An Outline of Cambodian Grammar

Negative microfilm
received from university
67-17,239
HUFFMAN, Franklin Eugene, 1934AN OUTLINE OF CAMBODIAN GRAMMAR.

Cornell University, Ph.D., 1967
Language and Literature, linguistics
University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan
PLEASE NOTE:
The negative microfilm copy of this
dissertation was prepared and inspected by the
school granting the degree. We are using this
film without further inspection or change. If
there are any questions about the film content,
please write directly to the school.
-
UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
AN OUTLINE OF CAMBODIAN GRAMMAR
A T h e s is
P r e s e n te d t o th e F a c u lt y o f t h e G ra d u ate S ch o o l
o f C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y f o r t h e D e g re e o f
D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y
by
F r a n k l i n E u g en e H uffm an
196 7
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
F r a n k l i n E u g en e Huffm an was b o r n i n H a r r i s o n b u r g ,
V i r g i n i a , on J a n u a r y 2 8 , 193!+.
In Ju n e, 1955 b e r e c e i v e d
t h e d e g r e e o f B a c h e l o r o f A r t s fro m B r i d g e w a t e r C o l l e g e ,
B rid g e w a te r, V ir g in ia ,
and L i t e r a t u r e s .
S e rv ic e s,
i n t h e f i e l d o f Romance L a n g u a g e s
He was e m p lo y ed by I n t e r n a t i o n a l V o l u n t a r y
I n c . , W a s h in g to n , D.C. a s a F r e n c h i n t e r p r e t e r i n
L ao s fro m 1956 t o 1 9 5 8 .
From 1958 t o I9 6 0 h e t a u g h t F r e n c h
a n d h i s t o r y a t M id d le R i v e r H ig h S c h o o l , A u g u s ta C o u n ty ,
V irg in ia .
I n S e p te m b e r I 9 6 0 h e e n r o l l e d i n t h e g r a d u a t e
sc h o o l o f C o rn e ll U n iv e rs ity in th e f i e l d s o f g e n e ra l
lin g u is tic s ,
s o c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g y , a n d A s ia n s t u d i e s .
From
Ju n e t o Decem ber 1961+. h e s t u d i e d t h e Cam bodian l a n g u a g e

a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f London S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l a n d A f r i c a n
S t u d i e s , and fro m J a n u a r y 19 6 5 t o J u l y 1966 h e g a t h e r e d

f i e l d d a t a on Cambodian i n T h a i l a n d and C am b odia.
He i s a
member o f t h e L i n g u i s t i c S o c i e t y o f A m e ric a , t h e A s s o c i a t i o n
f o r A i s i a n S t u d i e s , and t h e Siam S o c i e t y .
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
w o u ld
l i k e t o e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e t o my s p e c i a l
c o m m itte e a t C o r n e l l
M. E c h o l s ,
P r o f e s s o r s R o b e r t B. J o n e s ,
John
and L a u r i s t o n S harp f o r t h e i r en co u rag em en t
a n d a d v i c e o v e r t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d o f my g r a d u a t e s t u d y .
T h anks a r e e s p e c i a l l y d ue t o my c o m m itte e c h a i r m a n a n d
t h e s i s a d v i s o r , P r o f e s s o r R o b e r t B, J o n e s , who g a v e u n
s t i n t i n g l y o f h i s t i m e a n d c o u n s e l a t a l l s t a g e s o f my
w o rk on t h i s s t u d y .
I am a l s o i n d e b t e d t o P r o f e s s o r F a n g - k u e i L i o f t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f W a s h in g to n f o r t h e s u g g e s t i o n w h ic h l e d t o
th e c h o ic e
o f C am bodian a s t h e s u b j e c t o f t h i s
stu d y .
I owe a d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o M rs. J u d i t h M. J a c o b
of
t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L ondon S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n
S t u d i e s , f o r h e r p a t i e n t i n s t r u c t i o n d u r i n g s i x m o n th s o f
i n t e n s i v e s t u d y o f C am b o d ian , a n d f o r many i n s i g h t s i n t o
th e s tr u c tu r e
E u g en ie J .
i s th e
I
o f th e la n g u a g e , as w e ll as t o P r o f e s s o r
A. H e n d e r s o n , whose w ork on C am bodian p h o n o lo g y
to u c h sto n e o f l a t e r s tu d ie s in th e f i e l d .
w o u ld
l i k e t o e x p r e s s my t h a n k s t o t h e N D E A -re la te d
F u l b r i g h t - H a y s R e s e a r c h F e l l o w s h i p P ro g ra m a n d t h e L o n d o n C o r n e l l P r o j e c t f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t d u r i n g two y e a r s o f f i e l d
r e s e a r c h i n L o n d o n , T h a i l a n d , and C am b o d ia, a n d t o t h e
C o r n e l l S o u t h e a s t A s i a P ro g ra m and t h e L o n d o n - C o r n e l l
iii
P r o j e c t f o r s u p p o r t d u r i n g t h e a c a d e m ic y e a r 1 9 6 6 - 6 7 f o r
th e p r e p a r a tio n o f t h i s th e s is ..
T h a n k s a r e a l s o due t o t h e N a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l
o f T h a ila n d f o r t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e and s p o n s o rs h ip d u rin g
th e p e rio d o f r e s e a r c h in T h a ila n d .
F in a lly ,
I m u s t a c k n o w le d g e my d e b t t o some t h i r t y -
f i v e C a m b o d ia n s who s e r v e d a s i n f o r m a n t s o v e r t h e p e r i o d o f
my r e s e a r c h i n L o n d o n , T h a i l a n d , a n d C am bodia, a n d
e s p e c i a l l y t o ray p r i n c i p a l i n f o r m a n t f o r t h e T ak eo d i a l e c t ,
Mr. C h a ra n P ro m c h a n , who, f o r f o u r h o u r s a d a y o v e r a
p e r i o d o f f i f t e e n m o n th s , p a t i e n t l y s u b j e c t e d h i m s e l f t o
t h e m y s t i f y i n g game o f l i n g u i s t i c
in v e s tig a tio n .
iv
TABLE OP CONTENTS
0 . 0 I n t r o d u c t i o n .................... .................................................... ..................... 1

0 .1 G eneral
............
0 .2 C l a s s i f ic a t i o n
0 .3 H isto ry
1
....................................
......................................................................................................
. 0 . I|. R e v ie w o f s o u r c e s
0 .5 P urpose and scope
........................................................................
................................................
1+
8
11
0 . 6 B a c k g r o u n d ....................................................................................................... 12
1 . 0 P h o n o l o g y ................................................................................................
11+
1 . 1 Phonemes
11+
...............................................................................................
............
1 . 1 1 S e g m e n ta l phonem es
XI4.
1 .1 1 1 C la s s
C-^ phonem es ( c o n s o n a n t s )
1 .1 1 2 C la s s
C2 phonem es
.........................
21
1 .1 1 3 C la s s
C^ phonem es
.................................................
26
1.111+ C l a s s
1 .1 1 5 C la s s
a n d Y2 phonem es ( v o w e l s )
................... 15
................. 27
C^ phonem es ( f i n a l c o n s o n a n t s ) . . . .
1 . 1 2 S u p r a s e g m e n t a l phonem es
..............
35
37
1 .1 2 1 S t r e s s phonem es ........................................................... 37
1 . 1 2 2 J u n c t u r e phonem es
...........................................
1 . 1 2 3 P h r a s e c o n t o u r phonem es
..............
38
1+0
1.121+ I n t o n a t i o n a l phonem es
..................................
1+3
1 . 2 P h o n o l o g i c a l w o rd s ............ .............................................................. .. 1+1+

1 . 2 1 M o n o s y l l a b i c w o rd s ...............................
1+1+
1 . 2 2 D i s y l l a b i c w ords ..........................
1+5
1 . 2 3 P o l y s y l l a b i c w o rd s .................................
1+6
v
2 .0 M o rp h o p h o n e m ic s
...........................................
lj.8
2 . 1 F r e e v a r i a t i o n ..................................
lj-8
2 .1 1 F re e v a r i a t i o n in u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s
.......
2 . 1 2 S t r e s s a l t e r n a t i o n s . ...................................................
2 .1 3 F re e v a r i a t i o n in s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s
l+S
5>1
.................... 52
2 . 2 P h o n o l b g i c a l l y ^ c o n d i t i o n e d . a l t e r n a t i o n . , ...............................52
2 . 3 M o r p h o l o g l d a l l y '1c o n d i t i o n e d , a l t e r n a t i o n .............................. 53
2 . 141 Vowel a b l a u t
2 . Ill
.....................
56
......................................................
S p o ra d ic a b l a u t
2 , 142 A u to m a tic a b l a u t
3 .0 M o rp h o lo g y
58
...................
3 .1 M o rp h o lo g ica l u n i t s
63
.........................................
...........
3 .1 1
Morphemes
3 .1 2
Lexem es ..............................................
3*2 D e r i v a t i o n
63
63
6I4.
............
66
3 .2 1
P r e f i x e s . ....................................................................................... 69
3 .2 2
In fix e s
3 .2 3
..........
91
S u f f i x e s ..............................................................................
3 . 3 Compounds
'
..................................... .. 57
..........................
2 ,!i3 Vowel h a rm o n y
57
........................
106
107
.............................. 107
3 .3 1
G o v e r n in g l e x e m i c c o n s t i t u e n t s
3 .3 2
C e n t e r e d compounds .................................................
110
3 .3 3 C o o rd in a te
com pounds .....................................
llli
3 . 3U- U n c e n t e r e d
com pounds
115
3 .3 5 A p p o s itiv e
com pounds .......................................................
117
3 .3 6 A s y n t a c t i c
compounds
117
...............
.......................
vi
3 .3 7
I d i o m a t i c c o m p o u n d s '. . .................................................
118
3 .3 8
N u m e r i c a l com pounds
119
............
3 . L+ P s e u d o -c o m p o u n d s ..............
3 .5
120
3.11
Bo.und c o n s t i t u e n t s
.........................
120
3.1*2
F r e e c o n s t i t u e n t s ..............................
12 5
R e d u p lic a tiv e s
3 .5 1
............................................
C o m p le te r e d u p l i c a t i o n
129
...........................
3*5 11 R e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
3 .5 2
P a r tia l re d u p lic a tio n
.................
.......................................
129
132
3 . 5 2 1 A b l a u t e d r e d u p l i c a t i v e s ...................
132
3 . 5 2 2 Rhyming r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
131+
................................
3 .5 2 3 A l l i t e r a t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
3 .5 3
129
....................... 1 3 5
I n c o m p l e t e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s ...................................
3.51*- P s e u d o - r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
..............................
137
138
3 . 8 Sound s y m b o l i s m ................................................................................
139
l+.O Lexeme c l a s s e s
11*1
l+ .l I s o l a t i v e s
...................
................
11+2
l+ .ll I n t e r j e c t i o n s
..........................
1+.12 R e s p o n s i v e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1+.2 S u b s t a n t i v e s
........................
11+2
11+3
11+1+
1+.21 Nouns ..................................
11+1+
1+.22 S p e c i f i e r s
11+7
1+.23 P ro n o u n s
............... . . . ....................................................
...........................................................................
l5 l
i+. 21+ Q u a n t i f i e r s ...........................................................
157
1+.25 D e m o n s t r a t i v e s
163
.................................
v ii
V
lj.,3 P r e d i c a t i v e s
....................................
I 6I4.
1+.31 A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s ..................................................................... 161+

14..32 A c t i v e v e r b s
..................... . ........................................... . . . .
ij..321 T r a n s i t i v e v e r b s
......................................
1+.322 I n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s .....................
l+.33 M odal v e r b s
16$
16$
166
...........................................
166
14..3U- D i r e c t i o n a l v e r b s .......................................................
170
14.. 3$ C o m p le t iv e v e r b s
171
l+. I4. A d v e r b i a l s
.................................
................
l+.l+l G e n e r a l a d v e r b i a l s
175
...............................................................
i|..1)2 I n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b i a l s
175
................................... 17 7
1+.1+3 I n d e f i n i t e a d v e r b i a l s ......................................................... 178

lj.,$ A d j e c t i v e s ...........................................
179
14. . $1 G e n e r a l a d j e c t i v e s
179
................
1+.52 I m i t a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s ........................................................... 181

14. . 53 O r d i n a l n u m e r a l a d j e c t i v e s
I4.,6 A u x i l i a r i e s
..........................
...............................
l 8l
182
lj..6l G e n e r a l a u x i l i a r i e s
................................................
14. . 62 P r e v e r b a l a u x i l i a r i e s
183
............
181}.
1^,63 I n c i p i e n t a u x i l i a r y .................................................................18$
1|.,6I4. N e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r i e s
.....................
185
I4.*7 R e l a t o r s .............................
186
1^.71 P r e p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t o r s
................
14.. 72 S u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s
1+. 73 G e n e r a l r e l a t o r s
186
.................... 189
...................
192
14.. 7I4. C o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s
l+, 75 C o p u l a t i v e r e l a t o r s
............. 193
.................................
v iii
19 5
[(-.8 P a r t i c l e s
....................................
196
1+.81 P i n a l s e n t e n c e p a r t i c l e s
1+.82 P a u s e p a r t i c l e s
5 .0 S y n t a x
.....................
196
.................................................................. 197
...........
.1 9 8
5 . 1 U n c e n t e r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n s ................................................................ 200
.....................
5 .1 1 S u b j e c t - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t io n s
5 .1 2 P a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s
200
.....................
201
5*121 E q u a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
201
5 . 1 2 2 T o p ic -c o m m e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n s
202
...........
5 . 1 2 3 E x c l a m a t o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n s .............................
203
5.121+ R e s p o n s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ..................................
20L+
5 . 1 2 5 V o c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s .......................................
20I+.
5 .1 2 6 T e rm in a tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
...................... 205
5 . 1 2 7 Embedded p a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s
...........
5 .1 3 O b je c tiv e c o n s t r u c t io n s
..............206
5 . l i t - R e l a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s .....................
5 .1 ! |1 P r e p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s
5 .1 I t2 S u b o r d i n a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
1 5 * 1 5 C o m p le t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
206
207
.................. 20 7
..............
208
.................................. 209
5 . 2 C e n t e r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n s .................................................................... 210
5 .2 1 P o s t-p o s e d a t t r i b u t e s
..................
210
5 . 2 1 1 Noun p h r a s e s ....................................
210
5 . 2 1 2 R e l a t i v e p ro n o u n p h r a s e s .....................
216
5 . 2 1 3 V erb p h r a s e s ...............................
217
5.211+ P o s t - p o s e d s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s
221
ix
5*22
P roposed a t t r i b u t e s
................................
5*221 A u x i l i a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n s
...................
5 . 2 2 2 Modal v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s
....................
5*223 A t t r i b u t e - c l a u s . e c o n s t r u c t i o n s . . . .
5.221+ S p e c i f i e r p h r a s e s
221
221.
222
223
............................
225
5* 3 C o o r d i n a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ................................................................ 227
5 .3 1
C u m u la tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ..................................
5 .3 2
A lte rn a tiv e c o n stru c tio n s
..............................
233
5.1+1 A d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1+2 M u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
Im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t a n a l y s i s
................................................
231+
236
..............................................................
6 .1 1
S im p le s e n t e n c e s .....................................................................
6 .1 2
Complex s e n t e n c e s ..........................................................
6 ,1 3
233
............................ 233
6 . 0 S e n t e n c e t y p e s ..................................
6 . 1 M a jo r s e n t e n c e s
231
..................................................... 232
5.1+ N u m e r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s ........................
5 .5
230
.............................
5*3 3 A p p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
5.31+ I n c l u s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
227
Compound s e n t e n c e s
................................................
236
236
237
238
6 . 2 M inor s e n t e n c e s ...........................................................
6 . 3 S e n t e n c e f r a g m e n t s ..........................
2
239
A p p e n d ix A* C o m p a riso n o f t h e T akeo D i a l e c t w i t h S t a n d a r d
C a m b o d i a n ..........................
21+0
B i b l i o g r a p h y ..........................
250
x
0 .0 I n tr o d u c tio n
0 .1 G en eral
C am b odian , a l s o known a s Khmer, i s s p o k e n by some
5 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 * p e o p l e i n t h e Kingdom o f C am b o d ia, a n d m u t u a l l y
in te llig ib le d ia le c ts
a r e sp o k e n by a p p r o x i m a t e l y Lj.0 0 ,0 0 0
i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e p r o v in c e s o f B u riram , S u r i n , and S r i s a k e t
i n n o r t h e a s t e r n T h a i l a n d , a n d b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y lj.50,000^
p e o p l e i n t h e Mekong D e l t a r e g i o n o f S o u t h V ie tn a m .
T hese
f i g u r e s e x c lu d e th e h u n d red s o f r e l a t e d d i a l e c t s s c a t t e r e d
o v e r m o s t o f m a i n l a n d S o u t h e a s t A s i a , and r e p r e s e n t t h e
r e l a t i v e l y hom o geneou s l a n g u a g e c o m m u n i ty .o f C am bodian
proper.
0 .2 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
C am bodian i s t h e m a j o r m odern r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e
e a s t e r n b r a n c h o f the--Mon-Khmer l a n g u a g e f a m i l y .
U su a lly
i n c l u d e d w i t h C am bodian i n t h e Cam bodian s u b - g r o u p o f
1 . D a v id J . S t e i n b e r g , C a m b o d ia ? I t s P e o p l e , I t s S o c i e t y ,
I t s C u l t u r e (New H av en , Human R e l a t i o n s A re a F i l e s , 1 9 5 9 ) .
2 . F o r t h i s f i g u r e I am i n d e b t e d t o W il l ia m A, S m a l l e y , who
v e r y k i n d l y g a v e me a p r e - p u b l i c a t i o n d r a f t o f h i s
E t h n o l i n g u l s t i c S u r v e y o f N o r t h e r n K h m e r-S p e a k in g P e o p l e
in' N o r t h e a s t T h a i l a n d (F e b r u a r y ," 1 96I4.) .
3 . B e r n a r d F a l l , Le p r o b l e m s d e l 1a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d e s
m i n o r i t e s e t h n i q u e s a u Cambodge, a u L a o s , . e t d a n s l e s d e u x
z o n e s du Viet-Nani' ( P a r 1 s ' 1961)* p . 1 0 .
1
2
n
E a s t e r n Mon-Khmer a r e P e a r ( P o r ) , S a m re, S t i e n g ,
a n d Chong,
a l l s p o k e n w i t h i n o r on t h e b o r d e r s o f C a m b o d ia .^
d i v i d e s S e b e o k 's 'Mon-Khmer p r o p e r ' i n t o
S h orto^
Mon a n d E a s t e r n
Mon-Khmer, a n d r e d e s i g n a t e s S e b e o k 's S a lw e e n B a s i n Group

( P a l a u n g , Wa, R i a n g , e t c . ) N o r t h e r n M on-K hm er.^
1 . H. L c S h o r t o , J u d i t h M. J a c o b , a n d E . H. S. Sim m onds,
B i b l i o g r a p h i e s . o f Mon-Khmer a n d T a l L i n g u i s t i c s (L o ndon,
O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19 6'jj""p.3*
2 . To t h e f o r e g o i n g g r o u p , M asp ero [ H e n r i M a s p e r o , * 'L e
p a y s e t s e s h a b i t a n t s * l a n g u e s 5' i n Un e m p ir e c o l o n i a l
f r a n g a i s : 1 ' In do c h i n e . O u v ra g e p u b l i e " s o u s l a d i r e c t i o n de
M.""Georges M a sp e ro ( P a r i s e t B r u x e l l e s , G, v a n O e s t , 1 9 2 9 )
Tome I , p . 61j.) a d d s A n g ra k a n d Budeh, a n d P in now [ H e i n z J u r g e n P in n o w , V e r s u c h e i n e r h i s t o r i s c h e n L a u t l e h r e d e r
K h a r l a - S p r a c h e ( W ie s b a d e n ,- O t t o H a r r a s s o w i t z , 1 9 ^ 9 )3
T n c l u d e s t h e l a t t e r two a s w e l l a s S a o c a n d D ip .
Thomas
[ D a v id D. Thom as, ''M o n -K h m er S u b g r o u p i n g s i n V i e t n a m ' ' ,
i n Norman H. Z i d e , S t u d i e s i n C o m p a r a ti v e A u s t r o a s i a t l c
L i n g u i s t i c s (The H ague, Mouton and. C o . , 1 9 6 6 ) p , I 9 7 J
i n c l u d e s ' Budeh a n d - B u d lp [ D i p ? ) u n d e r S t i e n g .
A. G.
H a u d r ic o u r t [ i n p r i v a t e c o n v e r s a tio n s i n 1965) e x p re s s e d
t h e o p i n i o n t h a t P e a r , Chong, and S aoc a r e a l l d i a l e c t s o f
S a m re.
T h i s p o i n t o f v ie w i s s u p p o r t e d b y P^. T a i l l a r d
[ ' *Les S a o c h ' ' , I n s t i t u t I n d o c h i n o i s p o u r 1 ' E t u d e de
1 ' Homme. B u l l e t i n s e t T r a v a u x 5 (1914-2) p p . 'li3-i4-T.
3. S h o rto ,
J a c o b , a n d Simmonds, 0 . c i t . t p . 5 .
Thomas A. S e b e o k , ' ' A n E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e A u s t r o a s i a t l c

