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IslaminEurope
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

IslamgaineditsfirstfootholdincontinentalEuropein711withtheUmayyadconquestofHispania.They
advancedintoFrancebutin732,weredefeatedbytheFranksattheBattleofTours.Overthecenturiesthe
Umayyadsweregraduallydrivensouthandin1492theMoorishEmirateofGranadasurrenderedto
FerdinandVandIsabella.MuslimcivilianswereexpelledfromSpainandby1614noneremainedinSpain.
[2]

IslamenteredEasternandSoutheasternEuropeinwhatarenowpartsofRussiaandBulgariainthe13th
century.TheOttomanEmpireexpandedintoEuropetakinghugeportionsoftheByzantineEmpireinthe
14thand15thcenturies.Overthecenturies,theOttomanEmpirealsograduallylostalmostallofits
Europeanterritories,untiltheempirecollapsedin1922.However,partsoftheBalkans(suchasAlbania,
Kosovo,MacedoniaandBosnia)continuedtohavelargepopulationsofMuslims.
Inthelate20thandearly21stcenturiessubstantialnumbersofMuslimsimmigratedtoEurope.By2010an
estimated44millionMuslimswerelivinginEurope,includinganestimated19millionintheEU.[3]

Contents
1History
1.1IberiaandSouthernFrance
1.1.1Sicily
1.1.2CulturalimpactandChristianinteraction
1.2TheBalkans,RussiaandUkraine
1.3BalkansduringtheOttomanEmpire
1.3.1ConversiontoIslam
1.4Culturalinfluences
2Currentpopulationanditsperception
2.1Projections
3Seealso
3.1Organizations
4References
5Furtherreading
6Externallinks

History
IberiaandSouthernFrance
Mainarticles:AlAndalusandMoors

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Muslimforaysinto
Europebeganshortly
afterthereligion's
inception,withashort
livedinvasionof
ByzantineSicilybya
smallArabandBerber
forcethatlandedin652.
Islamgaineditsfirst
footholdincontinental
Europefrom711onward,
withtheUmayyad
Amanuscriptpageofthe
conquestofHispania.The
Qur'aninthescriptdeveloped
invadersnamedtheirland
inalAndalus,12thcentury.
AlAndalus,which
expandedtoincludewhat
isnowPortugalandSpainexceptforthenorthern
highlandsofAsturias,Basquecountry,Navarraandfew
otherplacesprotectedbymountainchainsfromsouthward
invasions.
AlAndalushasbeenestimatedtohavehadaMuslim
majoritybythe10thcenturyaftermostofthelocal
populationconvertedtoIslam.[4]:42Thiscoincidedwiththe
LaConvivenciaperiodoftheIberianPeninsulaaswellas
theGoldenageofJewishcultureinSpain.Pelayoof
AsturiasbegantheChristiancounteroffensiveknownas
theReconquistaaftertheBattleofCovadongain722.
Slowly,theChristianforcesbeganaconquestofthe
fracturedtaifakingdomsofalAndalus.By1236,
practicallyallthatremainedofMuslimSpainwasthe
southernprovinceofGranada.
Inthe8thcentury,MuslimforcespushedbeyondSpain
intoAquitaine,insouthernFrance,butsuffereda
temporarysetbackwhendefeatedbyEudes,Dukeof
Aquitaine,attheBattleofToulouse(721).In725Muslim
forcescapturedAutuninFrance.Thetownwouldbethe
easternmostpointofexpansionofUmayyadforcesinto
Europejustsevenyearslaterin732,theUmayyadswould
beforcedtobegintheirwithdrawaltoalAndalusafter
facingdefeatattheBattleofToursbyFrankishKing
CharlesMartel.From719to759,Septimaniawasoneof
thefiveadministrativeareasofalAndalus.Thelast
MuslimforcesweredrivenfromFrancein759,but
maintainedapresence,especiallyinFraxinetalltheway

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IslaminEurope
bypercentageofcountrypopulation[1]
<1%

