.
B: I don't think that is the case. Perhaps it is a computer.
APOLOGIZING
Responses
Apology

That's all right/OK.

Sorry,

Don't worry.

I'm very sorry. It was my fault.

I'm terribly sorry.
I apology for/about...
Please, accept my apologies (for...)

Excuse
Excuse me for...
Please, forgive me for...
I'm afraid...

That was very foolish/careless of me,

I'm afraid.

Forget it.
Not at all.
It doesn't matter at all.
Please, think nothing of it.
It's perfectly all right.
There's no reason to apologise
(for)...

Make dialogues for these situations using varied structures.

Apologise to a friend for arriving late for his party.
Apologise to your brother/sister for forgetting his/her birthday.
Apologise to your parents for coming back home late. Give an excuse.
You are riding your bike. A person step off the pavement. You have to stop fast in order to avoid hitting
him/her. You are angry. The other person is frightened.
You are a customer of a hostel and the room is dirty and the bed hasn't got any sheets. Your partner is the
receptionist who tries to apologise.
COMMUNICATING
To maintain a conversation with an interlocutor is not easy. Sometimes, while you are talking, you may need
some time to think of what you are going to say next. In these cases, you do not usually stop the conversation,
but you use some expressions such as the following:
Taking some time to think
Err, let's see/Let me see... Um, let me think/Let's think...
Well, mm, you se... (...), you know, (...)
(...), I mean, (...) Oh, wait a second...
149

If you want to change topics, that is, what the conversation is about, you can say expressions like these:
Changing topics during a conversation
By the way,
Oh, before I forget, ...
While I remember, ...
Oh, I almost forgot to tell you...
Finally, when you have been talking for a while and want to finish your intervention, you can use expressions
like these ones:
Finish one's intervention
In short, ...
To sum up, ...
Briefly, ...
In conclusion, ...
The point I'm trying to make is...
Read this dialogue:
Alex: So, what is it you wanted to say before?
Mary: Let's see, what I wanted to say is that, you know, the working class conditions of factory workers have
changed a lot over the years.
Alex: But, that has been mentioned before, I mean, that is not the reason why we are here today.
Mary: I think you didn't understand very well what I meant, mm, you see, our salary, job safety and so on,
have improved.
Maggie: By the way, I would like to know if we are going to fight for a pay rise this year.
Alex: Why not? I have always been in favour of yearly pay rise.
Mary: Oh, I almost forgot to tell you, the manager called this morning to tell me he wanted to talk to us about
something very important.
Alex and Maggie: And you tell us now! In conclusion, we have been wasting our time, he probably wants to
talk to us about all this.
Mary: But I thought...
150

DEBATING
A debate is a conversation among several people who may have different opinions on a topic. In a debate
there is a moderator, a neutral person who does not show his/her opinion on the topic, and the partcipants who
show their point of view. The moderator's job is to set the times for the participants to talk.
Rules for debating
Select people who have different opinions.
Be well-informed on the topic.
Respect the turns and the time.
Follow the debate line.
Respect other people's opinions.
Stating the facts
For example, ...

Beginnings

As we know, ...

I'd like to start by saying that...

On the issue of...

I must say...

My point is...
Disagreeing
I see what you mean, but...
Offering solutions
I'm afraid I don't agree...
It'd be much better...
That argument ignores...
Why don't we...?
That's true, but...
I think we should...
I'm not sure...
This is nonsense.
Read this debate's sample:
Presenter: Good afternoon, everybody. I'm Arthur Newton. It's seven o'clock and this is another edition of
Let's talk about. The subject of today's discussion is: extraterrestrial life. In the studio we have to guests to
open the debate. If you want to take part, call 01-66-77-55. Our first guest is AB.
AB: my point is...
Presenter: thank you. Over to you, JJ
JJ: I completely disagree. That argument ignores...
Presenter: Thanks, so now it's over to you, the viewers. Our first caller is...
151

FUNCTIONS

Asking for advice

I've got a small problem...
I'm not sure what to do...
Could you give some advice?
Do you think I should/ought to...?
What should I do?
What would you advise me to do?

Giving advice
I (don't) think you should...
I (don't) think you ought to...
If I were you, I would...
You'd better...
You could...
Why don't you....

What would you recommend?

Apologizing

Accepting

I'm really very sorry about...

That's all right.

It was my fault.

Don't worry.

Sorry about....

That's OK.

How silly of me.

Agreeing

Forget it.

I quite agree with you

Partially agreeing

I think you are right.

I see what you mean, but...

You're are absolutely right.

Yes, but on the other hand...

That's absolutely true.

I can see that, but...

I couldn't agree with you more!

I suppose you could be right, but...

Right!

Expressing boredom

Disagreeing

I don't think that's very interesting

Do you really think so?

How boring!

I'm sorry, but I don't agree (with...)

*It turns me off!

I think that's nonsense.

*So what?

You can't be serious.

Checking that someone has understood you

Saying something in a different way

152

Do you see what I mean?

I mean...

Do you understand?

What I mean is...

Do you see?

What I'm trying to say is...

*OK?
*Do you get it?
Saying goodbye
Expressing excitement

Excuse a moment.

How exciting!

I'm afraid I really must go now.

That's fantastic!

Bye for now.

See you later

Interrupting
Sorry to interrupt you, but...
May I interrupt you for a second?
Hold on a moment!
Introducing yourself Answer
How do you do? My name's is... How do you do? I'm...
Hello. I'm... Hello. My name's....
*Hi
Introducing others
This is John How do you do? How do you do?
Please to meet you.
Hi, nice to meet you. Hello, John.
Invitations
Accepting

Declining

Thank you very much.

Thank you very much, but...

That's very kind of you.