L a n g u a g e F a m i l y ' 1, L an g u a g e 18 (191+2) 3s 2 0 6 - 1 7 .
5>. Thomas [ o p . c i t . . p . 1 9 8 ] s u g g e s t s t h a t B a h n a r i c
[ c o m p r i s i n g B a h n a r a n and S t i e n g a n ] a n d K a t u i c [ c o m p r i s i n g
B ro u a n a n d K a tu a n ] s h o u l d be p l a c e d on a l e v e l w i t h Mon
a n d Khmer a s m a j o r s u b - d i v i s i o n s o f t h e Mon-Khmer f a m i l y ,
S c h m i d t s h y p o t h e s i s o f an A u s t r o a s i a t l c l a n g u a g e f a m i l y
on t h e S o u t h e a s t A s ia n m a i n l a n d , ^ i n c l u d i n g , b e s i d e s Mon,
E a s t e r n Mon-Khmer, a n d N o r t h e r n Mon-Khmer, a l s o t h e Munda
l a n g u a g e s o f n o r t h e a s t e r n I n d i a , K h a s i i n Assam, t h e Cham
g r o u p i n S o u t h V ie tn a m and- C am bodia, N i c o b a r e s e , a n d Semang
a n d S a k a i i n t h e M alay p e n i n s u l a , i s u n w a r r a n t e d by p r e s e n t
e v id e n c e , and h i s f u r t h e r g ro u p in g o f A u s t r o a s i a t l c w ith
t h e A u s t r o n e s i a n l a n g u a g e s o f i s l a n d S o u t h e a s t A s i a t o fo rm
a n A u s t r l c s u p e r s t o c k i s e v e n m ore s p e c u l a t i v e . ^
B e n e d i c t i n 191^7 ^ p r o p o s e d a d d in g Annamese-Muong t o
t h e I . . ' A u s t r o a s i a t l c 11 f a m i l y , a n d l i n g u i s t s a t t e n d i n g t h e
s p e c i a l A u s t r o a s i a t l c la n g u a g e s s e c t i o n o f th e C o n feren ce
on I n d o - P a c i f i c L a n g u a g e s a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f London
S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and A f r ic a n S tu d ie s in J a n u a ry , 196,
g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t V ie tn a m e s e s h o u l d b e i n c l u d e d i n t h e
1 . P . W. S c h m id t , * L es p e u p l e s m on-khm erj t r a i t d 'u n i o n

e n t r e l e s p e u p l e s de 1 A s i e c 'e n t r a l e e t d e 1 A u s t r o n l s i e 1,
B
e*!t i**n de l E...
c o
l e- Fr
an p>a"-i s e d 1E x t r e m
e -
O
r
i e
n t 7 (1 9 0 7 )
u l l A
pp. 213- 63.
2 . On t h i s p o i n t s e e . F . H e v e s y , 11 On W. S c h m i d t s
Munda-Mon-Khmer C om parisons.- Does a n A u s t r i c f a m i l y o f
la n g u a g e s e x i s t ? ' , B u l le t in o f th e School o f O r ie n ta l
a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s 6 ( 1 9 3 0 ) p p . "1 6 7 - 2 0 0 , a n d S e b e o k ,
Xc~c. c i t .
3 . P . K. B e n e d i c t , L a n g u a g e s a n d L i t e r a t u r e o f I n d o c h i n a
F a r E a s t e r n Q u a r t e r l y 6 J1 9 I4.7 ) p p . 3 7 9 - 8 9 .
Reproduced with permission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
Wl.
A u s tr o a s ia tlc fa m ily .
filia tio n
H o w ev er, t o p r o p o s e a n y w i d e r a f
f o r Mon-Khmer t h a n S h o r t o 1s n u c l e a r Mon, E a s t e r n
Mon-Khmer, a n d N o r t h e r n Mon-Khmer g r o u p i n g s i s p r o b a b l y
p r e m a t u r e , and m u s t a w a i t f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i v e work;*0 .3 H isto ry
S i n c e C am bodian i s sp o k e n i n t h e g e n e r a l r e g i o n o f
F u n a n , t h e f i r s t known I n d i a n i z e d kin g d o m i n S o u t h e a s t
A s i a ( 1 s t c e n t u r y A.D, t o c . $$0 A . D . ) ^ , i t may w e l l be
a m od ern r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f one o f t h e e a r l i e s t l a n g u a g e s
o f m a in lan d S o u th e a s t A s ia .
C am bodian i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e
among t h e e a r l i e s t n o n - I n d i c i n s c r i p t i o n s f o u n d i n S o u t h
e a s t A s ia , and t h e o n ly v e r n a c u l a r i n s c r i p t i o n s fo u n d in
t h e a r e a o f F unan a r e C am bodian.
T he e a r l i e s t C am bodian
i n s c r i p t i o n was f o u n d a t Angkor B o r e i i n T a k e o p r o v i n c e i n
w h a t w ould h a v e b e e n s o u t h e r n F u n a n , a n d i s d a t e d 611 A .D .3
The o n l y e a r l i e r v e r n a c u l a r i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d i n S o u t h e a s t
A s i a i s t h e Cham i n s c r i p t i o n f o u n d a t T r a - k i e n i n t h e a r e a
1 . For fu r th e r d isc u ssio n s o f l i n g u i s t i c a f f i l i a t i o n in

S o u t h e a s t A s i a , s e e Thomas A. S e b e o k , 11 The L a n g u a g e s o f
S o u t h e a s t A s i a 1 1, F a r E a s t e r n Q u a r t e r l y 2 (191+37 pp., 3U-9
G e o rg e C o e d e s , * *Les l a n g u e s de l 1I n d o c h i n e 1 , C o n f e r e n c e s
d e 1* I n s t i t u t de L i n g u i s t i q u e de l ^ n i v e r s i t e de P a r i s V I I I
Tl9l+0-l+ti) p p . 5 3 - B l j H e n r i Mas p e r o^ ' ' L e s l a n g u e s mon-lchmer*1 ,
i n L e s l a n g u e s du m ondo, A. M e i l l e t e t M. C o h en , e d . ( P a r i s ,
1 9 5 2 ) p p . 6 0 9 - 2 5 7 a n d J o s e p h H. G r e e n b e r g , ' H i s t o r i c a l
L i n g u i s t i c s a n d U n w r i t t e n L a n g u a g e s 11 i n A. L. K r o e b e r ,
A n t h r o p o l o g y T od ay ( C h i c a g o , U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s ,
19J3L
2 . D. G. E, H a l l , A H i s t o r y o f S o u t h - E a s t A s i a (London*,
M a c M illa n a n d Co. L t d . , 19ol+T~p.33.
3 . L . P. B r i g g s , The A n c i e n t Khmer Em pir e ( P h i l a d e l p h i a ,
The A m erican P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 9 ^ 1 7 p . lf?> f n . 1 8 .
o f t h e f o r m e r k in gdo m o f Champa, a n d d a t i n g fro m t h e f o u r t h

c e n t u r y A .D ,'1
The t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w i s t h a t t h e i n h a b i t a n t s
o f F unan w e re o f t h e g e n e r a l A u s t r o n e s i a n o r M alay e t h n i c
s t o c k w hose m i g r a t i o n fro m s o u t h w e s t e r n C h in a p e o p l e d m o s t
P
o f S o u th e a s t A sia d u r in g N e o l i t h i c t im e s .
But th e d a n g e rs
o f a s s u m in g c o i n c i d e n c e o f e t h n i c a n d l i n g u i s t i c
areas are
w e l l known. ' C a d y ,^ w r i t i n g on F u n a n , s a y s t h a t 11 t h e
lite ra te
e l i t e was- a p p a r e n t l y I n d o n e s i a n , a n d l a n g u a g e
m o d u l a t i n g i n t i m e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f O ld Khm er.
The
p o p u l a t i o n a s a w h o le was I n d o n e s i a n a n d N e g r i t o o r M e l a n e s o i d . *1
The f i r s t s t a t e m e n t i s ,
o f co u rse, l in g u i s t i c a l ly
u n te n a b le ,
a n d t h e s e c o n d i s b a s e d on t h e r e p o r t o f a C h i n
e s e t r a v e l e r o f 2$0 A.D. t h a t d e s c r i b e d t h e F u n a n e s e a s
u g ly and b l a c k , t h e i r h a i r f r i z z y , t h e i r b o d ie s n ak ed above
th e w a is t, t h e i r f e e t b a r e . 1
The d e s c r i p t i o n c o u l d j u s t a s
w e l l b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s s u p p o r t i n g H e i n e - G e l d e r n 1s t h e o r y o f
a p re-M alay m e s o lith ic A u s tro lo id -V e d d o id e th n ic s u b s tra tu m
II
9
i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a . 4, H a l l ^ s t a t e s c a t e g o r i c a l l y t h a t
1.# G. C o e d e s , L e s e t a t s h i n d o u l s e s de 1* I n d o c h i n e e t d* I n d o
n e s i a ( P a r i s . E c i i t i o n s E. d e B o c a r d , 19614.) p . 96,'
2 . S e e B r i a n H a r r i s o n , S o u t h - E a s t A s i a ? A. S h o r t H i s t o r y
(L ondon, M a c M illa n and Co. "L t d , , 1957") p . 5 , a n d H a l l ,
op* c i t . . p. 7.
3* Jo h n F . C ady, S o u t h e a s t A s i a ? I t s H i s t o r i c a l D e v e lo p m e n t
(New Y o rk , M c G ra w -H ill, I 96I4) p . *>3"'
I4, H a l l , o . c i t . , p . 6 - 7 .
5 . H a l l, o, c i t . . p . 25.
o
c
11 t h e F u n a n e s e were* o f M alay r a t e 1, b u t q u a l i f i e s t h i s
a
th e fo o tn o te :
s e n s e 11.
in
**>The w ord i s u s e d h e r e i n i t s w i d e s t e t h n i c
1
2
B o th B r i g g s . a n d H a r r i s o n
a ssu m e t h a t Cam bodian
-
'
was t h e l a n g u a g e o f F u n a n , b u t t h e m o s t u n e q u i v o c a l s t a t e
m en t comes fro m C o e d e s
11 The a b s e n c e o f an y t e x t s i n t h e v e r n a c u l a r d a t i n g
, fro m t h e F u -n a n p e r i o d m eans t h a t we a r e u n f o r t u n a t e l y
l e f t i n i g n o r a n c e a s t o w h a t l a n g u a g e was s p o k e n b y i t s
p e o p l e , and h e n c e we do n o t know t o w h a t e t h n o - l i n g u i s t i c g ro u p th e y b e lo n g e d ,
n e v e r t h e l e s s , we c a n a ssu m e
i t t o be h i g h l y p r o b a b le t h a t t h e F u nan ese b e lo n g e d in
t h e m a in t o t h e Mon-Khmer g r o u p .
The v e r y name o f t h e
c o u n t r y g i v e n i n the C h i n e s e t e x t s ^ w o u l d seem t o i n d i
c a t e t h i s , i f i t d o e s i n d e e d r e p r e s e n t t h e w ord bnam
m o u n t a i n , w h ic h i s t y p i c a l l y Mo'n-Khmer.
I t has
m o r e o v e r been* e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t ? t h $ Khmer l a n g u a g e
s p r e a d a l o n g t h e r o u t e s t h a t must h a v e b e e n f o l l o w e d
b y t h e c o n q u e r o r s o f F unan i n t h e s i x t h c e n t u r y .
As a
r e s u l t o f th is d iffu s io n , v a rio u s r e la te d d ia le c ts are
d i s p e r s e d a r o u n d t h e p e r i p h e r y o f p r e s e n t C am bod ia.
T h e s e d i a l e c t s show g r e a t s i m i l a r i t i e s , a n d a l s o h a v e
f e a t u r e s i n common d i f f e r e h t i l t i n g them f r o m Khmer,
w h ic h l e a d s t o t h e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e y a r e m o dern
v e r s i o n s p f th e * .s p o k e n l a n g u a g e o f t h e p e o p l e o f
F u -n a n . How ever t h a t may b e , t h e f a c t t h a t C am bodian was t h e l a n g
u a g e o f C h en -L a (5 5 0 -8 0 2 A . D , ) , F u n a n s s u c c e s s o r i n t h e
Mekong V a l l e y , a n d o f t h e g r e a t k ingd om o f A ngkor ( 8 0 2 11+31 A . D , ) , whose s u z e r a i n t y a t i t s h e i g h t e x t e n d e d e a s t
w a rd t o t h e s e a , n o r t h w a r d t o T o n g k in g a n d n o r t h e r n L a o s ,
w e s tw a r d t o Burma, and s o u t h w a r d t o M a la y a , i s a t t e s t e d b y
1. B rig g s , op. c i t . . p. 15.

2 . H a r r is o n , op. c i t . , p . 17.
3 . G. C o e d e s , The M aking o f S o u th E a s t A s i a (L on d o n , R o u t .
l e d g e a n d .K e g a n P a u l , 196(57 p . 6 2 .
a n a b u n d a n c e o f s t o n e i n s c r i p t i o n s c o v e r i n g t h e p e r i o d from
.the 7 t h t o t h e 1 8 t h c e n t u r i e s . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
th e f a c t th a t
p o c k e t s o f s p e a k e r s o f M o n - K h m e r - r e la te d d i a l e c t s a r e f o u n d
a l l o v e r m a i n l a n d S o u t h e a s t A s i a , s u c h a s t h e B a h n a r , Mnong
G a r , H a l a n g , a n d S r e o f V ietnam } t h e S t i e n g , B i e t , B r a o ,
a n d Samre o f Cambodia^. th e .K h m u ? , L a m e t, S o u e i , a n d So o f
L aos} t h e Kuy, S o, Chong, a n d Lawa o f T h a i la n d } t h e Mon,
P a l a u n g , Wa, a n d R ia n g o f Burma; and p o s s i b l y t h e Seraang
P
a n d S a k a i o f M a l a y s i a , seem s t o i n d i c a t e t h a t Mon-Khmer i n
f a c t . r e p r e s e n t s a much o l d e r l i n g u i s t i c
s u b s t r a t u m w h ic h
was l a t e r e n g u l f e d , p a r t i a l l y a s s i m i l a t e d , a n d p u s h e d i n t o
t h e h i l l s b y s u c c e e d i n g m i g r a t i o n s o f V i e tn a m e s e , T a i , a n d
B urm ese,
At any r a t e ,
t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f Cambodian f o r t h e
l i n g u i s t i c h i s t o r y o f S o u t h e a s t A s i a seem s o b v i o u s .
As f o r f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e on t h e l a n g u a g e , t h e Cam
b o d i a n s h a v e b o rr o w e d much o f t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ,
a n d l i t e r a r y v o c a b u l a r y fro m S a n s k r i t . 3
ju d ic ia l,
W ith t h e a d v e n t o f
T h e r a v a d a Buddhism a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 5 t h c e n t u r y ,
C am bodian b e g a n t o b o r r o w P a l i w o r d s , a n d c o n t i n u e s t o u s e
1 . G e o r g e s M a sp e ro , G ram m aire de l a l a n g u e khm ere ( P a r i s ,

I r a p r i m e r i e N a t i o n a l e 7 191f?J p . 2 3 .
2 . F r a n k . M . L e B a r , G e r a l d D. H i c k e y , a n d Jo h n K. M u sg ra v e ,
E t h n i c G ro ups o f M a in la n d S o u t h e a s t A s i a (New H aven,
Human R e l a t i o n s A r e a Files"," 1 9 6 ^ ) "pp7 2B'7-8.
3 . F. M a r t i n i , '* L a l a n g u e cam bo dgien ne* *, F r a n c e - A s ie L|.
(19U-9) p p . 9 0 1 - 9 .
P a l i as a m a jo r s o u r c e o f n e o lo g is m s t o d a y . * D u rin g t h e
p e r i o d o f F r e n c h d o m i n a t i o n , many F r e n c h w o rd s w e re b o r
row ed i n to t h e la n g u a g e
arid , h a v e becom e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t
o f th e c o ll o q u i a l lan g u ag e,
e s p e c ia lly in urban a re a s .
R e v ie w o f s o u r c e s
S i n c e a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f m o d ern d i a l e c t s i s a
p r e r e q u is ite fo r a c c u ra te h i s t o r i c a l re c o n s tru c tio n ,
it
is
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t no m odern s t r u c t u r a l gram m ar o f C am bodian,

2
s u c h a s t h a t o f R i c h a r d B. N oss f o r T h a i , R o b e r t B. J o n e s
f o r K a r e n , ^ a n d L a u r e n c e Thompson f o r V i e t n a m e s e ^ h a s b e e n
p u b lis h e d .
The few s t u d i e s done b y t r a i n e d l i n g u i s t s h a v e
b e e n c o n c e r n e d o n l y w i t h p h o n o l o g y o f t h e l a n g u a g e , and
p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith th e ' ' r e g i s t e r ' '
p r o b l e m i n t h e C am bodian
v o w e l s y s t e m , a s f i r s t d e l i n e a t e d b y H e n d e rs o n i n 1 9 5 2 .
1 . On t h i s s u b j e c t , s e e F e M a r t i n i , ' ' D e l a c r e a t i o n a c t u e l l e
d e s m o ts e n c a m b o d g ie n 1' , B u l l e t i n de l a S o c i e t e L l n g u i s t i q u e
de P a r i s 5 7 (1 9 6 2 ) p p . 161-71+j
2 . R i c h a r d B. N o s s , An O u t l i n e o f S ia m e s e Grammar (P h .D .
T h e s i s , Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y ', 1951+7 u n p u b l i s h e d ) . An e x p a n d e d
v e r s i o n i s a v a i l a b l e i n h i s l a t e r T h a i R e f e r e n c e Grammar
( W a s h in g to n , D . C . , F o r e i g n S e r v i c e I n s t i t u t e , 1961+71
3 . R o b e r t B. J o n e s , K a ren L i n g u i s t i c S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f
C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n X i n g u i s t i ' c s 2 5 ( B e r k e l e y a n d Los
A n g e les, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 6 1 ). .
1}., L a u r e n c e C. Thompson, A V i e tn a m e s e Grammar ( S e a t t l e ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f W a sh in g to n P r e s s ', 1 9 6 5 ) .
5 . E u g e n i e J . A. H e n d e r s o n , ' ' T h e M ain F e a t u r e s o f C am bodian
P r o n u n c i a t i o n ' ' , B u l l e t i n o f t h e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l and
A f r i c a n S t u d i e s ll+ (1 9 5 2 ) p p . **11+9- W e
The f i r s t o f t h e s e t o a p p e a r was t h a t o f M a r t i n i i n 1 9 l |9 ,^
w h ic h i s a c o m p l e t e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e n o n - i n t o n a t i o n a l f e a
t u r e s o f C am bodian p h o n o l o g y , b u t whose p h o n e t i c s l e a d o n e '
t o s u s p e c t t h a t h e was d e a l i n g w i t h a r a t h e r v a r i a n t d i a
le c t.
The m o s t w i d e l y q u o t e d i s . H e n d e r s o n * s a r t i c l e , w h ic h
is e x c e lle n t d e s c rip tiv e ly ,
b u t w h ic h d e a l s w i t h a h i g h l y
fo rm a l and i d e a l i z e d v a r i e t y o f s p e e c h .^
T he a r t i c l e
a lso
in c l u d e s an i n t e r e s t i n g t h e o r y o f th e p h o n o lo g ic a l s tr u c -- t u r e o f C am bodian w o r d s .
The s t u d y i s c a s t i n t h e t e r m s o f
th e P ir th ia n school o f l i n g u i s t i c s ,
t o b e a p h o n e m ic a n a l y s i s .
and do es n o t p u r p o r t
P in n o w s tw o p a p e r s ^ a r e n o t
b a s e d on p r i m a r y i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d f r o m n a t i v e infor*-.
m a n t s , b u t a r e r a t h e r a c o m p a r is o n a n d s y n t h e s i s o f t h e
M a r tin i and H enderson a n a l y s e s ,
on t h e b a s i s o f w h i c h , a l o n g
w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n f ro m t h e w r i t i n g s y s t e m , h e r e c o n s t r u c t s
an e a r l i e r s t a g e o f t h e l a n g u a g e . ^
The o n l y m ore o r l e s s
1 . F . M a r t i n i , * A p e r g u p h o n o l o g i q u e du c a m b o d g ie n * 1,
B u l l e t i n de l a S o c i e t e L l n g u i s t i q u e de P a r i s lj2 (19l|2~i^>)
p p . 112 -3 1 .
2 . The t r e a t m e n t s o f b o t h M a r t i n i a n d H e n d e r s o n w i l l be
d i s c u s s e d i n A p p e n d ix A.
3 . H e i n z - J u r g e n P in n o w , 1 S p r a c h g e s c h i c h t l i c h e E rw agu ngen
zum P ho n e m sy ste m d e s K hm er*' , Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P h o n e t i k u n d
& .llg e m e in e S p r a c h w i s s e n s o n a f t 10 (19$7} ); 3T 8 - 9 1 , a n d
* *B e m e rk u n g e n ^ z u r S i l b e n - u n d W o r t s t r u k t u r d e s Khm er11,
Z e it s c h r i f t f u r P h o n e tik und a llg e m e in e S p ra c h w is s e n s c h a ft
I I (1958Tpp.
I}.. I am i n d e b t e d t o P h i l i p N. J e n n e r o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f
H a w a ii f o r E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e s e tw o a r t i c l e s .
c o m p l e t e gram m ar o f t h e C am bodian l a n g u a g e so ^ fa j? p u b l i s h e d
i s t h a t o f G e o r g e s M a s p e ro ^ .
T h i s r a t h e r t h o r o u g h gram m ar,
//
p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 5 , s u f f e r s f ro m t h e l i n g u a - c e n t r i c b i a s
t y p i c a l o f e a r l i e r g ra m m a rs , a t t r i b u t i n g t o t h e l a n g u a g e
In d o -E u ro p ean g ra m m a tic a l c a t e g o r i e s .
M a s p e r o 1s t r a n s c r i p
t i o n i s m ore a t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n t h a n a p h o n e t i c r e p r e s e n t s ! - tic n o f t h e sounds o f th e la n g u a g e , as a co n seq u en ce o f