ArmeniaBelarus
CzechRepublicEstonia
FinlandHungaryIceland
LatviaLithuaniaMalta
MoldovaMonacoPoland
PortugalRomania
SanMarinoSlovakia
Ukraine

12%

AndorraCroatiaIreland

24%

ItalyLuxembourg
NorwaySerbiaSlovenia
Spain

45%

DenmarkGreece
LiechtensteinUnited
Kingdom

510%

AustriaBelgiumBulgaria
FranceGermany
NetherlandsSweden
Switzerland

1020%

GeorgiaMontenegro
Russia

2030%

Cyprus

3040%

Rep.ofMacedonia

4050%

BosniaHerzegovina

8090%

Albania

9095%

Kosovo

95100% TurkeyAzerbaijan

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intoSwitzerlanduntilthe10thcentury.[5]Atthesametime,MuslimforcesmanagedtocaptureSicilyand
portionsofsouthernItaly,andevensackedtheBasilicasofSaint
PeterandSaintPaulinRomein846andlatersackedPisain1004.
Sicily
SicilywasgraduallyconqueredbytheArabsandBerbersfrom827
onward,andtheEmirateofSicilywasestablishedin965.Theyheld
ontotheregionuntiltheirexpulsionbytheNormansin1072.[6][7]
ThelocalpopulationconqueredbytheMuslimswereRomanized
CatholicSiciliansinWesternSicilyandpartiallyGreekspeaking
Christians,mainlyintheeasternhalfoftheisland,buttherewere
TheMoorsrequestpermissionfrom
alsoasignificantnumberofJews.[8]Theseconqueredpeoplewere
JamesIofAragon,Spain,13th
affordedalimitedfreedomofreligionundertheMuslimsas
century
dhimmi,butweresubjecttosomerestrictions.Thedhimmiwere
alsorequiredtopaythejizya,orpolltax,andthekharajorlandtax,
butwereexemptfromthetaxthatMuslimshadtopay(Zakaat).UnderArab
rulethereweredifferentcategoriesofJizyapayers,buttheircommon
denominatorwasthepaymentoftheJizyaasamarkofsubjectiontoMuslim
ruleinexchangeforprotectionagainstforeignandinternalaggression.The
conqueredpopulationcouldavoidthissubservientstatussimplybyconverting
toIslam.Whetherbyhonestreligiousconvictionorsocietalcompulsionlarge
numbersofnativeSiciliansconvertedtoIslam.However,evenafter100years
ofIslamicrule,numerousGreekspeakingChristiancommunitiesprospered,
especiallyinnortheasternSicily,asdhimmi.Thiswaslargelyaresultofthe
Jizyasystemwhichallowedcoexistence.Thiscoexistencewiththeconquered
populationfellapartafterthereconquestofSicily,particularlyfollowingthe
deathofKingWilliamIIofSicilyin1189.
CulturalimpactandChristianinteraction

Muslimmusiciansatthe
courtoftheNorman
KingRogerIIofSicily,
12thcentury

TheChristianreconqueststheIberianpeninsulaandsouthernItalyhelpedto
reintroduceideasandconceptslosttotheWesternWorldafterthefallofRome
inA.D.476.ArabspeakingChristianscholarssavedinfluentialpreChristiantextsandthiscoupledwith
theintroductionofaspectsofmedievalIslamicculture(includingthearts,agriculture,economics,
philosophy,scienceandtechnology)assistedwithfomentingconditionsrequiredforarebirthofEuropean
thoughtandart(Renaissance).(SeeLatintranslationsofthe12thcenturyandIslamiccontributionsto
MedievalEuropeformoreinformation).
MuslimruleenduredintheEmirateofGranada,from1238asavassalstateoftheChristianKingdomof
Castile,untilthecompletionofLaReconquistain1492.[4]:41TheMoriscos(MoorishinSpanish)were
finallyexpelledfromSpainbetween1609(Castile)and1614(restofSpain),byPhilipIIIduringthe
SpanishInquisition.