I wish I could, but...

That would be very nice.

I'd love to, but...

Lovely!

I'm afraid I can't, because...

Would you like to...?

What about...?
How about...?
Do you fancy... -ing?
Why don't you....?
153

Asking about languages

How do you say...? When do we use...?
How do you pronounce...? What does... mean?
How do you spell...? What's the meaning of...?
Do you say... or ...? What's another word for...?
Is this right?
Presenting a gift Thanking
Please accept this... That's extremely kind of you.
Allow me to present you with... I'm extremely grateful.
It gives me great pleasure to present... I appreciate... very much.
Expressing regret
I wish I had / hadn't (done...) I'm sorry I (did...)
I should / shouldn't have (done...) What a pity I (did...)
If only I had / hadn't (done...) How silly of me (to do...)
Expressing pleasure
Expressing relief
I'm so glad...
What a relief!
Thank goodness...
Thank goodness for that!
Isn't it wonderful that...
Giving an opinion
I think...
Asking for an opinion

I believe...

What do you think of...?

I'd say...

How do you feel about...?

Personally, I feel...

What's your opinion of...?

In my opinion, ...
It seems to me that...

Saying you are not sure

I'm not really sure.

As far as I'm concerned,...

Saying you don't know
Asking someone to repeat
I'm afraid I don't know very much Sorry?
about...
154

I don't think...

I've no idea.

What did you say?

I wish I knew.

Could you repeat that pleae?

I didn't quite catch that.
*What?

Expressing request Granting Refusing

Could you...? Yes, of course I'm afraid not.
Would you...?
Will you...?
Do you think you could...?
Would you mind... -ing? Not, not at all. I'd rather not
Suggesting
Shall we...?
Let's...
We could...
Why don't we...?
Why not...?
I think we should...
I suggest that we...
I suggest (possessive) -ing...

Agreeing with suggestions

That's a good idea.

Disagreeing with suggestions

What a good idea!

I don't think that's a very good idea.

That sounds like a very good

idea.

That doesn't sound like a very good

idea to me.

Yes, why not!

No, don't let's.

Yes, let's.

How about... -ing?

What about... -ing?
SUBJECTS (note the stress)
Latin

EASILY CONFUSED WORDS

Course

mathematics (maths)

Career

science

Marks

physics

Qualifications

chemistry

Qualities

biology

Subjects
155

botany

Degree

zoology

Lecture

geography
history
religious education (RE)
physical education (PE)
SOME EXPRESSIONS
Gets my goat, he wouldn't say Boo! to a goose
mutton dressed as lamb
pulls your socks up
Personality: WHAT'S HE/SHE LIKE?
self-confident

shy, reserved

attractive

ugly

hard-working

lazy, a shirker, a tease

good at

bad at

helpful

unhelpful

original

unoriginal

witty, clever

dull

optimistic

pessimistic

organised, efficient

disorganised, inefficient

tidy

untidy

conservative

adventurous

generous

mean

cheerful, good-humoured

bad-tempered

sympathetic, understanding
unsympathetic
Appearance: WHAT DOES HE/SHE LOOK LIKE?
He
broad-shoulder

He/She
tall, average height

She
a nice figure
156

bald

well built

delicately built

Handsome

of medium build

blonde, brunette

fat, thin, slim

a good complexion

fair, dark, red-haired

pretty, beautiful

weather-beaten
suntanned
pale
wide, small, generous mouth
long, hooked, broad, snub nose
freckles
wrinkles

CLOTHES
Skirt

good-looking
ACCESORIES
bracelet

MATERIALS
Silk

VERBS
get dressed

Trousers

earrings

Satin

undressed

Jeans

necklace

Cotton

ready

Shirt

chain

Tweed

changed

Blouse

brooch

Velvet

wear

Cardigan

ring

Linen

put on a coat etc.

Twinset

pearls

Wool

take off

Sweater

belt

Lace

try something on

Pullover

handbag

sit

Waistcoat

fit

Tie

match

bow-tie

go with

jacket

shorten

suit

lengthen a dress

157

pyjamas

take in trousers

nightdress

let out etc.

tights
slippers
IN FASHION/OUT OF FASHION
Mini
Maxi
Flared
Midi skirt
bell-bottom trousers
Full
narrow
Pleated
Straight
SCHOOL SYSTEM

HIGHER OR FURTHER
EDUCATION

VERBS
sit
take an exam

Playgroup

pass / fail

Playschool
University

do a course

Kindergarten
Polytechnic

follow

Compulsory education
Teacher Training College

pay attention to

Junior
Trade School

apply for a place at

Primary
Night School

got to University

Comprehensive
evening classes

lectures

secondary school
day release
grammar

get a first class degree

public school

second
do research (into)

112
123
LAS ORACIONES y SUS CLASES
158

ORACIONES SIMPLES
Por el tono del verbo
Copulativas
Transitivas
Activas
Intransitivas
Reflexivas
Pasivas
Recprocas
Impersonales
Enunciativas
Interrogativas
Deliberativas
Exhortativas
Por la ndole del verbo
ORACIONES COMPUESTAS
Copulativas
Disyuntivas
COORDINADAS Distributivas
Adversativa
Ilativa
YUXTAPUESTAS (Sin conjuncin)
Sujeto
Complemento Directo
SUSTANTIVAS Complemento Indirecto
(COMPLETIVAS) Complem. Circunstancial

159

Complem. Nominal
Aposicin
ADJETIVAS o
SUBORDINADAS de RELATIVO (Hacen el oficio de un adjetivo)
Finales
Concesivas
Lugar
ADVERBIALES Modales (modo)
Temporales (tiempo)
Causales (causa)
Consecutivas
Condicionales

160