w h ic h t h e w ork c o u l d a l m o s t b e c a l l e d a g r a p h e m ic a n a l y s i s .
N e v e r th e le s s , th e book i s a v a lu a b le so u rc e o f in fo rm a tio n
a b o u t t h e la n g u a g e , and c o n t a i n s a u s e f u l - l i s t o f d e r i v a t t i o n a l l y - r e l a t e d f o r m s , w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e m ec h an ism s a r e
f u n c tio n a l in p re s e n t-d a y speech.
I n a d d i t i o n t o M a s p e r o 1s
w o r k , s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s d e a l i n g v r i th s p e c i f i c
a sp e c ts o f
C am bodian gram m ar h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s b y
M a rtin i.2
V a r i o u s m a n u a ls a n d t e x t b o o k s o f C am bodian w e re p u b
l i s h e d th ro u g h o u t th e p e r io d o f F ren ch a d m in is tr a tio n in
1 . G e o r g e s M a s p e ro , o p . c i t .
2 . F . M a r t i n i , " L e s e x p r e s s i o n s de e t r e 1 en s i a m o i s e t en
c a m b o d g ie n 11 , B u l l e t i n de l a S o c i e t e L i n g u i s t i q u e de P a r i 3
52 (19!?6) p p t 2 8 9 -3 0 6 * a n d 11 L a d i s t i n c t i o n du p r e d i c a t de
q u a l i t e e t de l ! e p i t h e t e en c a m b o d g ie n e t en s i a m o i s 11.
B u l l e t i n de l a S o c i e t e L i n g u i s t i q u e d e P a r i s 53 ( 1 9 5 7 - 0 )
PP. 295- 3 0 5 .
11
Cambodia.'*
H ow ever, t h e o n l y C am bodian l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g
m a t e r i a l s p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e w h ic h a r e b a s e d on m od ern
t e c h n i q u e s o f s t r u c t u r a l a n a l y s i s a r e t h o s e o f N oss i n
19592 and 1 9 6 6 .3
0 . 5 P u r p o s e an d S c o p e
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y w i l l b e t o p r e s e n t a d e s c r i p
tio n
o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s o f Cam bodian
gram m ar, a t a l l g r a m m a t i c a l l e v e l s ,
m o r p h o lo g y , a n d s y n t a x .
i n c l u d i n g p h o n o lo g y ,
The t h e o r e t i c a l fra m e w o rk w i l l b e
p r i n c i p a l l y t h a t o f t h e ite m and a rr a n g e m e n t ^ s c h o o l o f
c u r r e n t A m e ric an d e s c r i p t i v e l i n g u i s t i c s , b u t w i t h i n s i g h t s
g a i n e d fro m o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s , s u c h a s t h o s e d e v e lo p e d , b y t h e
London, P r a g u ia n , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l , and t r a d i t i o n a l s c h o o ls
o f d e sc rip tiv e lin g u is tic s .
1 . E t i e n n e F r a n g o i s A y m o n ier, C o u rs e l e m e n t a i r e de cam bod

g i e n ( S a i g o n , C o l l e g e d e s A d m i n i s t r a t e u r s s t a g i a r e s , l"8'7 7 }.
J . T a u p i n , C o u rs d e l a n g u e c a m b o d g ie n n e ( P r o f e s s e a u C o l l e g e
d e s I n t e r p r e t e s p a r J . T a u p i n , M a rs, 1 8 8 7 ) .
R o la n d M eyer, C o u rs d e c a m b o d g ie n e t l e c t u r e s c a m b o d g ie n n e s
N o u v e l l e e d i t i o n (Phnom P e n h , A. P o r t a i l , 1929*17
L . M an ip oud , C o u rs d e l a n g u e c a m b o d g ie n n e (Phnom P e n h ,
I m p r i m e r i e R o y a l e , I 9I4I )
G a s t o n C a m b e f o r t, I n t r o d u c t i o n au c a m b o d g ie n ( P a r i s ,
M a is o n n e u v e , 1 9 5 0 ) .
2 . R i c h a r d B. N o s s ,a n d V a n p h u t H, P h a n , C a m b o d ian : B a s i c
C o u r s e , U n i t s 1 - 1 2 (W a s h in g to n , D . C . , F o r e i g n S e r v i c e
I n s t i t u t e , 19 59).
3 . R i c h a r d ' B. Noss a n d Im Proum, w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f
D a le I . P u r t i e a n d Soraeth S u o s , Cam bodian B a s i c C o u rse
Volume One, U n i t s 1-1^5 (W a s h in g to n , D . C . , F o r e i g n S e r v i c e
I n s t i t u t e , 1966).
U-* S ee C h a r l e s F. H o c k e t t , 11 Two M o d e ls o f G r a m m a tic a l
D e s c r i p t i o n , Word. 10 (1 9 5 ^ ) p p . 2 1 0 - 3 l |.
12
0 . 6 B a c k g ro u n d
The p r e s e n t w o rk i s b a s e d on d a t a c o l l e c t e d fro m 3l\.
i n f o r m a n t s i n t h e c o u r s e o f tw o y e a r s 1 r e s e a r c h i n I t h a c a ,
L o n d o n , B angkok, a n d Phnom P e n h .
A l t h o u g h t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e d a t a was c o l l e c t e d
i n B angkok, d u r i n g s e v e r a l t r i p s t o C am bodia
a d ia le c t
s u r v e y was c a r r i e d o u t , b a s e d on d a t a c o l l e c t e d fro m i n f o r - m an ts fro m a l l o f t h e C a m b o d i a n - s p e a k i n g p r o v i n c e s o f t h e

c o u n try .
In a d d i t i o n ,
t a p e r e c o r d i n g s w e re made o f c o n
v e r s a t i o n s i n s t a n d a r d C am b odian , w h ic h p r o v i d e d an im p o r -~
t a n t m eans o f v e r i f y i n g t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d fro m t h e p r i n c i p a l
i n f o r m a n t , a s w e l l a s an i n v a l u a b l e s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n
on i n t o n a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s .
F u r t h e r d a t a w e re p r o v i d e d by
m o n i t o M p g r a d i o b r o a d c a s t s fro m Phnom P e n h , a n d fro m

Cam bodian l a n g u a g e n e w s p a p e r s , b o o k s , a n d d i c t i o n a r i e s
p u r c h a s e d i n C am bodia.
S i n c e t h e p r i n c i p a l i n f o r m a n t f o r t h e p r e s e n t work
was a n a t i v e o f T ak e o p r o v i n c e i n s o u t h e r n C am bo dia, r e s i
d e n t i n B angkok, t h i s w i l l b e e s s e n t i a l l y a d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e T akeo d i a l e c t o f C am bodian.
H ow ever, t h e T ak eo d i a l e c t
d i f f e r s fro m s t a n d a r d sp o k e n Cambodian o n l y on t h e p h o n o
lo g ic a l le v e l,
A p p e n d ix A,
and t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n
S t a n d a r d sp o k e n Cam bodian i n t h i s w ork r e f e r s
t o t h e m o s t w i d e s p r e a d sp o k e n fo rm o f t h e n a t i o n a l w r i t t e n
la n g u a g e,
and i s p r o b a b l y b e s t r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e d i a l e c t s
spoken in th e p ro v in c e s s u rro u n d in g th e .p ro v in c e o f
13
1
K a n d a l , an d a r o u n d t h e s o u t h e r n e n d o f t h e T o n l e Sap*
1 . The d i a l e c t s p o k e n i n Phnom P e n h and t h e i m m e d i a t e l y

s u rro u n d in g a r e a o f K andal P ro v in c e d i f f e r s p h o n o lo g ic a lly
f ro m b o t h t h e s t a n d a r d c o l l o q u i a l a n d t h e T ak e o d i a l e c t
d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g w ork - s e e A p p e n d ix A. S ee a l s o
R i c h a r d B. N o s s , 11 The T r e a t m e n t o f *-/R/ i n Two Modern
Khmer D i a l e c t s 1, i n Norman H, Z i d e , e d , S t u d i e s i n
C o m p a r a t i v e A u s t r o a s l a t i c L i n g u i s t i c s (The H a g u e, Mouton
a n d C o . , 1966)- p p . & 9-95.
1 . 0 P h o n o lo g y
1 . 1 Phonemes
C am bodian u t t e r a n c e s a r e com posed o f c o m b i n a t i o n s o f
m u t u a l l y c o n t r a s t i v e s o u n d u n i t s , o r p h o n e m e s. 3.
T h ese'
phonem es f a l l i n t o tw o c l a s s e s :
1 . s e g m e n t a l p h o n e m e s , w h ic h o c c u r i n a t e m p o r a l : ,
se q u e n c e , and
2 . s u p r a s e g m e n t a l p h o n e m e s , w h ic h o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
w ith ,
a n d may v a r y w i t h , d i f f e r e n t o c c u r r e n c e s o f
t h e same s e g m e n t a l p h o n e m e s,
1 .1 1 S e g m e n ta l phonem es
S e g m e n t a l phonem es a r e d e f i n e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e
s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e , w h ic h i s t h e minimum p h o n o l o g i c a l u n i t
w h ic h o c c u r s a s t h e s e g m e n t a l c o n s t i t u e n t o f a c o m p l e t e
u tte ra n c e .
The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e c a n be
r e p r e s e n t e d .b y th e fo rm u la
(0^5
w ith th e.
l i m i t a t i o n t h a t i f Vg d o e s n o t o c c u r , t h e n Cj^ m u s t o c c u r . ^
r e p r e s e n t s a n y c o n s o n a n t , w h ic h o c c u r s a s t h e i n i t i a l
phoneme o f a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e .
Cg r e p r e s e n t s a n y one o f a s u b - c l a s s o f C-^ w h ic h o c c u r
1 . Phonemes a r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d .
For a d is c u s s io n
o f t h i s a p p r o a c h s e e t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o W i l l i a m A. S m a l l e y ,
O u t l i n e o f Khmu9 S t r u c t u r e , A m e ric a n O r i e n t a l S e r i e s E s s a y s
2 ( B a l t i m o r e , A m e ric a n O r i e n t a l S o c i e t y , I 9 6 0 ) .
2 , The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e i s d i s c u s s e d i n
t h e s e c t i o n on P h o n o l o g i c a l w o rd s ( 1 , 2 ) ,
Ik
IS
a fte r c e rta in
phonem es
(fo rm in g tw o - p la c e i n i t i a l
consonant seq u en ces).

r e p r e s e n t s t h e phoneme / h / w h ic h may o c c u r a f t e r
c e r t a i n C-^Cg s e q u e n c e s
(fo rm in g t h r e e - p l a c e i n i t i a l c o n
sonant sequ ences).

r e p r e s e n t s a n y v o w e l w h ic h may o c c u r a f t e r C-^
p h o n e m e s.
V2 r e p r e s e n t s a n y one o f a s u b - c l a s s o f V-^ w h ic h may
occur a fte r c e rta in
ph onem es.
r e p r e s e n t s any one o f a s u b - c l a s s o f
w h ic h may
o c c u r a f t e r V^ p h o n e m e s, o r a f t e r a s e q u e n c e o f V^Vg.
1 .1 1 1 C la s s
phonem es ( c o n s o n a n t s )
C am bodian h a s 18 c o n s o n a n t p h o n e m e s, w h ic h c a n b e
a rra n g e d d ia g ra m m a tic a lly as fo llo w s :
L a b ia l
D e n tal
P a la ta l
V e lar
G lo tta l
S to p s
V o ic e le ss unasp.
V o ic e d u n a s p .
(f)
N asal
ra
S e m iv o c a lic
S p ira n ts
V o ic eless
C o n tin u a n ts
A#
L a te ra l
T rille d
16
Of t h e ab o v e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s , / f / i s r a r e
r i n g o n ly in a .fe w lo a n -w o rd s ).
(o ccu r
A ll i n i t i a l c o n so n an ts a re
i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x am p le s*
/p u u / u n c le
/ t u u / 'c u p b o a r d '
/ c u u / to be s o u r
/k u u / 'p a i r '
/b 8 y / th re e '
/d e y / ' e a rth '
/ q o o / ' O h !1
/ f o o i 3/
/ s o o / ' sound'
/h o o / 't o
/m e e t/ 's i z e '
/ n e e t / 1c h i e f
/f3 e e t/ 'r e l a t i v e '
A )e e y / ' to be e a sy '
/w e e / '3 r d p e rso n pronoun'
/ y a e y / 'g r a n d m o t h e r '
/ l u e c / 't o
/ r u e c / 'a lr e a d y '
ste a l'
' flo c k , h erd '

flo w '
1 .1 1 1 1 P h o n e tic d e s c r i p t i o n o f c o n so n a n ts
A ll p o s i t io n a l a llo p h o n e s a re d e s c rib e d f o r each
c o n so n an t.
D i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l be d is c u s s e d u n d e r su c ce ed in g
c la s s h e ad in g s.
1. V o ic e le ss sto p s
/ p t c k / f o rm an a l l o p h o n i c s e t .
fo rtis
They a r e n o r m a l l y
in i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n , w ith / c / h a v in g f r i c a t i v e r e
le a se i n i t i a l l y but not f in a lly .
T hey a r e s l i g h t l y a s
p i r a t e d b e fo re o th e r v o ic e le s s sto p s
so n o ra n ts
and f o r t i s
(ex cep t / r / } .
(e x c e p t / q / ) and
They a r e l e n i s b e f o r e / r
and r e l e a s e d b e f o r e / b d q / .
i z e d b e f o r e t h e v o w e ls / u e o e / .
T hey a r e l a b i a l
They a r e l e n i s a n d u n r e
l e a s e d a f t e r l o n g v o v re ls , a n d f o r t i s
s h o r t v o w e ls,
s h /,.
and u n r e l e a s e d a f t e r
P in a l s to p a llo p h o n e s f r e q u e n t ly in v o lv e
17
h o m o r g a n ic p o s t - n a s a l i z a t i o n ,
as
The p o s i t i o n a l v a r i a n t s may
in / s r o k / [sro ^ k S ]
besy m b o liz e d a s
c o u n try .
fo llo w s,
u s i n g / k / as t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e g ro u p
[k 3 ( s l i g h t l y a s p ir a te d ) b e fo re o th e r v o ic e le s s sto p s
( e x c e p t / q / ) and s o n o r a n t s
[ , 3 ( l e n i s ) b e f o r e / r
(ex cep t / r / ) .
s h /.
[k^3
( f o r ti s re le a s e d ) b efo re /b d q /.
[k ]
(la b ia liz e d ) b efo re /u e o e /,

(le n is u n re le a se d )
~ [k$3 a f t e r l o n g v o w e l s .
[ 1c*13 ( f o r t i s u n r e l e a s e d ) ~ [kS3 a f t e r s h o r t v o v j e l s ,
[ nk 3 e l s e w h e r e .
In a d d itio n , / k / has s tr o n g ly f r o n te d
a f t e r th e
v o w els / i i
a rtic u la tio n
[k < ]
ee a e / .
/ q / i s a g l o t t a l s t o p w h ic h
p o s i t i o n and a f t e r s h o r t v o w els,
is
f o r t i s [3 i n i n i t i a l
and l e n i s b e fo r e / w / in
/q w e y / w h a t1 and a f t e r lo n g v o w e ls.
2 , V o ic ed s t o p s
/ b d / a r e p r e v o i c e d f o r t i s v o i c e d s t o p s [& b ],
[A d],
/ d / has a lv e o la r a r tic u la tio n .

3. V o ic e le ss s p ir a n ts
/ f / is a la b ia liz e d v o ic e le s s la b io -d e n ta l s p ira n t [f^3 .
r i The p h o n e t i c sy m b o ls u s e d h e r e a r e t h o s e o f G e o rg e L .
T r a g e r, P h o n e t i c s t G lo s s a ry and T a b le s t S tu d ie s in L i n g u i s t i c s
O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r s #6 ( B u f f a l o , t J n i v e r s i t y o f B u f f a l o , 195>8).
18
/ s / i s a f r i c t i o n l e s s v o i c e l e s s p o s t - d e n t a l groove
s p i r a n t [s* 3 .
/ h / i s a . v o i c e l e s s s p i r a n t w h ic h h a s p h a r y n g e a l
a rtic u la tio n
in itia lly ,
g l o t t a l a r t i c u l a t i o n as second
member o f a s e q u e n c e , a n d p o s t - v e l a r a r t i c u l a t i o n f i n a l l y .
I t i s l e n i s a f t e r lo n g v o w e ls, f o r t i s e ls e w h e re .
The
a l l o p h o n e s may b e r e p r e s e n t e d a s f o l l o w s :
[h ]
P\
[h]
( f o r t i s p h ary n g eal s p ir a n t)
in itia lly .
( f o r t i s g l o t t a l s p i r a n t ) a s Cg.
[^x] ( l e n i s p o s t - v e l a r s p i r a n t ) a f t e r l o n g v o w e l s .
[x]
n
( f o r t i s p o s t - v e l a r s p i r a n t ) a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls,
ij.. N a s a l s
/m n n g / fo rm an a l l o p h o n l c s e t .
w ith v o c a lic o n se t i n i t i a l l y ,
v o w els,
T hey a r e f o r t i s ,
l e n i s and s h o r t a f t e r lo n g
and f o r t i s a n d r e l a t i v e l y l o n g e r a f t e r s h o r t v o w e l s .
T h ey a r e f r e q u e n t l y p r e c e d e d b y h o m o r g a n ic p l o s i o n i n f i n a l
p o sitio n ,
e s p e c ia lly /m /,
as i n /r o o m / [ r o : ^ m ]
*t o s u r r o u n d 1.
T hey h a v e v o i c e l e s s o n s e t a s Cg a f t e r i n i t i a l v o i c e l e s s
sto p s.
The common a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e c l a s s may be shown a s
fo llo w s , u sin g /m / as r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e c la s s :

[Jvrn] ( v o i c e l e s s o n s e t ) a s Cg a f t e r v o i c e l e s s s t o p s ,
l^n ] ~ [m]
( l e n i s ) a f t e r lo n g v o w e ls.
lm
] ~ [ra]
r~ i
t.
( f o r t i s ) a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls.
[m] ( v o c a l i c o n s e t ) e l s e w h e r e .
I n a d d i t i o n , / jo/ ,
/e e /,
lik e /k /,
is stro n g ly fro n te d a f te r / i i / ,
and / a e / .
19
S e m iv o w els
/ w / i s a l a b i a l se m iv o w e l w i t h s l i g h t l a b i o - d e n t a l
c o n ta c t i n i t i a l l y ,
w ith c o n se q u e n t s p i r a n t i z a t i o n , and
p ro g re ssiv e la b i a li z a ti o n .
f in a l p o sitio n ,
I t may b e d e l a b i a l i z e d i n
e sp e c ia lly a fte r /o f or / a / ,
[ t o <u|j 3 ! t o g o a n d / q a a w / [ a j ^ ]
as in / to w /
' s h i r t 1, w i t h f i n a l
l a b i o - d e n t a l c o n t a c t i n e x tr e m e c a s e s . ^
/w /, lik e a l l
c o n t i n u a n t s w h ic h o c c u r f i n a l l y , h a s c o m p e n s a t o r y l e n g t h e n
in g a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls.
L ik e a l l c o n tin u a n ts e x c e p t / r /
t h a t o c c u r a s Cg# i t h a s v o i c e l e s s o n s e t a f t e r v o i c e l e s s
c o n so n a n ts.
The a l l o p h o n e s c a n b e shown a s f o l l o w s :
[ aw] ( v o i c e l e s s o n s e t ) a s Cg a f t e r v o i c e l e s s c o n s o n a n t s ,
[u^]
( d e l a b i a l i z e d ) a f t e r lo n g v o w e ls.
[uj: ] ( l e n g t h e n e d and d e l a b i a l i z e d ) a f t e r s h o r t v o w e l s .
[v]
( l a b i o - d e n t a l c o n ta c t) e lse w h e re .
/ y / i s a p a l a t a l s e m iv o w e l w i t h s l i g h t a f f r i c a t i o n
in itia lly ,
e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r h ig h v o w e ls, as i n / y i - t t /
[;ly&*jL3 ' s l o w , s l u g g i s h ' ,
/ y / te n d s to w a rd l a b i a l i z a t i o n
f i n a l l y a f t e r b a c k v o w e l s , a s i n / q o Q k u y / [ **ogkuySf]
't o
Hn
a n d / k r a o y / [Jk r a >o vy)!() ' b e h i n d ' .
s i t ',
I t s a l l o p h o n e s c a n be
shown a s f o l l o w s :
1 . My i n f o r m a n t a c t u a l l y ' ' t h o u g h t 1 ' h e was u s i n g a p a l a t a l