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Throughoutthe16thto19th
centuries,theBarbaryStatessent
Barbarypiratestoraidnearbyparts
ofEuropeinordertocapture
Christianslavestosellatslave
marketsintheArabWorld
throughouttheRenaissanceperiod.
[10][11]AccordingtoRobertDavis,
fromthe16thto19thcenturies,
piratescaptured1millionto1.25
millionEuropeansasslaves.These
slaveswerecapturedmainlyfrom
"Araz"coatofarmsof
thecrewsofcapturedvessels[12]
PolishTatarnobility.Tatar
andfromcoastalvillagesin
coatsofarmsoftenincluded
SpainandPortugal,andfrom
motifsrelatedtoIslam.
fartherplaceslikeItaly,France
orEngland,theNetherlands,
Ireland,theAzoresIslands,andevenIceland.[10]
Foralongtime,untiltheearly18thcentury,theCrimean
KhanatemaintainedamassiveslavetradewiththeOttoman
EmpireandtheMiddleEast.[13]TheCrimeanTatarsfrequently
mountedraidsintotheDanubianprincipalities,Poland
Lithuania,andRussiatoenslavepeoplewhomtheycould
capture.[14]

MosqueofRome,inRome,the
largestintheEU

TheEastLondonMosquewasoneofthe
firstinBritaintobeallowedtouse
loudspeakerstobroadcasttheadhan. [9]

TheBalkans,RussiaandUkraine
ThereareaccountsofthetradeconnectionsbetweentheMuslims
andtheRus,apparentlypeoplefromBalticregionwhomadetheir
waytowardstheBlackSeathroughCentralRussia.Onhiswayto
VolgaBulgaria,IbnFadlanbroughtdetailedreportsoftheRus,
claimingthatsomehadconvertedtoIslam."Theyareveryfondof
porkandmanyofthemwhohaveassumedthepathofIslammissit
verymuch."TheRusalsorelishedtheirnabidh,afermenteddrink
IbnFadlanoftenmentionedaspartoftheirdailyfare.[15]

TheGreatMosqueofParis,built
afterWorldWarI.

TheMongolsbegantheirconquestofRus',VolgaBulgaria,andthe
CumanKipchakConfederation(presentdayRussiaandUkraine)in
the13thcentury.AftertheMongolempiresplit,theeasternEuropeansectionbecameknownastheGolden
Horde.DespitethefactthattheywerenotMuslimatthetime,thewesternMongolsadoptedIslamastheir
religionintheearly14thcenturyunderBerkeKhan,andlaterUzbegKhanwhoestablisheditastheofficial
religionofthestate.MuchofthemostlyTurkicspeakingpopulationoftheHorde,aswellasthesmall
Mongolaristocracy,wereIslamized(iftheywerenotalreadyMuslim,suchastheVolgaBulgars)and
becameknowntoRussiansandEuropeansastheTatars.Morethanhalf[16]oftheEuropeanportionofwhat

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isnowRussiaandUkraine,wereundersuzeraintyofMuslimTatarsandTurksfromthe13thto15th
centuries.TheCrimeanKhanatebecameavassalstateoftheOttomanEmpirein1475andsubjugatedwhat
remainedoftheGreatHordeby1502.TheKhanateofKazanwasconqueredbyIvantheTerriblein1552.