s e m iv o w e l, s u c h a s [ y ] , a n d w h ic h h e u s e d i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e
s o u n d t o me, b u t w h ic h n e v e r o c c u r r e d i n h i s a c t u a l s p e e c h .
20
[j|y 3 ( a f f r i c a t e d ) i n i t i a l l y .
[jify) ( v o i c e l e s s o n s e t ) a s Cg.
[y ^ ] a f t e r b a ck v o w e ls.
[y ] a f t e r n o n -b a c k lo n g v o w e ls.
[ y :3 a f t e r n o n - b a c k s h o r t v o w e l s .
6 . L a te ra l
/ l / i s an a l v e o l a r l a t e r a l w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g
a llo p h o n e s *
[1 ] i n i t i a l l y .
[ ^ 1 ] ( v o i c e l e s s o n s e t ) a s C.
[1 ] ( r e t r o f l e x e d ) , a f t e r l o n g v o w e l s .
[ 1*3
( r e t r o f l e x e d and le n g th e n e d ) a f t e r s h o r t v o w e ls.
7. T r i l l
/ r / i s an a l v e o l a r t r i l l w i t h t h e a l l o p h o n e s :
tx*1 3 ( s i n g l e f l a p ) a s Gg,
[ f ! r 3 ( t r i l l w i t h v o c a l i c o n s e t ) ~ [ r '3 i n i t i a l l y .
1 .1 1 1 2 P r o b le m s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
As m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e v e l a r c o n s o n a n t s / 13/ a n d / k /
h a v e s t r o n g l y f r o n t e d a l l p p h o n e s [^<3 a n d [k < ] a f t e r
/ii
ee a e / .
S i n c e t h e / n s X) / and / c * k / c o n t r a s t s a r e
n e u t r a l i z e d a f t e r t h e s e t h r e e v o w e ls
p h o n e tic a lly in te rm e d ia te ),
a n d / c / j u s t a s w e l l . *
(th e a r t i c u l a t i o n i s
one c o u l d a n a l y z e them a s / n /
H ow ever, s i n c e / n / a n d / c / do n o t
1 , As Noss i n f a c t d o e s i n h i s C a m b o d ian : B a s i c C o u r s e , 19f?9.
21
o c c u r a f t e r n u m e ro u s o t h e r v o w e ls
(se e 1 . 1 2 5 ), th e y appear
to be g e n e ra lly d e fe c tiv e in d is tr ib u tio n .
On t h e o t h e r
h a n d , i f o n e a s s i g n s t h e n a s a l a l l o p h o n e w h ic h o c c u r s a f t e r
/ii
ee a e / t o / g /
/k /),
(a n d t h e h o m o r g a n ic s t o p a l l o p h o n e t o
th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f / g / i s r e l a t i v e l y co m p lete .
T h i s a n a l y s i s i s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d . b y t h e f a c t t h a t when
[k< ] a f t e r / a e / u n d e rg o e s d o u b lin g in p o l y s y l l a b i c fo rm s,
th e d o u b led a llo p h o n e i s p h o n e ti c a l ly [k ] r a t h e r th a n [ c ] ,
a s i n / q a e k k e r e e c / [ a* e k < k re ,] 1 i n d e p e n d e n c e * .*
1 .1 1 2
C l a s s Cg phonem es
1 , 1 1 2 1 P r o b le m s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
seq u en ces f a l l i n to th r e e p h o n e tic c a te g o r ie s
on t h e b a s i s o f t h e k i n d o f t r a n s i t i o n w h ic h o c c u r s b e
tw e e n them*
1 ) R e l a t i v e l y c l o s e t r a n s i t i o n [C C ], w i t h o n s e t o f
s t r e s s on t h e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t .
o c c u r s i n s e q u e n c e s w here
T h is k in d o f t r a n s i t i o n
i s / p t c k / a n d Cg i s / r s h / ,
a n d i n s e q u e n c e s w h e re C^ i s / s / a n d Cg i s / p t k m n g
w 1 r/.
2) S lig h t
a sp ira tio n
o f . [ C 'C ] a n d i n i t i a l d e v o i c i n g
o f a fo llo w in g
c o n tin u a n t
(except / r / )
a s Cg,
T h is k in d o f
t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r s i n s e q u e n c e s w h e re C^ i s a v o i c e l e s s s t o p
1. A p u re ly p r a c t i c a l c o n s id e ra tio n i s th e f a c t th a t th e
g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f th e form s in q u e s t i o n a r e s p e l l e d |g k |
i n t h e w r i t i n g sy ste m , so
t h a t t o a n a l y z e them a s b e i n g
p h o n e m i c a l l y / n c / w o u ld p r o d u c e u n n e c e s s a r y c o n f u s i o n .
22
/ p t c k / a n d Cg i s a n o t h e r v o i c e l e s s s t o p o r a c o n t i n u a n t
o th e r th a n / r / ,
3)
e x ce p t f o r th e sequence /k g - /*
Weak i n t r u d e d v o c a l i s m o f a r a i d - c e n t r a l q u a l i t y
[CC] b e tw e e n
a n d Cg.
T h is k i n d o f t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r s
i n a n y s e q u e n c e w h e re Cg i s / b d q / , a n y s e q u e n c e w h e re
C>|_ i s /m 1 / ,
and i n t h e se q u e n c e s / k g - / and / s n - / .
I t w o u ld seera p o s s i b l e
( a n d , i n some s c h o o l s o f
l i n g u i s t i c s , p r e f e r a b l e ) to a n a ly z e c la s s 1 sequences as
/CC/ ,
c l a s s 2 se q u e n c e s a s /C h C /, and c l a s s 3 se q u e n c e s as
/C eC /.
The d e c i s i o n t o a n a l y z e a l l t h r e e c l a s s e s a s b e i n g
s t r u c t u r a l l y / C C / i s b a s e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s :
1 ) The t r a n s i t i o n a l a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e t h r e e c l a s s e s
n e v e r c o n t r a s t p h o n e ra ic a lly .
Thus t h e y c a n b e a n a l y z e d a s
t h r e e a l l o p h o n e s o f C-j_ i n c o m p le m e n ta r y d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h
r e g a r d t o Cg* [C] i n c l a s s 1
[C * 3 ( a s p i r a t e d ) i n c l a s s 2
[C g)
( r e le a s e d w ith v o c a lism ) in c la s s 3.
2 ) The a l l o p h o n e s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e c l a s s e s 2 a n d 3 a r e
i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n i n some i d i o l e c t s ; f o r e x a m p le , / k m e e g /
t k /J m e jig c )
- tk^5^ne:^g<3 c h i l d .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e seem s
t o b e a c o n ti n u u m o f c l o s e n e s s o f t r a n s i t i o n fro m c l a s s 1
to c la ss 3. -
F o r e x a m p le , t h o s e s e q u e n c e s o f c l a s s 1 i n
w h ic h C^ i s / s / a r e n o t a s c l o s e i n t r a n s i t i o n a s t h e o t h e r
mem bers o f t h e c l a s s , w h i l e t h e c l a s s 3 s e q u e n c e s / p i k l tw
k w / a r e c l o s e r i n t r a n s i t i o n t h a n t h e o t h e r members o f t h e
c la ss .
T h e s e f a c t s seem, t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s
23
have no s t r u c t u r a l s i g n i f ic a n c e .
3)
[ C* 3 i n c l a s s 2 s e q u e n c e s d i f f e r s fro m t h e . / C h /
sequences in c la s s 1 in t h a t th e d eg ree o f a s p i r a t io n i s
w eaker, and th e p o s i t i o n o f a r t i c u l a t i o n i a
in /C h / sequences.
f r o n t e r , th an
F u r t h e r m o r e , when a / C h / s e q u e n c e i s
s p l i t by a d e r i v a t i o n a l i n f i x , / h / i s r e t a i n e d i n t h e
d e riv a tiv e ,
e .g .*
/ k h e g / 'a n g r y '
> /koraheiQ/ ' a n g e r '
By c o n t r a s t , when c l a s s 2 s e q u e n c e s a r e s p l i t by an i n f i x ,
p h o n e tic a s p ir a t io n i s l o s t ,
/k la g / [ k '^ l a ^ ]
e .g .?
's t r o n g '
> /k o m la g / [ k o m la ^ ] 's tr e n g th *
I4.) A l t h o u g h t h e v o c a l i s m w h ic h o c c u r s i n s e q u e n c e s o f
c l a s s 3 i s p h o n e t i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h e r e d u c e d shwa / / ( [ ] )
w h ic h o c c u r s i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s ,
[3 i n u n s t r e s s e d
s y l l a b l e s i s a lw a y s e x p a n d a b l e i n c a r e f u l s p e e c h t o a f u l l
vowel
even
/ /, / /, / /, o r / a / ,
t o / o o / , / /, o r / a a / ,
g
og
and i n a r e a d i n g p r o n u n c ia tio n
w h ile th e [] o f c la s s 3 s e
q u e n c e s i s n o t e x p a n d a b l e t o a f u l l v o w e l.
F o r e x a m p le ,
t h e i n i t i a l s e q u e n c e s o f t h e form s / i b o o g / ' t e s t '
and
/ le b o o g / 'f e n c e ' a re p h o n e tic a lly s i m il a r , b u t th e y c o n tr a s t

s tru c tu ra lly .
The u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e / i s - / f u r t h e r a l t e r
n a t e s w ith / r e - / and
/t o -/
i n m ore c a r e f u l s p e e c h ( s e e 2 . 1 ) . ^
1 . I t w o u ld b e c o n v e n i e n t t o a n a l y z e [ r S C - ] s e q u e n c e s a l s o a s .
/C C - /, s in c e no * / r C - / o th e rw is e o c c u r s .
H ow ever, a l l s u c h
s e q u e n c e s a p p e a r t o be e x p a n d a b l e t o / r o C - / , a n d i n f a c t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y o c cu r w ith / o / vow el q u a l i t y in th e sp eech
o f my p r i n c i p a l i n f o r m a n t .
T h is a d h e re n c e t o th e c r i t e r i o n
o f e x p a n d a b i l i t y n e c e s s i t a t e s some s p e c i a l m orph opho nem ic
r u l e s f o r / r / (se e 2 , 2 , ite m 3 ) .
T hus, w h ile th e a llo m o rp h /le b o o io / fence*
is p h o n e tic a lly
s i m i l a r t o / l b q o g / on t h e p h o n e t i c l e v e l , t h e tw o fo rm s
c o n t r a s t on t h e p h o n e m ic a n d m orp h o p h o n em ic l e v e l s *
P h o n e tic l e v e l
Phonem ic l e v e l
M orphophonem ic l e v e l
[lfb o * ^ ]
/lb o o g /
/lb o o g / 't e s t *
[lS b o * ^ ]
/lo b o o g /
/ r o b o o g / 'f e n c e *
F or a l l o f th e fo re g o in g r e a s o n s , a l l n o n -ex p an d ab le
i n i t i a l s e q u e n c e s o f two c o n s o n a n t s a r e a n a l y z e d a s / C C / ,
H o w ev er, i n v i e w o f t h e p e c u l i a r l y l o o s e t r a n s i t i p n
in a ll
su c h se q u e n c e s , th e te rm s e q u e n c e * 'i s p r e f e r r e d to
M c lu s te r * ',
w h ic h w o u ld im p ly c l o s e t r a n s i t i o n a n d r e l e a s e
o f C-^ i n t o Cg i n a l l c a s e s ,
1 , 1 1 2 2 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Cp phonem es
T he m e m b e rs h ip a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f C^ c a n b e s t b e
shown i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r t :
1
C2
P
/p /
ra
43 w
10 11 12 13
18 19
20 21 22 23 2lf
A /
Ik
1 5 16 17
A /
26
2 7 28 29 30 31 32 33 31+ 35
39 ko i+i
A /
55 56
1+2 k l l4l- 14-5 1^6 k l
36 37
25
38
1+9 50 51 52 53 51+
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 61+ 65
66 67
68
/q /
69
A /
70 71
A /
A/
80
72
81 82 83
76 77 78 79
7k 75
73
814-
85 86
87
25
The n u m b er a s s i g n e d t o e a c h s e q u e n c e i n t h e c h a r t c o r r e s
p o n d s w i t h t h e n u m b er o f i t s
e x e m p lif ic a tio n in th e
fo llo w in g l i s t *
I . / p t e e h / h ou se*
2 , /p c o e p / 't o
a tta c h 1
3 . /p k a a / flo w e r1
I}., / p q a e m / ' t o b e s w e e t '
5 . / p d e y / h u s b a n d
6 , /pnum / 'm ountain'
7. /p n a e / 't o
send'
8 . /piQUut/ 't o bathe ( t r . )'
9. /p y u e / 't o
suspend
lO ./p le w / 'ro a d , way'
I I . / p r a e / 't o u s e
1 2 ./p see J 3 / 't o be d iffe r e n t*
13. /p h o k / to d rin k '
l l | . . / t p o e l / 'cheek '
15> . / t k a e 33/
l 6 . / t q o o n / 't o w hine, com plain'
illu strio u s'
17, / t b a a n / to w eave
1 8 ,/t m e y / 't o be new'
1 9 . / t n a m / 'm e d i c in e '
2 0 . / t $ a y / 'd a y , sun'
2 1 . / t w e / do o r
2 2 . / ty u u $ / ' ch arc oa l '
23. / t l e e q / 't o
21}../ t r a y / ' f i s h '
fa ll'
25> . / t h a o k / ' t o b e c h e a p '-
2 6 ,/c p u jo / ' t o
2 7 e / c k a e / 'd o g '
2 8 . / c q o i 3/
29./c b a h / 't o
3 0 . / c d a o / 'l i n g o t '
be c l e a r '
be w i l t e d
3 5 ./c w e e ia / ' l e f t
(sid e )'
3 7 ./c r a n / 'm u c h , m any

39 /k p u e h / 't o
(v ap o rs)'
'b o n e '
. 3 2 ,/c n a ^ / 'p o t'
31./c m a a / 'c a t '

33./c n a o / 't o
in h a le
be h i g h ' -
3l+ ./c g a a y / to be f a r '

3 6 ./c lo o 3 o / ' t o
38./c h a a / 't o
cro ss'
fry '
^ l+ O ./k te e h / ' s k i l l e t '
l p . , / k c 9y / ' t o b o r r o w 1
lj2 . / k q o o q / ' t o
cough'
lj.3 , / k b a a l / ' h e a d '
Ij-ll,/k daw / ' t o
l } 5 ./ k m a e / 'K h m e r'
l|.6 , / k n o g / ' i n '
lj.7 ./k n o m / ' I '
lj.8 , / k ^ j a a / ' g o o s e '
be h o t '
26
l j.9 ./k w a q / t o b e b l i n d '
0 . / k y o l / 'w i n d , a i r '
l , / k l e o n / ' t o be h u n g ry '
5 2 ,/ k r a w / 'o u ts id e *
5 > 3 ./k sa c / 's a n d '
5 1 | . / k h a e / 'm o n t h '
53> . / s p i y / ' c a b b a g e '
5 6 ,/s tiio / 'r i v e r '
f ? 7 ./s k o a l/ ' a c q u a in te d w ith '
8 . / s q a e k / 'to m o rro w *
5>9./sb w/ ' t h a t c h *
60./s d a p / 't o l i s t e n '
6 1 ,/sm a w / 'g r a s s , h a y '
6 2 , / s n a a / 'c r o s s b o w *
6 3 ./s n a e n / 't o
61| . / s ] 3i e m / ' s i l e n t ,
fe a r, re sp e c t'
q u ie t'
6 5 > ./s w a a / 'm o n k e y '
66. / s l a p / 't o
d ie '
6 7 . / s r y / 'woman'
6 8 ,/q w e y / 'w h a t'
6 9 ./d b t/ 's in c e , b ecau se'
7 0, / m t e e h / *a p e p p e r*
7 i ./ m c u l / 'n e e d l e '
7 2, / m q o o p / ' a n h e r b '
7 3 ./m d a a y / ' m o th e r'
7i4./ m n o 0h / ' p i n e a p p l e '
75>./mnoom/ ' a s h e s '
76,/ m l u p / 's h a d e '
7 7 . /m re m / ' f i n g e r '
7 8 ./ m s a w / ' f l o u r '
7 9 ./m h o o p / 'f o o d '
80,/ l p e n - l p o n / 'i r r e s p o n s i b l e '
8 l f/ik 4 k / 'n o i s i l y '
8 2 ,/lq o o / 't o
8 3 . / l b a e x ) / 'g a m e '
8 lj../lrao e m / ' s u f f i c i e n t '
S ^ . / l g e e c / 'a f t e r n o o n '
8 6 , / l w e e ^ ) / 'c o m p a r t m e n t '
be g o o d , p r e t t y '
8 7 , / l h o i a / 'p a p a y a '
1 . 1 1 3 C l a s s C q phoneme
C^ i s / h / .
I t o c c u rs o n ly a f t e r / s t - / and / l k - / .
E x a m p le s :
/ s t h a a n / 'p l a c e '
/ l k h a o n / 'd r a m a '
27
1 .1 1 'If. C l a s s ^
a n d Vg phonem es (v o w e l s )
The v o w e l s y s te m o f t h e T akeo d i a l e c t o f C am bodian