BalkansduringtheOttomanEmpire
TheOttomanEmpirebeganitsexpansionintoEuropebytakingtheEuropeanportionsoftheByzantine
Empireinthe14thand15thcenturiesupuntilthe1453captureofConstantinople,establishingIslamasthe
statereligioninthe
region.TheOttoman
Empirecontinuedto
stretchnorthwards,taking
Hungaryinthe16th
century,andreachingas
farnorthasthePodoliain
themid17thcentury
(PeaceofBuczacz),by
whichtimemostofthe
Balkanswasunder
LogpodMangartomMosquewastheonly
Ottomancontrol.
mosqueeverbuiltinSlovenia,inthetown
Ottomanexpansionin
ofLogpodMangartom,duringWorldWar
Europeendedwiththeir
I.
defeatintheGreat
TurkishWar.Inthe
TheOttomancampaignfor
TreatyofKarlowitz(1699),the
territorialexpansioninEuropein
OttomanEmpirelostmostofits
1566,CrimeanTatarsas
conquestsinCentralEurope.
vanguard.
TheCrimeanKhanatewaslater
annexedbyRussiain1783.
[18]Overthecenturies,the
OttomanEmpiregradually
lostalmostallofits
Europeanterritories,untilits
collapsein1922,whenthe
formerempirewas
transformedintothenation
ofTurkey.
Between1354(whenthe
Ottomanscrossedinto
MedievalBulgariaparticularlythe
TheOttomanSultanSuleimanthe
EuropeatGallipolli)and
cityofSofia,wastheadministrative
Magnificent,awaitsthearrivalofhis
1526,theEmpirehad
centreofalmostallOttoman
GreekMuslimGrandVizierPargal
conqueredtheterritoryof
possessionsintheBalkansalsoknown
IbrahimPashaatBuda,intheyear
presentdayGreece,
asRumelia. [17]
1529.
Bulgaria,Romania,Albania,
Serbia,Macedonia,
Montenegro,BosniaandHungary.TheEmpirelaidsiegetoViennain1683.TheinterventionofthePolish
Kingbrokethesiege,andfromthenafterwardstheOttomansbattledtheHabsburgEmperorsuntil1699,
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whentheTreatyofKarlowitzforcedthemtosurrenderHungaryandportionsofpresentdayCroatia,
SloveniaandSerbia.From1699to1913,warsandinsurrectionspushedtheOttomanEmpirefurtherback
untilitreachedthecurrentEuropeanborderofpresentdayTurkey.
Formostofthisperiod,theOttomanretreatswereaccompaniedbyMuslimrefugeesfromtheseprovince
(inalmostallcasesconvertsfromtheprevioussubjectpopulations),leavingfewMusliminhabitantsin
Hungary,Croatia,andtheTransylvaniaregionofpresentdayRomania.BulgariaremainedunderOttoman
ruleuntilaround1878,andcurrentlyitspopulationincludesabout131,000Muslims(2001Census)(see
Pomaks).
BosniawasconqueredbytheOttomansin1463,andalarge
portionofthepopulationconvertedtoIslaminthefirst200
yearsofOttomandomination.BythetimeAustriaHungary
occupiedBosniain1878,theHabsburgshadshedthedesireto
reChristianizenewprovinces.Asaresult,asizableMuslim
populationinBosniasurvivedintothe20thcentury.Albania
andtheKosovoarearemainedunderOttomanruleuntil1913.
PrevioustotheOttomanconquest,thenorthernAlbanianswere
RomanCatholicandthesouthernAlbanianswereChristian
Orthodox,butby1913themajoritywereMuslim.

PaintingofthebazaaratAthens,Ottoman
Greece,early19thcentury

ConversiontoIslam
ApartfromtheeffectofalengthyperiodunderOttoman
domination,manyofthesubjectpopulationwereconvertedtoIslam
asaresultofadeliberatemovebytheOttomansaspartofapolicy
ofensuringtheloyaltyofthepopulationagainstapotentialVenetian
invasion.However,Islamwasspreadbyforceintheareasunderthe
controloftheOttomanSultanthroughdevirmeandjizya.[20][21]
RatherArnoldexplainsIslam'sspreadbyquoting17thcenturypro
MuslimauthorJohannesSchefflerwhostated:

Meanwhilehe(i.e.theTurk)wins(converts)by
craftmorethanbyforce,andsnatchesawayChrist
byfraudoutoftheheartsofmen.FortheTurk,itis
true,atthepresenttimecompelsnocountryby
violencetoapostatisebutheusesothermeans
wherebyimperceptiblyherootsoutChristianity...
WhatthenhasbecomeoftheChristians?Theyare
notexpelledfromthecountry,neitherarethey
forcedtoembracetheTurkishfaith:thentheymust
ofthemselveshavebeenconvertedintoTurks.[22]

RegistrationofChristianboysforthe
tributeinblood.Ottomanminiature
painting,1558. [19]

Culturalinfluences
Furtherinformation:IslamiccontributionstoMedievalEuropeandReceptionofIslaminEarly
ModernEurope
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IslampiquedinterestamongEuropeanscholars,settingoffthemovementofOrientalism.Thefounderof
modernIslamicstudiesinEuropewasIgncGoldziher,whobeganstudyingIslaminthelate19thcentury.
Forinstance,SirRichardFrancisBurton,19thcenturyEnglishexplorer,scholar,andorientalist,and
translatorofTheBookofOneThousandandOneNights,disguisedhimselfasaPashtunandvisitedboth
MedinaandMeccaduringtheHajj,asdescribedinhisbookAPersonalNarrativeofaPilgrimagetoAl
MedinahandMeccah.
IslamicarchitectureinfluencedEuropeanarchitectureinvariousways(forexample,theTrkischerTempel
synagogueinVienna).Duringthe12thcenturyRenaissanceinEurope,LatintranslationsofArabictexts
wereintroduced.TheKoranwasalsotranslated(forexample,LexMahumetpseudoprophete).

Currentpopulationanditsperception
AccordingtothePewForum,thetotalnumberofMuslimsin
Europein2010wasabout44million(6%),[23]excludingTurkey.
ThetotalnumberofMuslimsintheEuropeanUnionin2010was
about19million(3.8%).[23]Approximately9millionTurksare
livinginEurope,excludingtheTurkishpopulationofTurkey,which
makesupthelargestMuslimimmigrantcommunityinEurope.[24]
HowevertherealnumberofMuslimsinEuropeisnotwellknown.
ThepercentageofMuslimsinRussia(thebiggestgroupofMuslims
inEurope)variesfrom5[25]to11.7%,[23]dependingonsources.It
alsodependsonifonlyobservantMuslimsorallpeopleofMuslim
descentarecounted.[26]

MuslimmajorityareasinEurope

TheMuslimpopulationinEuropeisextremelydiversewithvaried
historiesandorigins.Today,theMuslimmajorityregionsofEuropeare
Albania,Kosovo,partsofBosniaandHerzegovina,partsofBulgaria,
MontenegroandMacedonia,aswellassomeRussianregionsinNorthern
CaucasusandtheVolgaregion.TheMuslimdominatedSandakofNovi
PazarisdividedbetweenSerbiaandMontenegro.Theyconsist
predominantlyofindigenousEuropeansoftheMuslimfaithwhose
religioustraditiondatesbackseveralhundredyears.Thetranscontinental
countriesofTurkey,AzerbaijanandKazakhstanalsoareMuslimmajority.

TheMosqueofSultan
MehmetFatihinPristina,
Kosovo

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TheMuslimpopulationinWesternEuropeiscomposedprimarilyof
peopleswhoarrivedtotheEuropeancontinentinorafter(1945),when
manyWesterncountries(firstly,theUKandFrance)startpolicyof
multiculturalismandpermanentimmigrationofnonwhiteand/ornon
Christianpeople.MuslimemigrationtometropolitanFrancesurgedduring
theAlgerianWarofIndependence.In1961,WestGermanGovernment
invitedfirstGastarbeiters.SimilarcontractswereofferedbySwitzerland.
A2013pollbyWissenschaftszentrumBerlinfrSozialforschungsaysthat
IslamicfundamentalismiswidespreadamongEuropeanMuslimswiththe
majoritysayingreligiousrulesaremoreimportantthancivillawsand