c a n be shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y a s f o l l o w s * ^
A rrow s r e p r e s e n t d i p h t h o n g s .
lo n g o r s h o r t .
o r sh o rt?
A l l s i m p l e v o w e ls o c c u r e i t h e r
The d i p h t h o n g s / e 8 u e o e / o c c u r e i t h e r l o n g
o th e r d ip h th o n g s o ccu r o n ly lo n g .
l . l l i j l P r o b le m s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
The p h o n e t i c l e n g t h s o f v o w e l n u c l e i c a n be r e p r e s e n t e d
as fo llo w s :
S h o r t v o w e ls
[V]
S h o rt d ip h th o n g s
[W ]
Long v o w e ls
tv, 3
S hort n u c le i
Long n u c l e i
Long d i p h t h o n g s
[V.V]
S h o r t v o w e ls a n d s h o r t d i p h t h o n g s a r e s t r u c t u r a l l y e q u i
v a le n t in le n g th .
S h o r t d ip h th o n g s lik e w i s e p a t t e r n w ith
s h o r t v o w e ls i n o c c u r r i n g o n l y b e f o r e C^, w h i l e l o n g v o w e ls
a n d l o n g d i p h t h o n g s o c c u r i n b o t h o p en a n d c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s ,
1 . S ee A p p e n d ix A f o r a c o m p a r is o n w i t h s t a n d a r d C am b odian .
S in c e e v e ry s h o r t vowel / V / h a s a lo n g vowel c o u n te r p a rt,
l o n g v o w e ls c a n b e a n a l y z e d a s g e m i n a t e c l u s t e r s ' / W / .
S h o r t d ip h th o n g s can be a n a ly z e d as / V e / , and lo n g d ip h th o n g s
as /V W /.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s c a n b e shown a s f o l l o w s :
s h o r t v o w els
/V /
s h o r t d ip h th o n g s
/V e /
l o n g v o w e ls
/W /
lo n g d ip h th o n g s
/V W /
S h o r t n u c lc
Long n u c l e i
T h is s o l u t i o n i s t h e m ost e l e g a n t , a s w e l l as t h e m ost
e c o n o m i c a l , r e s u l t i n g i n an i n v e n t o r y o f o n l y e i g h t v o w e l
p h o n e m e s.
T h is i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s o l u t i o n a d o p te d h e r e ,
b u t i n o r d e r t o e m p h a s iz e t h e p a r a l l e l i s m
i n l e n g t h and
d i s t r i b u t i o n b e tw e e n t h e l o n g v o w e ls a n d l o n g - d i p h t h o n g s ,
th e lo n g d ip h th o n g s a r e r e w r i t t e n sim p ly / W / #
S h o rt d ip h
th o n g s a re th en w r i t te n w ith a b rev e / t f e / to d i s t i n g u i s h
them fr o m t h e l o n g d i p h t h o n g s ,
r e n c e s o f V^.
The fo llo x -rin g d i s t r i b u t i o n r e s u l t s :
{
v{
>
and a r e t r e a t e d a s o c c u r
s h o r t v o w e ls
/V /
s h o r t d ip h th o n g s
/V e /
l o n g v o w e ls
/V V /
lo n g d ip h th o n g s
/V V /
An a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n w o u ld b e t o a n a l y z e t h e e i g h t
l o n g v o w e ls a s n o r m a l v o w e ls / V / , w i t h a p a r a l l e l s y s t e m o f
e i g h t s h o r t v o w e ls / V / .
The a n a l y s i s o f t h e s h o r t d i p h t h o n g s
a s s h o r t c o u n t e r p a r t s o f t h e l o n g d i p h t h o n g s w o u ld t h e n be
c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e l o n g - s h o r t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e
29
s im p le v o w e ls.
S u c h a n a n a l y s i s , h o w e v e r , w o u ld i n c r e a s e
t h e t o t a l i n v e n t o r y o f v o w e ls t o 1 9 , a n d w o u ld n o t r e f l e c t
t h e s t a t i c t . u r a l e q u i v a l e n c e i n l e n g t h b e tw e e n t h e l o n g
v o w e ls a n d l o n g d i p h t h o n g s , s i n c e t h e y w o uld b e r e p r e s e n t e d
r e s p e c t i v e l y / V / a n d /V V /.'*
A t h i r d p o s s i b l e a n a l y s i s w o u ld b e t o p o s t u l a t e e i g h t
c a r d i n a l v o w e l .phonemes a n d a phoneme o f l e n g t h / * / .
v o w e ls c o u l d t h e n b e r e p r e s e n t e d / V / ,
S h o rt
s h o r t d i p h t h o n g s / V V /,
l o n g v o w e ls / V * / , a n d l o n g d i p h t h o n g s / V a V /.
T h is s o l u t i o n
p o s e s t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e p h o n e m ic s t a t u s o f t h e phoneme / a / ,
1 .3 X l|2 I l l u s t r a t i o n
o f n u c le i
The 2 ? n u c l e i w h ic h o c c u r a r e i l l u s t r a t e d
f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s :
in th e
/i/a
/c ih /
*t o r i d e
/ii/a
/ c i i k / 't o
/e /a
/c e h /
t o knovr'
/e o / :
/ c e e h / 't h r e a d '
/i/a
/ r i t / .'t o
tig h te n
/ /a / t e g / t o be t a u t
/a /a
/ d a y / 'h a n d '
/ii/;
/riit/
d ig
't o knead'
/p p /a / c e e g / 'f o o t ,
/ a a / ; /s d a a y / to p i t y
/u /; /lu h /
'w h e n '
/u u /t
/m u u h / ' a f l y '
/o /a /k o n /
'f ilm '
/o o /a
/k o o n / 'c h ild '
/o /a /c o g /
't o
/o o /a
/c o o g / 't o
w ish '
le g '
tie '
1 , T h i s s o l u t i o n , h o w e v e r , i s p e r h a p s m ore s u i t a b l e f o r
m o s t o t h e r d i a l e c t s o f C am bod ian , i n w h ic h t h e r e a r e l a r g e r
in v e n t o r ie s o f lo n g th a n o f s h o r t v o w els.
30
/ie /
/c i h / to a v o id 1
/ e / : / p e q / w o rd '
/ e / : / p e e q / 1t o wear*
A / : / r & e io / ' s t o r y *
/ a e / : / h a e t / reason*
/ a / : / h a e y / ' a lr e a d y *
/a o /s
/u e /:
/ d a o y / b y , w ith*
/u /: / l u e h / ' w ire '
/ l u s h / to re p a y 1
/ o e / : /k o em / ' to s u p p o r t1
/ o / : / k o e m / hunchback*
X* 1X14-3 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f V-^
C l a s s V-^ i s f i l l e d by a n y s h o r t vow el o r s h o r t d i p h
t h o n g . . Whan V-^ i s n o t f o l l o w e d by,
C^' m u s t o c c u r .
/e u e o / o c c u r o n l y b e f o r e Cj^, a n d do n o t o c c u r a f t e r
/b d q f s h /.
/ 0 a u o 0/ h a v o f a i r l y g e n e r a l d i s
t r i b u t i o n b e f o r e Cj^, w h i l e / i
lim ite d ,
/i
e e u e o / a r e s h a r p l y
e / o c c u r o n l y b e f o r e / q h / , w i t h one o c c u r
rence of / - e y / ,
/ e e / and /o / c o n t r a s t o n ly b e fo re / h / ,
/ e / o c c u r r i n g b e f o r e / q 13 h / o n l y , and / o / o n l y b e f o r e
/p t m n 1 h /.
/ u / o c c u r s o n l y b e f o r e / t q n 13 h / .
l .H 'l ^ l - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Vp
Any V , e x c e p t /V / may f o l l o w i t s e l f a s V^.
I f Vg i s / / , V1 i s n o t / o / .
I f V2 i s / e o / ,
is / a / .
T h e r e a r e few l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f l o n g
v o w e ls a f t e r c o n s o n a n t s , w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g e x c e p t i o n s :
/ i i / a n d / u u / do n o t o c c u r a f t e r / b d / .
31
/ e a / does n o t occur a f t e r / b q s / ,
/ o a / does n o t o ccu r a f t e r / b q / .
W ith r e g a r d t o C[^, l o n g v o w e ls a r e g e n e r a l l y
co m p arab le in d i s t r i b u t i o n , w i t h / a a e a / h a v in g th e w id e s t
ra n g e o f o c c u r r e n c e , and /4 4 4 a / th e m ost l i m i t e d .
1 , 1114.^ P h o n e t i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f v o w e ls
1 , A llo p h o n ic s e t s
1 ) A l l h i g h a n d m id v o w e ls
( / i e 4 a u o / ) have lo w e r
a l l o p h o n e s a s s i n g l e v o w e ls t h a n a s g e m i n a t e s .
2 ) A l l v o w e ls h a v e a h i g h f r o n t g l i d e b e f o r e / c n / .
2 . S im p le v o w e ls
/i/
H ig h f r o n t u n r o u n d e d v o w e l.
S in g le :
[ i] b e fo re / h / .
[ i v3 b e f o r e / q / and i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s .
D o u b le: [ i ; ]
as in / m i i f l / [JP rai:^ ]
' a u n t 1.
As V i i n d i p h t h o n g : [ i ] b e f o r e / a / .
/e /
H i g h e r - m i d f r o n t u n r o u n d e d v o w e l.
S i n g l e : [ e] b e f o r e / h / ,
[ e v ] b e fo re / q / and in u n s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s .
D o u b le : [ e : i l b e f o r e / k g / ,
't o
as in /d e e k /' [^ d e ;ik < ]
l i e d o tm '.
[e]
[S e*^]
(sh o rten e d ) b e fo re / h / ,
as in / c e e h /
' t h r e a d ' , w h ic h n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n t r a s t s w i t h t h e
lo w e r and s h o r t e r a llo p h o n e o f s i n g l e / e / b e f o r e / h / ,
/ c e h / [5 ex l
n n
' t o k n o w ',
[e:;J e ls e w h e r e .
as in
As Y l i s d i p h t h o n g :
[ e A*3 b e f o r e /& /,
a s in. / p e o q /
[ p e Ao?] ' w o r d 1.
n
As Vg i n d i p h t h o n g :
[e] a f t e r / a / ,
a s i n / k m a e / [k'JSJraae e]
[ e ] a f t e r / a / and b e f o r e / k $ / ,
[ ae * eik < ]
/k/
Khmer*.
as in /q a e k /
f i r s t .
H ig h b a c k u n r o u n d e d v o w e l.
S i n g l e ; [* ]
/ p i l e / [ p 'i l i^ c s j
(lo w e re d and f r o n t e d ) b e f o r e / c n / ,
't o
In th e s e p o s i t i o n s
fo rg et*
a n d / t m i n / [ t ^ m ^ r p
as in
t o o th '.
i t ap p ro ach es th e q u a l i t y o f / e / .
The
a l l o p h o n e i s a s s i g n e d t o / k / b e c a u s e s u c h an a n a l y s i s g i v e s
/ k / a d i s t r i b u t i o n p a r a l l e l w ith o th e r w id e ly d i s t r i b u t e d
v o w e l s , w h i l e / i / a n d / e / fo rm a s u b - s y s t e m fro m t h e s t a n d
p o in t o f d is tr ib u tio n ,
[ 4 ] . e lse w h e re .
D o u b le : [4 :3
As V-l i n d i p h t h o n g :
[ 4 ] a s i n / r 4 o Q / [gr4*oi^3 ' s t o r y ' ,
/e /
M i d - c e n t r a l u n r o u n d e d v o w e l.
S in g le :
[ < 3 b e f o r e / p n l / , a s
in / h e p / [ h a ^ ]
'A
rn
'b o x .
[ o vi ] b e f o r e / c n / , a s i n / d o n / [<Jd9vi n |] 'c h a s e *
[0 3 e l s e w h e r e .
D o u b le: [ o : i3 b e f o r e / c n / ,
[ ] b e f o r e / h / ,
as in /k h o o n / [k h o jin ]
a s i n / r a o h / [^roos^l
see
's e a r c h * .
[ o : A] e l s e w h e r e , a s i n / c o o g / [ t f e : AQ3 ' f o o t ' .
33
As Vg i n d i p h t h o n g s :
[ e A3 a f t e r / a / ,
as in / k a e t / [k a* ^ ]
' t o h a p p e n ',
[e * ^ a f t e r / i / ,
as in /ti n / [ ti* ^ ]
'c a n d l e '.
[I:] b e f o r e / c n / ,
a s i n / s a e c / [s= a c 3 ' t o l a u g h 1,
[ e ] e l s e w h e r e , a s i n / t e n / [ t e A*riJ ' g i f t ' .

/a /
H ig h e r-lo w f r o n t e d c e n t r a l u n ro u n d ed v o w el.
S in g le ; [ a ^ ]
b efo re /c n / ,
a s i n / b a n / [ S b a <^ 3
' to s h o o t '.
la"1] e l s e w h e r e , a s i n / k a t / [k 'a 'H ]
D o u b l e : Ca*<^3 b e f o r e / c n / ,
't o
c u t'.
as in / t b a a n / [ tg b a i ^ n }
' t o w e a v e '.
E a*< 3 b e f o r e / h / t a s i n / c a a h /
'p o l i te
r e s p o n s e u s e d b y w o m e n ', c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h t h e s h o r t e r a l l o
p h o n e o f / a / i n / c a h / [ ^ a <x 3 ' t o b e o l d ' .
[a.s< 3 e l s e w h e r e , as i n / k a a t / t k a : ^ !
'm a p '.
As V i i n d i p h t h o n g s :
[ae *] b e f o r e / e / ,
a s i n / k m a e / [k '^ x n se * e3
[ a *3 b e f o r e / / , a s i n / k a s t / [kat,]
[ a*>3 b e fo re / o / ,
/u /
'K h m e r* ,
' t o h a p p e n '.
a s i n / q & o y / [ a >ovy3 ' t o g i v e 1.
H ig h b a c k r o u n d e d v o w e l.
S in g le t [u i] b efo re /c n /,
[ u v3 e ls e w h e re .
a s i n / m u c / [ffmu^c;] ' t o
..r
D o u b l e t t u t *3 b e f o r e / c n / ,
a s i n / i j u u c / [ SiDut^c,!
't o b a th e '.
d i v e '.
tu . ] b e fo re / h / ,
a s i n / m u u h / [ 2?mu4xi] h o u s e f l y ' ,
i n c o n t r a s t w i t h / n u h / [S n u ^r">
x ] ' t h a t 1.
[u*.] e l s e w h e r e .
As V i i n d i p h t h o n g :
[ u ] b e f o r e / / , a s i n / l u e c / [ l u * e i c ,3 ' t o
/o /
s t e a l '.
Mid b a c k r o u n d e d v o w e l.
S in g le :
[ o l'*3 b e f o r e / c n / ,
a s i n / h o c / [ h o v c 3 ' t o e x t e n d
A
r>
[ 0*^3 b e f o r e / w / , a s i n / t o w / [ t o ^ : ] ' t o g o ' .
[o ^]
e l s e w h e r e , a s i n / t o k / [ nt o v3ik]
't a b l e '.
r*a
D o u b le :
[5 * 1 ] b e fo re / c n / , as in / t o o c /
[o .^ 3
's m a l l'.
b e fo re / h / , as in /q o o h / [ o ^ ^ x ]
*
lj
't o
drag'
[ o : 3^] e l s e w h e r e .
As ^
in d ip h th o n g:
[ 0 < 3 b e f o r e / / , a s i n ./po:g/ [ p p ^ e ^ }
'e g g '.
As V2 i n d i p h t h o n g :
[ov 3 a f t e r / a / ,
/o /
a s i n / k r a o m / [ k r a >ov nj] ' u n d e r ' .
Low f r o n t e d - b a c k h a l f - r o u n d e d v o w e l.
S in g le :
i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s .
[o"5] e l s e w h e r e , a s i n / k o t / [ k o ^ ]
't o
j o t d o w n '.
D o u b le :
[ o : < 3, a s i n / c o o t9/ [ t l
<LtJ,3 ' t o m o o r ',
3. S h o rt d ip h th o n g
/ e / i s a s h o r t f a l l i n g d i p h t h o n g w h ic h g l i d e s fro m a
l o w e r - m i d f r o n t u n r o u n d e d p o s i t i o n t o a m id c e n t r a l
u n r o u n d e d p o s i t i o n [ e ] , a s i n / n e e q / [S n e ? ]
p e r s o n 1,
/ u / i s a s h o r t d i p h t h o n g w h ic h g l i d e s fro m a l o w e r - h i g h
b a c k r o u n d e d p o s i t i o n t o a m id c e n t r a l u n r o u n d e d
p o sitio n .
risin g
I t i s so m e tim e s f a l l i n g
[t/ ] a n d s o m e tim e s
[Y], w i t h n o a p p a r e n t c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c t o r .
B e f o r e / h / t h e c e n t e r i n g g l i d e may d i s a p p e a r ,
so t h a t
/ p u e h / [p'Kvx] s n a k e c o n t r a s t s w i t h / p u h / [ p u vx ]
ri
b o i l ' p r i m a r i l y i n term s o f vow el h e i g h t

i n t h i s e x a m p le ,
ri
't o
(a s w e l l a s ,
in te rm s o f th e l a b i a l i z e d a llo p h o n e
o f s t o p s b e fo r e /u / and / o s / ) ,
/ o / i s a s h o r t d i p h t h o n g w h ic h g l i d e s f ro m a lo ty e r - m id
b a c k r o u n d e d p o s i t i o n t o a m id c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n .
may b e e i t h e r f a l l i n g
[o] o r r i s i n g
in / k o a t / 'h e '
i t is u su a lly f a llin g
/ t o o l / 'u n t i l'
it
[2 o ],
It
F o r e x a m p le ,
[k)?o t], w h i l e i n
i s u s u a l l y r i s i n g [tJ?S lr], a lth o u g h
e i t h e r s e q u e n c e may o c c u r i n e i t h e r fo r m ,
1 , 1 1 5 C l a s s Cj^ phonem es ( f i n a l c o n s o n a n t s )
i s any co nsonant ex cep t / b d f r / ,
w ith th e f o llo w
in g r e s t r i c t i o n s *
1)
/ p t ra n 1 h / seem t o o c c u r a f t e r a l l v o w e l s .
ran d o m g a p s as do o c c u r i n t h e d a t a a r e
p r o b a b l y due t o
i n s u f f i c i e n t d a ta .
S u ch
36
2 ) / c n / fo rm a s e t i n t h a t t h e y do n o t o c c u r a f t e r
/i
e o e e u o i i
e e 34 oo i a e o /.
3 ) / k / and / q / c o n t r a s t o n ly a f t e r / u / ,. / k / o c c u rrin g
o n l y a f t e r / u o e e e e u u oo a e a a o o /, a n d / q / o n l y
a fte r / i
e a u o e e u a a oo i e 4 u e / ,
l\.) The s e m iv o w e l / w / o c c u r s o n l y a f t e r / a o i i e e a a
i e a e / ,
$ ) The s e m iv o w e l / y / d o e s n o t o c c u r a f t e r / i
o e u o e
i i e e 34 u u i a e / ,
6 ) / s / o c cu rs in f i n a l p o s i t i o n o n ly in a h ig h ly
p e d a n tic r e a d i n g p r o n u n c i a ti o n , b e in g r e p l a c e d by / h / in
a l l o th e r l e v e l s o f fo rm al and c o l l o q u i a l sp e e c h ,
P in a l c o n tr a s ts are i l l u s t r a t e d
in th e fo llo w in g
e x a m p le s :
/k a p / 't o hack .
/k o m / don t
/ k a t / 't o
/k o n / film
c u t
/ k a c / ' to b reak '
/ k o n / to be d e n s e , t h i c k '
/c e k / 't o
/ koi Q/ ' t r i c k
b ite '
/c a q / 't o p ie rc e '
/tr w / ' t o be c o r r e c t
/b a ra Q s a e s /* 'F r e n c h '
/tr e y / fis h
/ c a h / ' t o be o l d '
/ s e l / 's k i l l '
1 , / b a r a g s a o h / i n no rm al sp e ec h (as opposed to th e r e a d in g
p ro n u n c ia tio n c it e d above).
37
1*12 S u p r a s e g m e n t a l phonem es
S u p r a s e g m e n t a l phonem es a r e phonem es w h ic h o c c u r
sim u lta n e o u s ly w ith ,
a n d may v a r y w i t h , d i f f e r e n t o c c u r r e n c e s
o f t h e same s e g m e n t a l p h o n e m e s.
The s e q u e n c e o f s e g m e n t a l
phonem es w i t h w h ic h a c l a s s o f s u p r a s e g m e n t a l phonem es
o c c u r s , a n d t h e u n i t t h u s d e f i n e d , i s t h e d om ain o f t h e
c la ss .
n u c le u s.
The d om ain o f s t r e s s phonem es i s t h e s y l l a b l e

The d om ain o f j u n c t u r e phonem es i s t h e s y l l a b l e .
The dom ain o f p h r a s e c o n t o u r s i s t h e l a s t s y l l a b l e o f a

p h o n o lo g ic a l p h ra s e .
The dom ain o f i n t o n a t i o n a l phonem es
is th e u tte ra n c e .
1 , 1 2 1 S t r e s s phonem es
S tr e s s i s c o r r e l a t e d w ith c o n tr a s tiv e d eg rees o f
lo u d n e s s and p i t c h in s y l l a b l e n u c l e i .
Four d eg rees
of
s tre s s a re p o stu la te d .
1 , / / u n m a rk e d , o r z e r o ,
stre ss.
and d e f i n e s , u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s ,
I t c o -o c cu rs w ith ,
as / p i / in / p i s a a / 't o
e a t ', / p r o / in /p r o te e h / 'c o u n tr y '.
I t is c h a ra c te riz e d
b y lo w n u c l e u s v o lu m e and p i t c h .
2, / ' /
secondary s t r e s s .
I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
n u c l e u s v o lum e a n d p i t c h w h ic h i s h i g h e r t h a n z e r o s t r e s s ,
b u t lo w e r th a n p rim a ry s t r e s s .
I t 't y p i c a l l y occu rs in
c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h w i t h f u n c t i o n w o rd s s u c h a s p ro n o u n s
and a u x i l i a r i e s .
I t a ls o o ccu rs w ith th e f i r s t c o n s t it u e n t
o f many com pounds whose s e c o n d c o n s t i t u e n t c a r r i e s p r i m a r y

stre ss,
a s in /d a e m -c h o o / ' t r e e ' ,
and w ith th e second
38
1 c o n s t i t u e n t o f a s m a l l c l a s s o f com pounds w hose f i r s t

c o n s t it u e n t c a r r i e s p rim a ry s t r e s s ,
3 , / ' / p rim a ry s t r e s s .
a s i n / c e h - t a e / 'a l w a y s * .
P rim ary s t r e s s i s th e d e g re e o f
volum e a n d p i t c h w h ic h c o - o c c u r s w i t h a l l p r i m a r y o r c o n t e n t
w o rd s i n an u t t e r a n c e , s u c h a s n o u n s , v e r b s , a n d a d j e c t i v e s ,
as w e ll as w ith s y l l a b l e s c i t e d in i s o l a t i o n .
I t i s th u s
r e g a r d e d as n o rm al o r c a r d i n a l s t r e s s .
I4..
/ '/
c o n tra stiv e s tr e s s .
g r e a t e r v olum e t h a n p r i m a r y s t r e s s ,
l y h ig h o r f a l s e t t o p itc h .
I t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
and u s u a l l y by e x tre m e
I t t y p i c a l l y occu rs w ith i n t e r
j e c t i o n s , b u t i s d e f i n e d by i t s
c o n t r a s t w ith p rim a ry s t r e s s
in c o n tra stiv e u tte ra n c e s .

C o n tra s ts!
t
/ ' / / p l i - s a a / 'b e c a u s e *
/ * / /d a e m -c h e e / .'t r e e '
/V
/V
/ * / / 'b a a t l . / 'o f co u rse!'
/ / /p is a a / 't o
e a t'
/ b a a t l . / 'y e s '
/ p t e e h c h e e / 'w oo den h o u s e '
1 , 1 2 2 J u n c t u r e phonem es
J u n c t u r e phonem es a r e c o n t r a s t i n g m a n n e r s o f t r a n s i t i o n
b e tw e e n s y l l a b l e s i n a n u t t e r a n c e .
The t r a n s i t i o n fro m o ne
s e g m e n t a l phoneme t o a n o t h e r w i t h i n a s y l l a b l e i s d e f i n e d
as n o r m a l t r a n s i t i o n ,
a n d i s n o t a phonem e.
The f o u r
j u n c t u r e phonem es a r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h , and d e f i n e d b y , f o u r
c o n tr a s tin g d eg rees o f s y l l a b l e d u r a tio n .
S y lla b le d u ra tio n
i s d e f i n e d a s t h e t o t a l t i m e e l a p s e d b e tw e e n t h e b e g i n n i n g
o f t h e s y l l a b l e i n q u e s t i o n and t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e
fo llo w in g s y l l a b l e .
39
1 . / + / c lo .s e - j u n c t u r e .
s h o rt d u ra tio n .
The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e h a s
I t t y p i c a l l y o c c u rs a f t e r bound s y l l a b l e s
w ith zero o r / ' / s t r e s s .