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threequartersrejectingreligiouspluralismwithinIslam.[27]TheEuropeanMonitoringCentreonRacism
andXenophobiareportsthattheMuslimpopulationtendstosufferIslamophobiaalloverEurope,although
theperceptionsandviewsofMuslimsmayvary.[28]
A2015pollbythePolishCentreforPublicOpinionResearchfoundthat44%ofPoleshaveanegative
attitudetowardsMuslims,withonly23%havingapositiveattitudetowardsthem.Furthermore,amajority
agreedwithstatementslike"Muslimsareintolerantofcustomsandvaluesotherthantheirown."(64%
agreed,12%disagreed),"MuslimslivinginWesternEuropeancountriesgenerallydonotacquirecustoms
andvaluesthatarecharacteristicforthemajorityofthepopulationofthatcountry."(63%agreed,14%
disagreed),"Islamencouragesviolencemorethanotherreligions."(51%agreed,24%disagreed)[29]
TheUNHighCommissionerforRefugeesestimatedthat70%ofthepeopleofAlbania[30][31][32]are
Muslim,91%inKosovo,and30%oftheminMacedoniaareMuslim.BosniahasaMuslimplurality.In
transcontinentalcountriessuchasTurkey99%,and93%inAzerbaijan[33]ofthepopulationisMuslim
respectively.MuslimsalsoformaboutonesixthofthepopulationofMontenegro.InRussia,Moscowis
hometoanestimated1.5millionMuslims.[34][35][36]

Projections
APewResearchCenterstudy,publishedinJanuary2011,
forecastedanincreaseofMuslimsinEuropeanpopulationfrom6%
in2010to8%in2030.[23]ThestudyalsofoundthatMuslimfertility
rateinEuropewoulddropfrom2.2in2010to2.0in2030.Onthe
otherhand,thenonMuslimfertilityrateinEuropewouldincrease
from1.5in2010to1.6in2030.[23]APewstudypublishedin2015
projectedthatin2050Muslimswillmakeup10.2%ofEurope's
population.[37]
AccordingtothePewResearch
Howevera2007CenterforStrategicandInternationalStudies
Center,Europe'spopulationwas6%
(CSIS)reportarguedthatsomeMuslimpopulationprojectionsare
Muslimin2010,andisprojectedto
overestimated,astheyassumethatalldescendantsofMuslimswill
be8%Muslimby2030. [23]
becomeMuslimsevenincasesofmixedparenthood.[38]Philip
JenkinsofPennStateUniversityestimatesthatby2100,Muslims
willcomposeabout25%ofEurope'spopulation.Jenkinsstatesthisfiguredoesnottakeaccountdivergent
birthratesamongstEurope'simmigrantChristians.[39]Otheranalystsareskepticalabouttheaccuracyofthe
claimedMuslimpopulationgrowth,statingthatbecausemanyEuropeancountriesdonotaskaperson's
religiononofficialformsorincensuses,ithasbeendifficulttoobtainaccurateestimates,andarguingthat
therehasbeenadecreaseinMuslimfertilityratesinMorocco,theNetherlandsandTurkey.[40]

Seealso
EuropeanIslam
BosnianGenocide
Jihad
Islambycountry
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Islamicculture
IslamicdressinEurope
Islamism
Eurabia
7July2005Londonbombings
ACommonWordBetweenUsandYou
RacisminEurope
IslamicterrorisminEurope
Islamophobicincidents
ListofcitiesintheEuropeanUnionbyMuslimpopulation
ListofmosquesinEurope
ListofmosquesinRussia
PersecutionofMuslims
TurksinEurope
Islamicfeminism

Organizations
CatholicMuslimForum
EuropeanCouncilforFatwaandResearch
MuslimCouncilforCooperationinEurope
MuslimExecutiveofBelgium

References
1. PewForum,201101(http://www.pewforum.org/TheFutureoftheGlobalMuslimPopulation.aspx?print=true)
report(http://features.pewforum.org/muslimpopulation/)
2. TheMuslimExpulsionfromSpain(http://www.historytoday.com/rogerboase/muslimexpulsionspain)|
Historytoday.com
3. "ThefutureoftheglobalmuslimpopulationEurope"(http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/futureofthe
globalmuslimpopulationregionaleurope/).PewResearchCenter).January27,2011.
4. Hourani,Albert,HistoryoftheArabPeoples,Faber&Faber,2002,ISBN0571215912
5. Manfred,W:"InternationalJournalofMiddleEastStudies",pages5979,Vol.12,No.1.MiddleEastStudies
AssociationofNorthAmerica,Aug1980.
6. "RogerII"(http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article9377080/RogerII).EncyclopediaBritannica.Retrieved
21June2015.
7. TracingTheNormanRulersofSicily(http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?
res=9B0DE1D61331F935A15757C0A961948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2)
8. Archivedlink(http://web.archive.org/web/20100821054137/http://www.cliohres.net/books/3/Dalli.pdf):From
IslamtoChristianity:theCaseofSicily,CharlesDalli,page153.InReligion,ritualandmythology:aspectsof
identityformationinEurope/editedbyJoaquimCarvalho,2006,ISBN8884924049.
9. Eade,John(1996)."Nationalism,Community,andtheIslamizationofSpaceinLondon".InMetcalf,Barbara
Daly.MakingMuslimSpaceinNorthAmericaandEurope(http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?
docId=ft2s2004p0&chunk.id=s1.12.69&toc.id=ch12&brand=ucpress).Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
ISBN0520204042.Retrieved19April2015."AsoneofthefewmosquesinBritainpermittedtobroadcastcalls
toprayer(azan),themosquesoonfounditselfatthecenterofapublicdebateaboutnoisepollutionwhenlocal
nonMuslimresidentsbegantoprotest."
10. "BritishSlavesontheBarbaryCoast"
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_02.shtml).
11. "JeffersonVersustheMuslimPiratesbyChristopherHitchens,CityJournalSpring2007"(http://www.city
journal.org/html/17_2_urbanitiesthomas_jefferson.html).
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12. Milton,G(2005)WhiteGold:TheExtraordinaryStoryofThomasPellowAndIslam'sOneMillionWhite
Slaves,Sceptre,London
13. "TheCrimeanTatarsandtheirRussianCaptiveSlaves(http://www2.econ.hit
u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf)"(PDF).EizoMatsuki,MediterraneanStudiesGroupat
HitotsubashiUniversity.
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(http://www.nordicway.com/search/Vikings%20in%20the%20East.htm)
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(http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569000_17/Russia.html)on20091031.
17. http://media.hoover.org/sites/default/files/documents/Macedonia_and_the_Macedonians_Andrew_Rossos_63.pdf
18. "AvalanchePress"(http://www.avalanchepress.com/Soldier_Khan.php).Retrieved21June2015.
19. Nasuh,Matrakci(1588)."JanissaryRecruitmentintheBalkans"
(http://warfare.netau.net/Ottoman/Suleymanname/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans.htm).Sleymanname,
TopkapiSaraiMuseum,MsHazine1517.
20. Basgoz,I.&Wilson,H.E.(1989),TheeducationaltraditionoftheOttomanEmpireandthedevelopmentofthe
Turkisheducationalsystemoftherepublicanera.TurkishReview3(16),15
21. ThepreachingofIslam:historyofthepropagationoftheMuslimfaithBySirThomasWalkerArnold,pg.135
144
22. JohannesScheffler(1663).TrckenSchrifftVondenUrsachenderTrkischenberziehung.(trans.Writingon
theTurks:OfthecausesoftheTurkishinvasion").asquotedinSirThomasWalkerArnold(1896).The
preachingofIslam:ahistoryofthepropagationoftheMuslimfaith
(https://archive.org/details/preachingofislam00arno).,pg.158
23. PewForum,TheFutureoftheGlobalMuslimPopulation,January2011,[1](http://www.pewforum.org/The
FutureoftheGlobalMuslimPopulation.aspx)[2](http://www.pewforum.org/TheFutureoftheGlobalMuslim
Population.aspx?print=true)[3](http://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/thefutureoftheglobalmuslim
population/),[4](http://features.pewforum.org/muslimpopulation/),[5](http://www.pewforum.org/futureofthe
globalmuslimpopulationregionaleurope.aspx?print=true)
24. Cole,Jeffrey(2011),EthnicGroupsofEurope:AnEncyclopedia,ABCCLIO,p.367,ISBN1598843028
25. byexampleonly6%oftheRussianpopulationisIslamichere(http://www.kommersant.ru/doc/1997068)
26. "WhatistheweightofIslaminFrance?"(http://www.lemonde.fr/lesdecodeurs/article/2015/01/21/quepesel
islamenfrance_4559859_4355770.html).Lesdcodeurs(LeMonde).January21,2015.
27. "Islamicfundamentalismiswidelyspread"(http://www.wzb.eu/en/pressrelease/islamicfundamentalismis
widelyspread).WissenschaftszentrumBerlinfrSozialforschung.December9,2013.
28. EuropeanMonitoringCentreonRacismandXenophobia(2006):MuslimsintheEuropeanUnion.Discrimination
andIslamophobia(http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/156Manifestations_EN.pdf)Retrieved
September25,2012
29. "PostawywobecIslamuiMuzumanw"(http://cbos.pl/SPISKOM.POL/2015/K_037_15.PDF)(PDF).Micha
Feliksiak.CBOS.March2015.(Polish)
30. Religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu(http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/nationprofiles/Albania/rbodies.html)
31. Religiousintelligence.co.uk(http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=103)
32. "Albania"(http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71364.htm).ReligiousIntelligence.UnitedStatesDepartment
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33. "EmbassyoftheRepublicofKazakhstanintheUK,CountryProfile2007,p.4"
(http://www.kazembassy.org.uk/img/Country%20Profile%202007_1.pdf)(PDF).Retrieved20070621.
34. TheriseofRussianMuslimsworriesOrthodoxChurch
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(https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.ajc.com/news/content/news/stories/1204/17muslims.html)atthe
WaybackMachine
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36. ToleranceandfearcollideintheNetherlands(http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/40ffd2eb4.html),UNHCR,
RefugeesMagazine,Issue135(NewEurope)
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no.3,pp.533,summer2006
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(http://www.prb.org/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx?p=1)[6]
(http://www.prb.org/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx)[7]
(http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2008/muslimsineurope.aspx),PopulationReferenceBureau,February
2008,SimonKuper,HeadcountbeliesvisionofEurabia(http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/123ade024e6f11dc85e7
0000779fd2ac,print=yes.html),FinancialTimes,19August2007,DougSaunders,The'Eurabia'mythdeservesa
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Furtherreading
Ghodsee,Kristen(2009).MuslimLivesinEasternEurope:Gender,EthnicityandtheTransformation
ofIslaminPostsocialistBulgaria(http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9068.html).Princeton:Princeton
UniversityPress.ISBN9780691139555.