2 . / - / medium j u n c t u r e .
m ed iu m -sh o rt d u r a t i o n .
seco n d ary / ' /
The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e h a s
The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e may c a r r y
o r p rim a ry / * / s t r e s s .
T h is j u n c t u r e u s u a l l y
i n d i c a t e s ;a , c l o s e r g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n s y l l a b l e s
t h a n d o e s op en j u n c t u r e / /
o c c u r r i n g i n c o m po und s.
(u n m ark ed ), th u s f r e q u e n t l y
I t may, h o w e v e r , o c c u r b e tw e e n
bound s y l l a b l e s in d e l i b e r a t e sp e e c h ,
( ~ /k aw + su u /)
as in /k a w -s u u /
r u b b e r 1 .
3 . / / open ju n c tu r e
(u n m ark ed ).
The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e
h a s medium d u r a t i o n , a n d may c a r r y e i t h e r p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y
s tr e s s , but is never u n stre sse d .
Any s e q u e n c e o f s e g m e n t a l
phonem es b o u n d e d b y a tw o s u c c e s s i v e o c c u r r e n c e s o f o p e n
j u n c t u r e i s a p h o n o lo g ic a l w ord.
ij.. / * / l o n g j u n c t u r e .
d u r a tio n , p rim a ry s t r e s s ,
r a is e d s u s ta in e d p itc h .
The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e h a s l o n g
a n d i s u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n ie d by
T h is j u n c t u r e u s u a l l y I n d i c a t e s a
m a j o r im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t c u t w i t h i n an u t t e r a n c e .
E x a m p le s t
/+ /* /so Q + k h a a / 'p r o v i s i o n s
/-/*
/s o g -k h a a jo / 'b o t h s i d e s '
/-/*
/k o o c e h - ta e n iy e y b a r a g s a e h ^ ./
h e a lw a y s s p e a k F r e n c h
'H e a lw a y s s p e a k s F r e n c h . '
fco
/ ft
/k e e ceh ta e n ly ey b a r a ^ s a e h i ,/
h e k n o w -h o w -to s p e a k o n l y F r e n c h
He c a n s p e a k o n l y F r e n c h .
/ /:
/k n o m t w e o - k a a m in -b a a n * t e e ) - . /
I w o rk n e g a t i v e - a b l e e m p h a t i c - p a r t i c l e
I m n o t a b l e t o w o r k . '
/k n o m t w o e - k a a * m l n - b a a n q e y s o h i . /
/t/t
I w o rk n e g a t i v e - g e t a n y t h i n g a t - a l l
'( W h e n ) I w o rk I d o n ' t make a t h i n g . '
1 . 1 2 3 P h r a s e c o n t o u r phonem es
P h r a s e c o n t o u r s a r e c o n t r a s t i n g p i t c h c o n t o u r s w hose
d o m a in i s
e i t h e r an i n t e r n a l o r a f i n a l s y l l a b l e .
The
s y l l a b l e o f s e q u e n c e o f s y l l a b l e s b e tw e e n a n y t wo o c c u r r e n c e s
o f p h ra s e c o n to u r i s d e fin e d as a p h o n o lo g ic a l p h r a s e .
I n t e r n a l l y , p h r a s e c o n t o u r s s i g n a l a m a j o r im m e d ia te c o n
s titu e n t c u t.
T e r m i n a l l y , p h r a s e c o n t o u r s co m b in e w i t h t h e
i n t o n a t i o n a l phonem e / . /
' e n d o f c o n s t r u c t i o n ' t o fo rm
i n t o n a t i o n a l m o rp h em es.
1.
/ f / The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e
h as a r i s i n g p i tc h c o n to u r,
2.
/ \ / T he p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e
has a f a l l i n g p i t c h c o n to u r.
3.
/ l / The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e
has a h ig h s u s ta in e d p itc h .
14-.
h a s a lo w s u s t a i n e d p i t c h .
The p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e
R is in g c o n to u r i s n o rm a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith i n t e r
ro g a tiv e u tte ra n c e s .
o ccu r w ith q u e s tio n s .
H ow ever, f a l l i n g c o n t o u r may a l s o
F a l li n g c o n to u r w i t h a q u e s tio n
10.
se em s t o c a r r y a s e c o n d a r y i m p l i c a t i o n o f s p e a k e r s t a t u s
e q u a l o r s u p e r io r to t h a t o f th e a d d re s s e e , w h ile r i s i n g
c o n t,o u r r e f l e c t s d e f e r e n c e , p o l i t e n e s s , o r f o r m a l i t y .
The
f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s a r e t r a n s l a t e d f r e e l y i n o r d e r t o
i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e m a n tic nuances*
/ l o o k to w n a a t . / (y o u ( r e s p e c t f u l ) go w h e r e )
... 'W h ere a r e y o u g o i n g , s i r ? '
. / l o o k . t o w n a a l . / (y o u go w h e r e )
'W h ere i n t h e w o r l d a r e y o u g o i n g ? '
R i s i n g c o n t o u r a l s o o c c u r s b e tw e e n c l a u s e s ,
m em bers o f a c o n c a t e n a t e d l i s t ,
a n d b e tw e e n
e .g .:
/b a l o o k k i t t o w t knom ko o k i t tow : d a e J ' , /

i f y o u t h i n k g o t I t h e n t h i n k go t o o
I f y o u ' r e g o i n g , t h e n I ' l l go t o o . '
/k n o m t r o w t i n
s k o o t m r l c f h a e y - n l g q o q k o o I',/
I m u st b u y s u g a rf - p e p p e r f an d r i c e
' I h a v e t o b uy s u g a r , p e p p e r , a n d r i c e . '
P a l l i n g c o n to u r in f i n a l p o s i t i o n i s n o rm a lly a s s o c ia te d
w ith s t a ti v e u tte r a n c e s .
o ccu r w ith s ta te m e n ts ,
H ow ever, r i s i n g , c o n t o u r may a l s o
i n w h ic h c a s e i t seem s t o c a r r y t h e
s e c o n d a ry i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t th e s ta te m e n t i s o b v io u s o r
a n t i c i p a t e d , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s :
/ k n o m 'to w p s a a i . / ( I go m a r k e t )
I m g o i n g t o t h e m a r k e t .
/k n o m tow p s a a t . / ( I go m a r k e t )
I m g o i n g t o t h e m a r k e t , o f c o u r s e
(o r, as u s u a l ) .
F a l l i n g c o n t o u r a l s o t y p i c a l l y f o l l o w s i n t e r j e c t i o n s and
resp o n siv e s,
e i t h e r in i s o l a t i o n o r a t th e b e g in n in g o f
l a r g e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s , as. f o l l o w s :
/ t a e l l o o k k i t tw e e q w e y f . /
t e l l - m e i y o u t h i n k do w h a t
Say, w hat a r e you p la n n in g t o d o ?
/ b a a t i knom k i t to w m o el k o n i , /
p o l i t e - r e s p o n s e I I t h i n k go s e e f i l m
W e ll,
I th in k [ I ' l l ]
go s e e a f i l m .
In a d d it i o n , f a l l i n g c o n to u r t y p i c a l l y o c c u rs w ith th e
c o n ju n c tio n / t h a a / ' t h a t ' ,
e .g .:
/knom so g k h im t h a a i l o o k niiQ maok . /

I h o p e t h a t ^ y o u f u t u r e come
I h o p e t h a t y o u l l c o m e .'
H ig h l e v e l c o n t o u r / I /
i s n o rm a lly a s s o c i a t e d w ith
im p e r a tiv e s ta te m e n ts and w ith i n t e r j e c t i o n s and p a r t i c l e s

o f an e x h o r t a t i v e o r c a j o l i n g n a t u r e , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
e x a m p le s :
/ y i i !
knom m ln h e s n som* t e e ! , /
i n t e r j . - o f - p r o t e s t ! . I n e g a tiv e d are a sk e m p h a tic -p a rt,

Oh n o , I d o n t d a r e a s k ! !
/kom p h y : n e h ! . /
(d o n t b e - a f r a i d e x h o r t a t i v e - p a r t i c l e
D o n 't w o rry ! 1
H ig h l e v e l c o n t o u r may a l s o o c c u r a f t e r e m p h a ti c o r d e
c l a m a t o r y s t a t e m e n t s , r e f l e c t i n g e m o t i o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t on
th e p a r t o f th e sp eak er,
as f o l l o w s :
/ ' q o o ! k o n l a e g n u h s r u o l : 1d a e i . /
OhJ p l a c e t h a t b e - a g r e e a b l e t o o
'O h , t h a t p l a c e i s r e a l l y n i c e !
( c o n t r a r y t o w h at y ou
b e lie v e )
Low l e v e l c o n t o u r /_ _ / t y p i c a l l y o c c u r s w i t h s t a t i v e
u t t e r a n c e s o f a n -u n e m o tio n a l o r s o l i l o q u i z i n g n a t u r e ,
e .g .:
/ q a e j raonuh y e o g t e e ^ q o h t r e w concern e i w t _ . /
r e s p o n s e ! human we a l l m u s t s u p p o r t l i f e
Y e s , we a l l h a v e t o e a r n a l i v i n g .
Low l e v e l c o n t o u r a l s o o c c u r s w i t h p o s t - p o s e d t o p i c s , e . g . :
/knom m in c o o l - c e t : , t e e m o n u h n u h _ _ ./
I n e g a tiv e l i k e e r a p h a tic - p a r tic le ! p erso n t h a t
'I
dont lik e
[h im ] a t a l l ,
t h a t m a n .
I . I 2 I4. I n t o n a t i o n a l phoneme
In to n a tio n s
( 5 .0 ) a r e a n a ly z e d in term s o f th e f o u r
p h r a s e c o n to u r s d e s c r i b e d in t h e p r e c e d in g s e c t i o n and th e
one i n t o n a t i o n a l phoneme / . /
'e n d o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , whose
o n ly p h o n o lo g ic a l m arker i s pause o r i n d e f i n i t e s i l e n c e .
1 . 2 P h o n o l o g i c a l w ords
P h o n o l o g i c a l w o r d s , a s d e f i n e d i n 1 . 1 3 2 , may c o n t a i n
fr o m o n e t o s i x s y l l a b l e s , w i t h v a r i o u s s t r e s s p a t t e r n s a n d
s y lla b le shapes.
H o w ever, t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f w ords i n
C am bodian a r e m o n o s y l l a b l e s ,
to ry .
T he m in o r d i s y l l a b l e
in freq u en cy i f n o t in in v en
(1 .2 2 1 ) i s
s e c o n d t o t h e mono
s y l l a b l e i n t e r m s o f f r e q u e n c y , a n d a l t h o u g h no s t u d y h a s
b e e n m ade, m i g h t a l m o s t e q u a l t h e m o n o s y l l a b l e i n t e r m s o f
t o t a l in v e n to ry .
P o l y s y l l a b i c - , w ord s
in c o llo q u ia l speech,
(1 .2 3 ) a re in f r e q u e n t
and c a n u s u a l l y b e I d e n t i f i e d a s
l o a n - w o r d s fro m P a l i , S a n s k r i t , o r F r e n c h s o u r c e s , t h o u g h
n o t on s t r u c t u r a l g r o u n d s .
1 . 2 1 M o n o s y l l a b i c w o rd s
Any o c c u r r e n c e o f a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e p r e c e d e d a n d
f o l l o w e d b y o p e n j u n c t u r e i s a m o n o s y l l a b i c w ord / / .
M o n o s y lla b le s c o n t a i n i n g a s i n g l e vowel o r s h o r t d ip h th o n g
o ccu r in th e fo llo w in g th r e e c a n o n ic a l sh a p es:
1 . /C ^ C / / b e t / t o c l o s e ; / k i t / to th in k *
2 . /C C ^ G / / s d a p / ' t o u n d e r s t a n d ' }
3 . /CCCVC/
/ s t h e t / 't o
/ p r o h / 'm a l e '
s ta n d , be l o c a t e d '
F r e q u e n c y o f t h e ab o v e s h a p e s i s i n t h e o r d e r l i s t e d .
O n ly o n e e x a m p le o f # 3 i s r e c o r d e d .
M o n o s y lla b le s c o n ta in i n g a d o u b le vow el o r lo n g d ip h
th o n g o c c u r in th e f o llo w in g f i v e c a n o n ic a l sh a p e s;
1. /C W /
/ k a a / 'w ork*
2 , /C W C /
/b a a n / to
/p u u / u n c le '
have*
/< ja o y / 1
g iv e '
3 , /CGVV/
/ c h & / t o be i l l '
/ p s a a / m a r k e t
k . /CCVVC/
/ c r a e n / m uch
/ s q a a t / t o be c l e a n 1
$. /cccvvc/
/ s t h a a n / p la c e
/ l k h a o n / d ra m a
A l t h o u g h a f r e q u e n c y c o u n t h a s n o t b e e n m ade, t h e
fre q u e n c y o f th e .a b o v e sh ap es i s a p p ro x im a te ly in th e o rd e r
lis te d .
The o n l y tw o r e c o r d e d e x a m p le s o f # 5 a r e t h o s e
l i s t e d above.
1 .2 2
D is y lla b ic w ords.
1 . 2 2 1 M in o r d i s y l l a b l e s - *'
A m in o r d i s y l l a b l e i s a n y u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e f o l l o w e d
i n c l o s e j u n c t u r e b y a s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e , S+S.
The s t r u c t u r e
o f s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n d e s c r i b e d (1 . 1 2 ) .
The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e c a n b e shown by
t h e fo rm u la
1 . C-j_ i s a n y c o n s o n a n t e x c e p t / f / ,
b u t o n ly / p t c k s /
b e f o r e C2 .
2 . C2 i s / r / .
3 . V i s a n y s h o r t v o w e l ; a f t e r C-|_, b u t o n l y / a o o /
a f t e r C2 .
I4..
5.
i s any co n so n an t ex cep t / b d f r / .
/ + / c lo se ju n c tu re
(a n d h e n c e ' a f o l l o w i n g s t r e s s e d
s y l l a b l e ) o ccu rs a f t e r a l l u n s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s .
1 . My u s e o f t h e t e r m s m i n o r 1 a n d m a j o r d i s y l l a b l e d i f f e r s
som ew hat fro m t h a t o f H e n d e r s o n , op, c i t . , p . 1 5 0 .
Thus t h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r m in o r d i s y l l a b i c ' p a t t e r n s
o c c u r*
1.
CV+S
/k o + k a ay / 't o s c r a tc h '
/ro + b o o g /
'f e n c e '
2.
CrV+S
/s r o + la n / 't o l i k e 1
/c re + m o h / 'n o s e '
3.
CVC+S
/s o n + d a e k / 'b e a n s '
Ij..
CrVC+3
/p ra m + b o y / 'e i g h t '
/so p + b a a y /
'p le a s a n t*
1 . 2 2 2 M ajo r d i s y l l a b l e s
A m a jo r d i s y l l a b l e i s any s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e f o llo w e d
i n c l o s e o r medium j u n c t u r e by a n o t h e r s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e .
T h e r e a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e s h a p e o f t h e
f i r s t sy lla b le .
The f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n s o c c u r s
1.
S+3 / s i o w + p h o w / 'b o o k '
/ p h e e + s a a / . ' la n g u a g e *
2.
S -3 / s m a o - m a a n / 'h o w much'
/b u eg -su ^/ 't o p ra y 1
3.
S -S / c e h - t a e / ' a l w a y s '
/h a a -s p / ' f i f t y '
Ij..
/ l u y - k a q / 'm o n e y '
/s d u o c - s d a o g / 't o be t h i n '
M o r p h o lo g ic a lly s im p le m ajo r d i s y l l a b l e s o c c u r o n ly in
r e l a t i v e l y c a r e f u l s p e e c h , b e co m in g m in o r d i s y l l a b l e s i n
c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h t h r o u g h l o s s o f s t r e s s on t h e f i r s t s y l
la b le .
T h o se m a j o r d i s y l l a b l e s w h ic h o c c u r i n n o r m a l s p e e c h
a r e u s u a l l y c o m p le x ( / s m a e - m a a r i / ) , r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
o r compounds ( / l u y - k a q / ) .
(/b u o g -su o g /),
M a jo r d i s y l l a b l e s o f t h e p a t t e r n
a r e i n v a r i a b l y com pounds.
1 .2 3
P o l y s y l l a b i c w o rd 3
A p o l y s y l l a b i c w ord i s any s e q u e n c e o f m ore t h a n two
s y l l a b l e s b e tw e e n two s u c c e s s i v e o c c u r r e n c e s o f open j u n c t u r e .
U-7
1 . 2 3 1 T r i s y l l a b i c w ords
The f o l l o w i n g t r i s y l l a b i c
w ords p a t t e r n s o c c u r *
1 . S+5+3
/p ro + p & y + n fi/ 'c u s to m 1
/p ro + c e e + c u o n / 'p e o p le '
2 . S+S+S
/th o e r a + m o + d a a / ' u s u a l l y ' / s a t + t s + w o e t / ' c e n t u r y '
3 . 3+3+5
/k r h + sa h + sn a a / 'C h r i s t i a n i t y '
ij., 3 -S + 3
/ro a t-m u e n + tre y / 'm i n is te r '

/ k o o - k r o + b e y / 'o x e n an d b u f f a l o , l i v e s t o c k '
>. S + 3 -3
/ w i + t h i i - b o n / 'c e r e m o n y '
1 . 2 3 2 Q u a d r i s y l l a b l e w o rd s
The f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n s h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d *
1 . S+3+S+3
/q a + th a a + th i+ b a a y / 't o
e x p la in '
2 . 3+S+3+3
/p h o o + c e + n ii+ th a a n / 'r e s t a u r a n t '
3 . 3+S+3+3
/ p u t + t G + s a h + s n a a / 'B u d d h is m '
14.. 3+3+S+3
/ k r h + s a q + k 9+ r a a c / ' C h r i s t i a n e r a '
i>. 3+3+3+3
/ r e c + c e 9+ t h i p + p t a y / 'm o n a r c h y '
6 . S+3-S+3
/ b o n + t G c - b o n + t u a c / 's o m e , a l i t t l e '
1 . 2 3 3 P e n t a s y l l a b l e w ords
The f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n s o c c u r *
1 . 3+S+3+S+3
/r a t+ te + n a q + k o + r ii/ 'R a t a n a k ir i
2 . S+3+3+S+3
/q a + n u q + s a a + w 9+ r f i / 'm o n u m e n t, m e m o r i a l '
3 . S+3+3+3+3
/p ro + th e o + n e G + th lp + p d G y / ' p r e s i d e n t '
14., 3+3+3+S+3
/ r e o c + c e G + t h l p + p G + t a y / 'm o n a r c h y '
S+3~S+3+3
/p r e h + r e a c - > q a + n a a + c a q / 'k in g d o m '
6 , '3 -3 + 3 + S + 3
(p ro v in c e )'
/ r e o c - r o o t + t h a a + p h i + b a a l / ' r o y a l g o v e r n m e n t'
1,23k- H e x a s y l l a b i c w ords
1 . S+3+S+3+S+3
/w i+ c a a + re + n a q + k G + th a a / 'f o r e w o r d '
2*0
Mor p h o pho n em1c s

M o rp h o p h o n em ics i s t h e a n a l y s i s o f s t r u c t u r e b e tw e e n
t h e l e v e l s o f p h o n o l o g y a n d m o r p h o lo g y .
I t d e a ls w ith
n o n - c o n t r a s t i v e a l t e r n a t i o n b e tw e e n p h o n e m e s.
2 .1
F ree v a r i a ti o n
F r e e v a r i a t i o n i s n o n - c o n t r a s t i v e a l t e r n a t i o n b e tw e e n
tw o o r m ore phonem es i n t h e same p h o n o l o g i c a l e n v ir o n m e n t*

T h i s t y p e o f a l t e r n a t i o n i s c o n d i t i o n e d p r i m a r i l y by t h e
s p e e d a n d d e g r e e o f f o r m a l i t y em p lo y ed b y t h e s p e a k e r .
2 .1 1 F ree v a r i a t i o n in u n s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s
The l o c u s o f g r e a t e s t m o rp h o p h o n em ic f r e e v a r i a t i o n i s
th e u n s tre s s e d s y lla b le
(1 . 2 2 1 ) .
I n t h e e x a m p le s t h a t
f o llo w , t h e m ost fo rm a l a l t e r n a n t s a r e f o llo w e d by t h e i r

s u c c e s s i v e l y m ore c o l l o q u i a l a l t e r n a n t s .
I t w i l l be s e e n
t h a t a l l u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s te n d to be l e v e l l e d in
c o llo q u ia l speech to
1.
|C e + |^ , as fo llo w s*
|C o+ , Co+| > |C 9+ |
/ k o + k a a y / > / k o + k a a y / t o d i g , s c r a t c h about*
/c o + c a e k / > /c o + c a e k / to a rg u e , sq u a b b le '
/rao + n u h /
> /r a o + n u h /
hum an, man'
2 . V o ic e d s t o p s / b d / > v o i c e l e s s / p t / i n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b i
/ d o + d a e l / > / d o + d a e l / > / t e + d a e l / 's a m e '
1 . V e r t i c a l s l a s h e s ( | ) a r e u s e d t o i n d i c a t e m o rpho pho nem ic

s h a p e s , w h ic h a r e a b s t r a c t i o n s , a s o p p o s e d t o m o rp h s , w h ic h
a re r e p r e s e n te d p h o n e m ic a lly .
/ b o + b u o l '/ > / b a + b u l / > p + bu l/ t o e n t r e a t 1

3 , /s o + / > / s 9+/ > / t 9+/
/ s o + s e e / > / s o + s e e / > / t e + s e e / 1t o w r i t e 1
I4.. / r o + / > / r a + / > / ! + / > / q a + /
/ r o + b f a n / > / r a + b n / > / l e + b e n / > / q a + . b l o n / m e t h o d 1
/r o + te h / > /r a + te h / > /le + te h / > /q a + te h / c a r t 1
5.
|CVq+| > |0V+1 > |C e + |

/p iq + b a a q / > /p i+ b a a q / > /p e + b a a q / d i f f i c u l t
/ q a q + r u n / > / q a + r u n / > / q a + r u n / daw n
6.
|C r o + , C ro + | > j C r e + | > jCa+j

/ p r o + t e a h / > / p r o + t e a h / > / p s + t e a h / t o m e e t 1^
/s r o + n o k / > /s r a + n o k / > /s a + n o k / p e a c e f u l
7.
|CVN+| > |CaN+| > |C 9+ j

/ k o n + l a e g / > /k a n + la e Q / > / k a + l a e $ / p l a c e
/d o m + n aa p / > /d am + n ao p / > / t a + n a a p / g l u t i n o u s
I n a l t e r n a t i o n s 8 - 1 2 b e lo w , u n s t r e s s e d , s y l l a b l e s o f
shape
8.
|CVNJ a r e r e d u c e d i n r a p i d s p e e c h t o a s y l l a b i c n a s a l *
jqol'T+| > jqeN+J > |N+|
(sy lla b ic n a sa l)
/ q o Q + k u y / > / q a i 3+ k u y / > / 13+ k u y / t o s i t

/q o n + c an / > /q o n + c a o n / > / n + c e a n / t o i n v i t e
9.
JCVN+J > JCoN+J > jN+j
( - | Co +J )
/b o n + ta c -b o n + tu o c / > /b o n + ta c -b o n + tu a c / > /n + to c -n + tu a c /
a l i t t l e ,
so m e w h at
/d o n + d o p / > /d o n + d o p / > /n + d o p / ( - /ta + d o p /)
-te e n
1 . In c o n t r a s t w i t h / p t e a h / h o u s e .
5o
1 0 . The n e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r y / m i n / i s r e d u c e d t o a s y l l a b i c
n a s a l /m +/ in r a p i d speech,
e.g .:
/ m i n - m e e n / > /r a+ m e en / ' n o t r e a l l y '