Externallinks
ForMuslimMinorities,itisPossibletoEndorsePoliticalLiberalism,ButThisisnotEnough
(http://ssrn.com/abstract=1574982)
BBCNews:MuslimsinEurope
(http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/europe/2005/muslims_in_europe/)
Khabrein.info:Barroso:IslamispartofEurope(http://www.khabrein.info/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=14172&Itemid=88)
EuroIslamWebsiteCoordinatorJocelyneCesari,HarvardUniversityandCNRSGSRL,Paris
(http://euroislam.info/)
[10](http://www.euroislam.info/2013/01/23/thenumbersoffrenchmuslimsandmuslimsin
franceareexaggerated/)[11](http://bibliobs.nouvelobs.com/essais/20121220.OBS3294/on
exageredeliberementlenombredemusulmansenfrance.html)
Asabiyya:ReInterpretingValueChangeinGlobalizedSocieties
(http://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp4459.html)
WhyEuropehastoofferabetterdealtowardsitsMuslimcommunities.Aquantitativeanalysisof
openinternationaldata(http://ideas.repec.org/b/erv/ebooks/b001.html)
Kchler,Hans,MuslimChristianTiesinEurope:Past,PresentandFuture
(http://hanskoechler.com/ice.htm),1996
"IslaminEurope:AResourceGuide"(http://www.nypl.org/blog/2011/12/15/islameuroperesource
guide).USA:NewYorkPublicLibrary.2011.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Europe

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