/m & n-tow / > /ra+tow / ' n o t g o '
1 1 . The i n c i p i e n t a u x i l i a r y / n i i a / i s r e d u c e d i n r a p i d s p e e c h
t o a n a s a l h om organie w i t h a f o l l o w i n g consonant.*^
/ n i f l - m a o k / > /ra+m aok/ ' w i l l come'
/n ig -to w / > /n+ tow / 'w i l l go1
1 2 .. / k h a a g / ' s i d e '
i n compounds i s s u b j e c t t o e x t r e m e
re d u c tio n : /k h a a fl-k ra o y / > /k h a g -k ra o y / > /g + k ra o y / 'b e h in d '

1 3 . /m uey/ 'o n e '
is h ig h ly u n s ta b le in u n s tre s s e d p o s itio n :
/m uey-doog/ > /raaa-d o o g / > /m s+doog/ 'o n c e '

/ra u e y -ro o y / > /raaa-ro y/ > /m e + ro o y / 'o n e hundred'
111, / p r a m / ' f i v e *
i s s u b j e c t t o e x t r e m e r e d u c t i o n when i t
does n o t c a r r y p rim a ry s t r e s s :
/ p r a r a - m u o y / > /pr&ra+muoy/ > / p s + m u o y / ' s i x '
/p r a m - b o y / > /p rem + b o y / > /ra+boy/ ' e i g h t '
l . The p r e f i x / p r e o h / i s s u b j e c t t o l o s s o f s t r e s s , v o w e l
r e d u c t i o n , and l o s s o f f i n a l / - h / i n r a p i d s p e e c h , th u s
a s s im ila tin g to th e ty p ic a l /C ro + / u n s tre s s e d s y lla b le shape,
/ p r e o h - p u t / > / p r o + p u t / 'B u d d h a '
/ p r e o h - c a n / > / p r o + c a n / 'm o o n'
16. / n i q + y e e y / > / n i + y e y / > / n + y e y / ' t o
17. /tu e n + le e / > /to + le e / 'r iv e r ,
speak*
lo n g body o f w a te r'
1 8 . / q o y + l o w / > / q a a + l o w / > / q a + l e w / > / q o + l e w / 'n o w '

1 . T his k in d o f a l t e r n a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d in 2 , 3 .
51
2.12 S tr e s s a l t e r n a t i o n
As h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d i n 1 , 2 2 2 ,
th e tendency
i n m a j o r d i s y l l a b l e s i s t o move t o w a r d t h e p r e f e r r e d m i n o r
s y l l a b l e s t r e s s p a t t e r n S+g i n c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h , e . g . t /p ii+ s a a / > /p i+ sa a / 'to
eat'
/kaw +qoy/ > /kaw +qey/ ' c h a i r '

/te o + h e e n / > teo+ heon/ 's o l d i e r '
T h i s same p r e f e r e n c e f o r a l t e r n a t i o n b e t w e e n s t r e s s e d a n d
u n s tr e s s e d s y l l a b l e s in c o ll o q u i a l speech i s o p e ra tiv e in
p o ly sy llab les.
The c h a n g e s , a s w i t h m a j o r d i s y l l a b l e s ,
i n v o l v e , . b o t h s t r e s s a n d vo w e l r e d u c t i o n .
The f o l l o w i n g
a l t e r n a t i o n s o c c u r , m o v in g f r o m f o r m a l t o c o l l o q u i a l f o r m s j
1, g+g+g > s+S+g

/q a a + n a a + k u e t/ > /q a '+ n a s+ k u st/ ' f u t u r e '
/ q a o + b a a + s o q / > /q o + b a a + s o q / 'lay m a n '
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s , l o s s o f s t r e s s is
co rrelated
w ith lo s s o f f i n a l consonant in u n s tre s s e d s y lla b le s ?

/ q a q + k h o o + s a q / > / q a + k h o o + s a q / ' t o be s i l e n t ,
v o iceless'
/q u q + te o + h o o / > /q u + te o + h o o / 'ex am p le'

2 , g+g+g > g+S+g
/kaq+ ruq+ naa/ > /kaq+ ru+ naa/ ( > /k o + n aa/)
'm ercy '
/k eq + r q + y aa / > /k e q + ri+ y a a / 'c o n d u c t'

3 , g+g+g+g > S+g+S+g
/qaq+ nuq+see+ naa/ > /qa+ nuq+ se+ naa/ ' m i l i t a r y d i v i s i o n '
1|. g+g+g+g > g+S+g+g
/q ih + s a q + ra q + p h e e p / > /q ih + s o + ra q + p h e o p / 'fre e d o m '
2 .1 3 F r e e v a r i a t i o n in s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s
F r e e v a r i a t i o n which i s c o r r e l a t e d w ith d e g re e o f
fo rm a lity takes
place in c e r t a i n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , b u t
se em s t o b e u n r e l a t e d t o r e d u c t i o n o f s t r e s s ,
e.g .*
/ t w e e / > / t h e e / t o m ake , d o
/k n o m / > /k y o m / *1
/m e+ doo ^/ > /m e+rooQ / o n ce, a t o n c e
C e rta in f i n a l sentence p a r t i c l e s are su b je c t to
m o r p h o p h o n e m ic r e d u c t i o n i n r a p i d s p e e c h , e . g . *
/ t e e / > / t e h / > / t e h / em phatic p a r t i c l e
/ n a a / > /n ah / > /n e h / e x h o rta tiv e f in a l p a r t i c l e '
/ h a e y / > / h e y / > / q e y / > /q h / p e r f e c t i v e f i n a l p a r t . '
2 .2
P h o n o lo g ic a lly c o n d itio n e d a lt e r n a t io n
P hon o lo g ically conditioned a lte r n a tio n i s a lte r n a tio n
w h i c h i s c o n d i t i o n e d by t h e p h o n o t a c t i c r u l e s o f t h e l a n g u a g e ,
and i s th u s i n v a r i a b l e .
The f o l l o w i n g a l t e r n a t i o n s o c c u r *
1. V o iced s t o p s / b d / > v o i c e l e s s / p t / b e f o r e n a s a l s .
/ b - / > / p - / before /~ n -/* ^
/ b a e k / 't o b re a k > /p n a e k / fragm ent
/ d - / > / t ~ / b e fo re / - n -/*
/ d a q / to p u t'
> / t n a q / 'c l a s s , placem ent'
/ d - / > / t - / before /-m ~ /t

/ d a o / ' t o w alk'
> /tm a e / 'p e d e s tria n '
1 . The sym bol / - / i s u s e d h e r e t o i n d i c a t e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

o f a f f i x e s t o b a s e s , r a t h e r t h a n a s a phoneme o f j u n c t u r e .
2. V oiceless stops / p t / > /b d / before
j-oDT-|
/ p V > A -/*
/p rae/
to
use
/p la e/
'f r u it'
> /bom ra / s e r v a n t
> /b o n la e / 'v e g e ta b le s'
/pqaera/ 'b e sw eet'
> /bogqaem / 's tr e e ts '
/ t - / > /d -/*
/ t b a a n / ' t o w e av e '
> /d o m b a an / 'w eav in g '
/tw a a y / 't o give'
> /do^w aay/ ' g i f t '
/ta e g / 'to
a p p o in t' > /dom naeg/ 'p o s i t i o n '
3 . A l t e r n a t i o n . o f / r - / and / r o - /
/r*r/ > / r o - / before
|-C -jj
/ro o h /
'to
rak e' > /ro n o eh / 'a rake'
/rie n /
'to
s t u d y ' > / r o b i e n / 'k n o w led g e'
/ r o - / > / r - / before /-u m -/j

/ r o l i i g / 'b e sh in y ' > / r u m l i i f l / ' t o p o l i s h
/ro d o h / 'f r e e d '
2 ,3
> /rum doh/ 't o f r e e '
M orphologically con d itio n ed a lte r n a tio n

The f o l l o w i n g a l t e r n a t i o n s a r e m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y c o n
ditioned,
1,
I n c e r t a i n m orp hem es, s u c h a s

V^N-/ ' i n c i p i e n t a u x i l i a r y '
( r a p id speech allom orph)
</-oN -/ 'n o m in a liz a tio n '

</boN-/ ' c a u s a t i o n 1
i / s o N - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n ' , t h e morphophoneme j- N ~ |
a s s im ila te s to th e fo llo w in g consonant according to
$k
th e follow ing p a tte rn s
/m / before /b p a n q /
/ n / before /d t 1 y s /
/ n / before / o n /
/ $ / before /k r h w q f /
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i n v o l v e t h e morpheme / b o N - / ' c a u s a t i o n * ,
/ b a e k / ' t o b r e a k ' ( i n t r . ) > /bom baek/ ' t o
cause to b reak'
/ d a o / ' t o w alk'
> / b o n d a e / ' t o w alk (a
dog,
/c o n / 't o leave'
> /boncon/ 't o
/ k a o t / ' t o be b o r n '
> /b o^kaot/ 'to o rig in a te '
e tc .)'
expel'
T h is i s i n . c o n t r a s t w i t h ;suchrmorphemes as / - 6 m - /
'n o m in a liz a tio n ',
i n which / - m - / i s i n v a r i a b l e *
/ c r a o n / ' t o b e m uch'
> /com raon/ 'in c r e a s e '
/kdaw / 't o
> /kom daw/ ' h e a t '
be h o t '
/ k c i l / ' t o be l a z y '
> /k o m c il/ 'la z y person'
/ c k u o t / ' t o be c r a z y '
> /com kuot/ 'i d i o t '
S i n c e t h e r e i s a morpheme-vA*^**/ ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n ' a s w e l l

a s a morpheme
i n t h e example / k p u o h / ' t o be h i g h '
t h e morph / - o m - /
> /kom puoh/ ' h e i g h t '
c o u l d e q u a l l y w e l l bo a s s i g n e d t o e i t h e r t h e morpheme \ / - o N ~ /
o r t h e morpheme j \ / - o m - / .
The a n a l y s i s f o l l o w e d h e r e i s t o
c o n s i d e r t h e m orp h / - o r a - / t o b e an a l l o m o r p h o f t h e morpheme
a/
oN - / when i t
conform s t o t h e p a t t e r n o f a l t e r n a t i o n o u t
l i n e d a b o v e , a s i n / k o m p u o h / , a n d o f t h e morpheme
when i t d o e s n o t ,
as I n / c o m r a o n / .
'
T h e r e i s a t l e a s t on e c a s e o f d o u b l e t s r e s u l t i n g
f r o m t h e u s e o f an a l l o r a o r p h o f b o t h m o r p h e m e s w i t h a
s i n g l e base*
/-urn-/*"
/ t l o s p / ' t o be a c c u s t o m e d to* > / t u m l o e p / ' c u s t o m 1
/-u en -/
/ t l o o p / *to be accustom ed t o '
2. In i n f i x e s o f shape
> / t u e n l o e p / 'c u s to m *
|-V ra (n )-|,
J-Vra-j o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h i n i t i a l s e q u e n c e C^Cg.
/ k p u e h / ' t o be h ig h '
> /kom puoh/ 'h e i g h t '
/lq o o / 'b e a u tifu l'
> /lu m q o o / 'b e a u ty '
j-Vmn-1 o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h a s i n g l e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t ,
/ k a s t / 'to
be b o r n '
/ k i t / 'to th in k '
3, In i n f i x e s o f shape
> /kom naot/ 'b i r t h '

> /k u m n it/ 'th o u g h t'
J -rV (n )-|,
1 - r V - j o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h i n i t i a l s e q u e n c e C^C2 .
/s d e y / 'to
tell'
> /sro d e y / 'to
speak (e lo q u e n t)'
|~rV n-| occurs in bases w ith a s i n g l e i n i t i a l co n so n an t,

/sa o k / 'to
1,
p ity '
> /sro n ao k / 'p ity '
T h e s e m o rp h s a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y a l l o m o r p h s o f / / - o m - / a n d
n / - oN -/
a s d e s c r i b e d i n 2.1+32.
56
2 . 1}. Vowgl a b l a u t
T h e r e a r e tw o s e r i e s o f v o w e l s and v o w e l s - p l u s - s e m i
v o w e l I n Cambodian w i t h r e s p e c t t o w h i c h v o w e l a l t e r n a t i o n
t a k e s p l a c e i n c a r t a i n a f f i x e s and b a s e s .
S e r i e s 1 vowels
a re c o n s i s t e n t l y low er than: t h e i r s e r i e s 2 c o u n t e r p a r t s .
In t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t s
t h e v o w e l s o f one s e r i e s a r e l i s t e d
o p p o site t h e i r c o r r e la tiv e a lte r n a n ts in th e o th e r s e r ie s .

S eries 1
S eries 2
A y /
_ / i i /
/ae/
/ee/
/o o /
/ i i /
/a /
/a/
/ aa/
/ /
/ o /
/u u /
/ao /
/o o /
/ o o / -----
/o o /
/e /
- / i /
/e /._
A /
/a /
before / - q ,
-n, - h /
before / - p ,
- t , -m, - n ,
-h/
1 . T h e s e two s e r i e s o f v o w e l s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t h e
w r i t i n g s y s t e m n o t b y d i f f e r e n t v o w e l s y m b o l s b u t r a t h e r by
two c o r r e l a t i v e s e t s o f c o n s o n a n t s y m b o l s , l e a d i n g t o t h e
s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t t h e y may o n c e h a v e b e e n a l l o p h o n i c ( s e e
A p p e n d i x A, 1 . 1 ) .
57
/ o / in re d u p lic a tiv e p re fix e s
/V
/u/ before / - p ,
-m /
'/ u s / elsew here
/a y /
/iy /
/aw /
The d i p h t h o n g s ' / i e i o u o / . d o n o t a l t e r n a t e *
2 . 111 S p o r a d i c a b l a u t
I n t h e f o l lo w in g exam ples, th e vowels o f b a se s a re r e
p l a c e d by t h e i r c o r r e l a t i v e a l t e r n a n t 's i n d e r i v e d o r a l t e r
n a n t form s.
T h i s a l t e r n a t i o n c a n n o t be p r e d i c t e d f r o m t h e
p h o n o l o g ic a l e n v iro n m en t, and i s h en ce g r a m m a tic a lly con

d itio n ed ,
or sporadic.
/ c i i - p o o / m o n k s r o b e s > / c o y - p o e / i d .
/ r e a p / to
be l e v e l
> / k r a a p / to le v e l, p r o s t r a t e
/m u u l/ to
be r o u n d
>/ c m o o l / t o b a l l up*
/n ih / th is
> / n e h / t h i s ( s t y l i s t i c v a ria n t)
2.112 A u t o m a t i c a b l a u t
A utom atic a b l a u t i s c o n d i t i o n e d by th e p h o n o t a c t i c r u l e s
o f the language.
Vowel a b l a u t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s i's
c o n d itio n e d :ib y t h e n o n - o c c u r r e n c e o f s e r i e s 2 vowels

after /b /.
/ l e e g / to p l a y
> / l b a e g / game
/I
try
> / l b o o g / experim ent'
dance
> / r o b a m / 'a . d a n c e '
ogiq/
to
/room / 't o
2,U-3 Vowel h a rm o n y
I n many d e r i v a t i v e s , o f d i s y l l a b i c s h a p e , t h e s e r i e s
o f th e a f f i x vowel i s d e te rm in e d by th e s e r i e s o f t h e b ase
vow el.
I n a s m a l l e r num ber o f f o r m s , t h e s e r i e s o f t h e
b a s e vowel i s d e te r m in e d by t h e s e r i e s o f t h e a f f i x vow el.

T h is k in d o f c o n d i t i o n i n g i s d e f i n e d h e r e as vowel harm ony.
2 . 14-31 I n t h e f o l l o w i n g d e r i v a t i v e s ,
placed b y 'i t s
t h e b a s e vowel i s r e
c o r r e l a t i v e a l t e r n a n t i n t h e same s e r i e s a s
t h e p r e f i x vowel*
/le eh /
beyond
> / c r o l a e h / to exceed
/w & c/ t o w rap
> /b o ig w o c / p a c k a g e
/m u c / t o subm erge
> /proraoc/ ' t o put u n d e r
/y o o l/
> /p ro y a o l/ a fob
to sw ing
/ l e e h / t o be c l e a r '
> / s r o l a h / c le a r ; co m p letely
/w ueq/ c i r c l e
> /k r o w o g / t o be c i r c u l a r '
/w eeq/
> /sogw aeio/ ' l e n g t h '
' t o be lo n g '
2.1+32 A f f i x e s a f f e c t e d b y v o w e l
ha rm on y
Vowel h a r m o n y i s e s s e n t i a l t o a c o m p l e t e d e s c r i p t i o n o f
t h e m o r p h o p h o n e m ic a l t e r n a t i o n w h i c h o c c u r s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
affix es.
Where v o w e l h a rm o n y i s t h e c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c t o r o f
a llo m o r p h i c s h a p e , t h e vowel a l t e r n a n t o f t h e a f f i x i s
d e t e r m i n e d by t h e v o w e l a l t e r n a n t o f t h e b a s e .
b a s e v o w e l i s common t o b o t h s e r i e s o f v o w e l s ,
When t h e
i t is
a ssu m e d t o b e l o n g t o t h e same s e r i e s a s t h e a f f i x v o w e l . ^
1 . I n some d i a l e c t s t h e r e I s a more c o m p l e t o d i c h o t o m y
b e t w e e n t h e two s e r i e s .
I n no d i a l e c t , h o w e v e r , d o e s t h e
d i c h o t o m y a p p e a r t o be c o m p l e t e .
1. R e d u p lic a tiv e p r e f ix e s a re o f shape
|C V -|.
|C -| i s a
r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t o f t h e b a s e , and'
j - V - j i s / o - / o r / o ~ /,
sty listic
/o /
/ / is in both cases a
a l t e r n a n t which i s i n f r e e v a r i a t i o n w i t h / o / o r
(as d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 1 1 ), w h ile t h e a l t e r n a t i o n betw een
/ o / and / o / i s a f u n c t i o n o f vowel harm ony,

If
as f o llo w s :
|C | i s a v o i c e l e s s s t o p / p t c k / ,
jC o - j o c c u r s when t h e b a s e v o w e l b e l o n g s t o s e r i e s 1 ,
/ k a a y / t o dig*
> /k o k a a y / to s c ra tc h ab o u t'
/c k/ to b i t e
> /coc k/ ' t o peck a t
|C o j o c c u r s when t h e b a s e v o w e l b e l o n g s t o s e r i e s 2 .
If
Jc-|
Is
/ t e e h / to sla p '
> / t o t e e h / ' t o f l a p t h e w ings'
/ c r u l / 'to
> / c o c r u l / 'e x c e s s iv e ly '
exceed'
a nasal or l a t e r a l
/ne q/ 't o
shake'
/ m n n 13 l / ,
jCo-J occurs.
> /n o n e e q / 't o trem ble'
/lu a tg / ' t o com fort' > / l o l u s g / ' t o

If
JC| I s a v o i c e d s t o p / b d / , o r / s / ,
flatte r,
c ajo l'
|C o -| o c c u rs.
/d o h / 't o rub'
> / d o d o h / ' t o ru b b a c k and f o r t h
/ s o k / ' t o comb'
> /s o s e k / 'to
2. P re fix e s o f shape
|p rV -|
'r e c ip r o c ity ',
comb, t o s i f t '
etc.
/ p r o - / o c c u rs s p o r a d i c a l l y b e f o r e b a s e s w h ose'vow el o c c u r s
only in s e r i e s 2 :
/rit/
'to
bind'
> / p r o r l t / 'to
embrace'
/ p r o - / occurs elsew h ere:

/ k h a m / ' t o b i t e > /prokham /- ' t o !b i t e ; each o t h e r '
/to o h / 'to
slap* > / p r o t e o h / ' t o meet a c c id e n tl y '.
60
3 , The p r e f i x
jboN- ~ p u e N - j
'c a u s a tio n ',
etc;
|puN-"| o c c u r s s p o r a d i c a l l y b e f o r e b a s e s whose i n i t i a l
c o n s o n a n t i s / y r 1/ ,
a n d whose v o w e l o c c u r s o n l y i n
series 2.
/ r i i k / 'to
bloom'
/ l i e / 't o sink
(in tr.)'
> /p u $ riik / 'to
increase
> /p u sn lic /
' t o overthrow '
be b r i g h t '
> /b o m p lii/
't o illu m in e'
study'
> /b o ^rien /
'to teach'
( t r . )
|b o N -| o c c u r s elsevxhere.
/ p l i i / 'to
>
/ r ie n / 'to
Ij.. The i n f i x / - o m - ~ - u m - / ' c a u s a t i o n ' ,
etc.
/- u m - / occurs
i f th e second consonant of th e base i s a so n o ra n t,
and
t h e b a s e vowel o c c u rs i n s e r i e s 2 :
/ t l e s q / 'to f a l l '
> / t u m l e s q / ' t o overthrow*
/c re e p / 'to learn '
> /cum resp/ 't o
inform '
i f th e f i r s t consonant of th e base is a sonorantj

/ i q o t / ' t o be f i n e '
> / l u r a q e t / ' t o powder'
/ - o m - / occurs elsew here:

/ s q a a t / ' t o be c le a n '
> /so raq aat/ 't o c le an '
/ s l a p / 'to die'
> /so m lap / 't o k i l l '
In fix e s of-shape
| - o N - ~ -u N -|
etc.
l-uoN-J o c c u r s i f th e second c o n s o n a n t o f t h e b a s e i s a
sonorant,
and t h e b a s e v o w e l o c c u r s o n l y i n s e r i e s 2 .
/ p l i i / ' t o be b r i g h t '
> /p u o n lii/ 'lig h t'
/ t l o o p / 'a c c u sto m e d t o '
> / t u e n l o e p / 'c u sto m '
61
|-oN -| occurs elsew here.
/ s n a e c / ' t o adm ire1
> /som naoc/ a d m ira tio n 1
/s tu u c / 'to f is h 1
> /s o n tu u c / 'f i s h i n g hook1
. 6 . I n f i x e s o f s h a p e / - o r a ( n ) - * - u m { n ) ~ / n o m i n a l i z a t i o n 1
/- o m n - / occurs in bases w ith a s in g le i n i t i a l consonant
who se vo w e l b e l o n g s t o s e r i e s 1 .
/ c a e k / .to d i v i d e 1
>/com naek/ s e c t i o n 1
/s a o c / 'to laugh1
>
/som naoc/ la u g h te r'
/- u m n - / occurs in bases w ith a s in g le i n i t i a l consonant

whose v o w e l b e l o n g s t o s e r i e s 2 .
/ k i t / 't o th in k '
/ k u u / ' t o draw,'
> /kum nuu/ draw ing, p i c t u r e 1
/ - u m - / occurs
I f th e second consonant o f t h e b a se i s a s o n o r a n t,
and t h e b a s e vowel b e lo n g s t o s e r i e s 2 j
/ t ^ u o n / 'h e av y '
>
/tumiQuon/ ' w e i g h t '
/ c l u o h / ' to argue'
>
/cu m lu o h / 'arg u m en t'
i f th e f i r s t consonant o f th e base i s a so n o ra n t.
/iq o o / 'b e a u tif u l'
> /lu m q o o / b e au ty '
/ - o m - / occurs elsew here.
7.
/ k h o g / ' t o be a n g ry '
> /kom hog/ 'a n g e r '
/ c Q a a y / ' t o be f a r 1
> /com qaay/ 'd i s t a n c e '
I n f i x e s o f shape
|-rV (n )~ i
'n o m in a liz a tio n ', e tc .
/ - r o n - / occurs s p o r a d i c a l l y in b a ses w ith a s i n g l e i n i t i a l

c o n s o n a n t , and whose voivel o c c u r s o n l y i n s e r i e s 2 *
62
/ tu p / 'to o b stru ct'
> / tr o n u p / 'o b s tr u c tio n '
/tu rn / ' to perch'
> / t r o n u m / ' a p e rc h *
/ - r o n - / occurs in bases w ith a s in g le i n i t i a l consonant

b e f o r e o t h e r vowels*
/sa o k / 'to p ity '
> /sronaok/ 'p ity '
/ - r o - / o c c u r s i n b a s e s v r i th an i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e *
/s to o p / 'to
divide*
> /s ro to o p / 's e c tio n ,
d iv isio n '
2*14-33 N o n - h a r m o n i c d i s y l l a b l e s
When t h e v o w e l s o f d i s y l l a b i c f o r m s a r e n o t i n h a rm o n y ,
t h e r e g u l a r p a t t e r n i s th e o c c u rre n c e o f a,vow el o f s e r i e s 1
in th e f i r s t sy lla b le ,
t h e second s y l l a b l e ,
or a f f i x ,
a n d .a vowel o f s e r i e s 2 i n
o r b a s e , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s *
/com kuot/ ' i d i o t '

/ p r o t e s h / ' t o meet*
/b o m p lii/ 'to
illum ine*
A few f o r m s h a v e t h e r e v e r s e o r d e r *
/ro b o h / 'th in g '
/cuondao/ 's t a i r s '
3 . 0 Morphology
3.1 M orphological u n i t s
M orphology i s h e r e d e f i n e d as t h e a n a l y s i s o f s t r u c t u r e
betw een t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l and s y n t a c t i c l e v e l s .
I t deals
w i t h minimum m e a n i n g f u l u n i t s o f s p e e c h a n d w i t h t h e ways
i n which th e y p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f lex em e s,
o r g ra m m a tic a l words.
3 . 1 1 Morphemes
The r a w d a t a o f m o r p h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s a r e m o r p h s .
m or ph i s
any m e a n in g f u l a rra n g e m e n t o f phonemes, from one
phoneme u p w a r d i n l e n g t h .
A morpheme i s an y s e t o f m orp hs
w h i c h h a v e t h e same m e a n i n g ,
s im ila r shape,
and do n o t c o n -
t r a s t in any g iv e n e n v iro n m en t,
or i t
i s a n y m orph w h i c h
does n o t b e lo n g t o such a s e t .
The i n d i v i d u a l members o f a
s e t o f m o r p h s b e l o n g i n g t o a g i v e n morpheme a r e i t s
m orphs.
a llo -
For exam ple, t h e se q u en c e / k o m n a e t / b i r t h 1 c o n
t a i n s a d i s c o n t i n u o u s a l l o m o r p h / k . . . a t / o f t h e morpheme
v ^ k a o t / '. t o b e b o r n 1, whose o t h e r a l l o m o r p h i s / k a o t / .
It
a l s o c o n t a i n s t h e i n f i x e d a l l o m o r p h / - o m n - / o f t h e morpheme
' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n 1, w h ose o t h e r a l l o m o r p h s a r e / - u r a ( n ) - /
and /- m ( n ) - / .
An e x a m p le o f a morpheme whose m e m b e r s h i p
c o n s i s t s o f a s i n g l e allom orph i s / b a a n / ' t o h a v e '.

Morphemes c a n be d i v i d e d i n t o s u b - l e x e m i c and l e x e m i c
categ o ries.
a re bound,
S u b - l e x e m i c morphemes h a v e a l l o m o r p h s w h i c h
and t h e r e f o r e n e v e r o c c u r a s f r e e f o r m s ,
63
61+
L exe m ic morphemes a r e t h o s e morphemes whose a l l o m o r p h s

o c c u r as f r e e fo rm s.
A l t h o u g h l e x e m i c morphemes may r a n g e
u p t o s i x s y l l a b l e s i n l e n g t h , morphemes c o n t a i n i n g more
t h a n two s y l l a b l e s a r e r a r e . E xam ple s*
1 ) M o n o s y l l a b i c morphemes
/to w / 'to go1
/ m a o k / ' t o come'
/ t k / 'w a te r'
2 ) D i s y l l a b i c morphemes
/ro b o h / 'th in g '
/ p r o t e e h / 'c o u n try '
/ s o p b a s y / ' t o be h a p p y '
3 ) T r i s y l l a b i c morphemes
/q an a ak u e t/ 'fu tu r e '
/ f a a m e s i i / 'ph arm acy'
ij.) Q u a d r i s y l l a b l e morpheme
/p h o o cen iih aa/ 're s ta u ra n t'
f>) P e n t a s y l l a b l e morpheme
/q a n u q -s a a w o rii/ 's o u v e n ir'
6 ) H e x a s y l l a b i c morpheme
/qanaa-proceonu reah/ 'c i t i z e n r y '
3 . 1 2 Lexemes
Lexemes a r e s e t s o f v a r i a n t f o r m s c a l l e d l e x i c a l u n i t s .
A l e x i c a l u n i t i s a n y m e a n i n g f u l fo rm w h i c h i s a minimum
s y n t a c t i c c o n s t i t u e n t o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n in which i t o c c u r s .
65
F o r exam ple, in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n :
/knora t o w s a l a a r e n p r o w o o t t o s a a h l . /
I go s c h o o l s t u d y h i s t o r y
I m go in g t o s c h o o l t o s t u d y h i s t o r y .
/ s a l a a / a n d / r o n / a r e c o - e x t e n s i v e l y morphemes a n d l e x i c a l
u n itsj
i.e .
t h e y a r e 1 exem ic m orphem es.
How ever, i n t h e
co n stru ctio n :
/k no m t o w s a l a a - r n I . /
I go s c h o o l
'I 'm going to s c h o o l .
t h e y a r e t h e c o n s t i t u e n t morphemes o f t h e s i n g l e l e x i c a l
u n it /s a la a - r o n / 's c h o o l'.
A l e x e m e i s a ny s e t o f l e x i c a l u n i t s w h i c h h a v e t h e
same m e a n i n g ,
s i m i l a r s h a p e , a n d do n o t c o n t r a s t i n any
g iv e n e n v iro n m en t, or i t i s any l e x i c a l u n i t which does n o t

belong to such a s e t .
t h e same le x e m e a r e i t s
V a ria n t l e x i c a l u n i t s belo n g in g to
allo lex es.
F o r e x a m p le , t h e l e x e m e
/ k h a a ^ - k r a o y / ' b e h i n d , b a c k w a r d ' h a s an a l l o l e x o f t h a t
sh ap e and a l s o one o f t h e sh ap e / k h a g - k r a o y / .
/ k h a a g / and
/ k h a .13- / a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a l l o m o r p h s o f t h e morpheme
/khaafl/ 's i d e ,
d ire c tio n ',
and / k r a o y / i s th e i n v a r i a n t
morpheme ' b e h i n d ' .

L e x e m e s, l i k e mor ph em es , e n t e r i n t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f
lexemes l a r g e r th an th em se lv e s,
pounding,
through d e r iv a tio n ,
com
and r e d u p l i c a t i o n .
66
3.2 D e riv a tio n

Cambodian h a s a c o m p l e x s y s t e m o f p r e f i x e s and i n f i x e s
w h i c h co m bin e v r i t h b a s e s t o f o r m d e r i v a t i v e s .
a r e e x a m p l e s o f d e r i v a t i o n a l p a r a d i g m s f o r m e d on a s i n g l e
base:
/ k a o t / to be born *
/ p k a o t / 1t o i n v e n t *
/ k n a o t / p e r i o d o f t h e w a x i n g moon1
/kom naet/ b i r t h ,
o rig in
/ b o q k a o t / t o found, to o r i g i n a t e
/ s a o m / t o be w e t
/p sa b m / to w et1
/som naom / m o i s t u r e
/bonsaom / to m o is te n
/ s o n s a o m / dew
S i n c e t h e s e a f f i x e s a r e no l o n g e r p r o d u c t i v e , t h e t e r m
d e r i v a t i o n i s h e re d e fin e d as a s y s te m a tic sem antic r e l a t
i o n s h i p betw een g ro u p s o f f o r m a l l y r e l a t e d w ords, r a t h e r
th a n as a p r o d u c tiv e p r o c e s s .
W h i l e t h e s e a f f i x e s may a t o ne t i m e h a v e h a d c l e a r l y
d efin ed -fu n ctio n s,
fu n ctio n s.
a g i v e n a f f i x m ay.now h a v e a v a r i o t y o f
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e i n f i x e d morph / - o m - / h a s t h e
follow ing p r i n c i p a l fu n c tio n s:

1 ) N om inalization
2) C ausation
3) D e r o g a tio n
67
ij.) S t y l i s t i c v a r i a t i o n
) V e rb a liz a tio n
6 ) D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s fr o m a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s
Thus / - o m - / i s t h e hom ophonous a l l o r a o r p h o f s i x d i f f e r e n t
m o rph em es.
On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
a v a r i e t y o f form s.
iz a tio n of verbs'
in fix es:
a g i v e n f u n c t i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d by
F or exam ple, t h e f u n c t i o n
' nom inal-
i s r e p r e s e n t e d by th e fo llo w in g d i f f e r e n t
1 ) /-om -/
/k d a w / to be h o t '
> /koradaw/ ' h e a t '
2) /-O N -/
/ k c o p / ' t o wrap'
> /k o n c o p / 'p a ck a g e'
3) /-ro n -/
/s a o k / ' to p ity '
> /sro n ao k / 'p ity '
k) / - b - /
/ l e e g / 't o play'
> / l b a e i j / 'gam e'
$) / - m - /
/lu o c / 'to
> /lm u o c/ ' t h i e f '
6) /-n -/
/ c u o l / ' to r e n t '
7) / - g - /
/sa o y / 'to eat
steal'
> /c n u o l/ 'r e n t'

( r o y a l ) ' > / s g a o y / 'r o y a l food
As a r e s u l t o f t h i s o v e r l a p p i n g o f f o r m a n d f u n c t i o n ,
many b a s e s h a v e synonym ous d e r i v a t i o n s f o r m e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t
affix es,
a n d many homophonous d e r i v a t i v e s h a v e s e v e r a l
functions,
e .g .:
1 ) Synonymous d e r i v a t i v e s
/ c u m / ' t o come t o g e t h e r 1
/ p c u m / ' t o a sse m b le ( t r . )'

/procum / 't o
/ k a o t / ' t o be b o rn '
assem ble
(tr.)
/p k a o t/ 'to o rig in a te '

/p ro k a a t/ 'to
o rig in a te 1
/b o ^k ao t/ 'to
o rig in a te
/m uul/ 't o
be r o u n d '
/ c m o o l / ' t o make i n t o a b a l l *
/prom ool/ 't o gather to g e th e r'
- <V crorao ^ / ' e n t a n g l e d '
/ s r o m o o l / 1e n t a n g l e d '
2 ) Homophonous d e r i v a t i v e s
/ c h e h / ' t o burn
(tr. )
/p rocheh/ 'to se t f i r e to '

/procheh/ 'lig h te r '
/ c r a o n / ' t o b e much, many'
/com raon/ 'in c r e a s e ,
success'
/ c o m r a s n / ' t o prom ote, i n c r e a s e '

/ c k u o t / ' t o be m e n ta lly i l l '
/c o m k u e t/ ' t o be c ra z y ( d e r o g . )
/com kuot/ 'i d i o t '
In th e fo llo w in g in v e n to ry o f d e r i v a t i o n a l a f f i x e s ,
a l l m o rp h s t h a t s h a r e an e l e m e n t o f m e a n i n g ,
and w h i c h h a v e
b e e n shown t o b e p h o n o l o g i c a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a l t e r n a n t s ,
c o n s i d e r e d a l l o m o r p h s o f t h e same morpheme.
a r r a n g e d b y m o rph o ph o nem ic s h a p e .
lapping o f fu n ctio n ,
are
Morphemes a r e
In s p i t e o f t h e o v e r
t h e t y p i c a l o r ' ' r e g u l a r 1' f u n c t i o n
(morpheme) o f a g i v e n a f f i x c a n u s u a l l y be i d e n t i f i e d .
r e g u l a r morpheme i s c i t e d f i r s t ,
morphemes o f t h e same s h a p e .
p r e c e d e d b y a morpheme s y m b o l ,
This
f o l l o w e d by t h e r e s i d u a l
S u b - l e x e m i c morphemes a r e
e.g ,
' no m inalization'
I f a morpheme i s r e p r e s e n t e d by, more t h a n o n e a l l o m o r p h , t h e

, most f r e q u e n t o r b a s i c a llo m o rp h i s u s e d t o d e s i g n a t e th e
morp heme,
a nd i s p r e c e d e d b y t h e morpheme s y m b o l .
Other
allom orphs a re l i s t e d in o rd e r o f freq u e n cy .
69
3.21 P r e f ix e s
3.211 P r e f i x e s o f shape
j(3-J
' A l l p r e f i x e s o f s h a p e | C - | c o n s i s t o f one o f t h e c o n
sonants /p t c k s / ,
common.
a l t h o u g h / p - / i s by f a r t h e m ost
T h e s e same c o n s o n a n t s a l s o commonly o c c u r a s t h e
f i r s t member o f i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e s i n u n a n a l y z a b l e
lexem es, e .g .
/p teo h /
h o u s e
/tm ey/
t o be n e w
/ck ae/
dog*
/k b aa l/
h e a d 1
/sd ap /
to l i s t e n
l . ^ P - / 1 causation*
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s fro m i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :
/ d a c / to break ( i n t r . )
> /p d a c / to break ( t r a n s , )
/ d u o l / 1 t o f a l l over*
> / p d u e l / to f e l l
/ s a a y / *to s p re a d ( i n t r . ) > / p s a a y / t o s p r e a d
(tr.)
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/ c a a l / t o be e x h a u s t e d
> / p c a a l/ to exhaust
/ d o t / t o be s t u c k
> / p d o t/ to s tic k , p a s te
/ s a g / t o be t a m e
> / p s a g / to tam e
V/ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h v ow el a b l a u t : ^
/ l e a n / r u i n e d
> / p l a a n / to r u i n
1 . I n l i s t i n g d e r i v a t i o n a l a f f i x e s , t h e sy m b o l / - / w i l l be
u s e d t o show- t h e p o s i t i o n o f a f f i x e s r e l a t i v e t o b a s e s , r a t h e r
t h a n a s a phoneme o f j u n c t u r e .
2 , Vowel a b l a u t r u l e s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n 2 .I4..
70
D e r iv e s d e l a t e d t r a n s i t i v e v e rb from i n t r a n s i t i v e verbs
/ l i e / 'to
sin k
> / p l i c / 'to fo rg e t1
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f ro m b o u n d a d j e c t i v a l v e r b ba se*
/ ( t o - ) t e e / ' t o be f r e e ,
2 . \ / P /
empty'> / p t e e / ' t o
empty, u n l o a d '
's p e c ia liz a tio n '
D e r iv e s s p e c i f i c v e rb s from g e n e r a l v e r b s ;
/ t u k / !to put, p la c e '
/ r i o p / 't o prepare,
> / p t u k / 't o load
(a b o a t , e t c . ) '
arrange'
> /p r l a p / 't o compare, s e t alongside*

/d o l/'to
reach
> /p d o l/ 'to
fa c ilita te '
3 . \ / p - / 'v e rb a liz a tio n '

D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s from nouns;
/kuu/ 'a p a ir'
> /pkuu/
'to
p a ir
off'
/ c u o / ' a r o w ' > / p c u a / ' t o make i n t o a rotv, t o p l o w '

/daora/ 'o r i g i n '
> /pdaem / 't o begin, to o r i g in a te '
I+. v^p-/ ' nominalization'

/ l e e g / 'to play
( a game, m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t ,
e tc .'
> /p le e io / 's o n g , m u sical com position'

5. / p - /
'D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e fr o m p r e p o s i t i o n *
/d a o y / 'b y , w ith'
> / p d a o y / ' r i g h t aw ay 1
6. * /k -/ 's p e c ia liz a tio n '

D e r iv e s s p e c i f i c v e rb s from g e n e r a l verbs*
71
/ b o t / to tu rn ,
fo ld > /k b o t/ 'to
/ t o o t / 't o kick'
deceive, b e tr a y
> / k t o o t / ' t o th u m p , t o f l i c k '
/ t u p / ' t o o b s t r u c t , .'dam'
> / k t u p / 't o plug,
/ s a a n / ' t o be p e a c e f u l '
> / k s a a n / ' t o be c a l m , a t e a s e '
/c o o m / ' t o be b r u i s e d '
sto p up'
> /k c o o m / ' t o be u n c l e a r ,
blem ished'
7 \ / k - / 'n e g a tio n '
( o c c u r s o n l y v ;it h . t h e f o l l o w i n g b a s e ) :
/m een/ 't o have,
ex ist'
> /k m e o n / ' n o t h a v e , not. e x i s t '
8 , f / k - / 'c a u s a tio n '

D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from a d j e c t i v a l v erb s
W i t h b a s e a l l o m o r p h v o tê l a b l a u t :
/ r e a p / ' t o be l e v e l '
> /k ra a p / 'to le v e l, p ro stra te '
9 . \ / k - / 'n o m in a liz a tio n '

D e r iv e s noun from t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s
/ l e o / 'to
separate'
> / k l e o / 's p a c e ,
in te rv al'
10. i/k - /
D e r i v e s c o n c r e t e noun f r o m a b s t r a c t no un s
/ r i e g / 'a f f a ir ,
to p ic'
> /k rio ig / 'th in g , u te n s il'
11, \ / s - / 's p e c ia liz a tio n '

D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s fr o m g e n e r a l t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :
/ k a t / 'to c u t'
/d o h / 'to
free,
> / s k a t / 'to o b stru ct,

loose'
> /sd o h / 'to
cut o ff passage'
ex p ecto rate
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h vowel a b l a u t :

/ r u n / ' t o push'
> / s r o n / ' t o knock f l a t '
72
12.
s / ' a t t r i b u t i o n 1
D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b from t r a n s i t i v e v e rb :
W i t h b a s e a l l o m o r p h v ow e l a b l a u t :
/ l i p / 't o low er,
duck' > / s l o p / 'l o w e r e d , low'
1 3 . \ A / ' s p e c i a l i s a t i o n '
D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f ro m g e n e r a l t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :
/k a s n / 'to
ex ten d '
> /ck aan / 'to
s t r e t c h over a skewer'
/reo w / 't o
s e a r c h for* > / c r e o w / ' t o f e e l a ro u n d f o r '
111. \ / c - / ' c a u s a t i o n '

D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
/ m u u l / ' t o be ro u n d ' >
/ c m o o l / ' t o make i n t o a b a l l '
15>. \ / t - / ' c a u s a t i o n '

D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
/ b i o t / 'c lo s e to g e th e r'
> / t b i s t / 't o pinch'
16. \ / t - / 'a t t r i b u t i o n '

D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e f r o m t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/ b o t / 'to clo se'
3.212
> / t b o t ( - t b i o t ) / 'p a rs im o n io u s '
P r e f i x e s o f sh ap e JCV-1
3.2121 R e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x e s
R e d u p li c a t iv e p r e f i x e s a re p r e f i x e s o f shape
where
|C ~ | i s a ' p r e d u p l i c a t i o n * '
|CV-*|
o f the i n i t i a l consonant
of bases w ith i n i t i a l / p t c k s b d - m n n
13/ ,
or i t
is
73
/l
~ r ~ q / before bases w ith i n i t i a l / l / .
I-V-J i s
/ o ~ / o r / o - /.*"
1. >/C o-/ r e p e t i t i v e o r c o n tin u o u s a c t i o n
/k a a y / to d ig
> / k o k a a y / t o d i g a r o u n d , s c r a t c h about*
/lceh/ to
p ic k > /k o k e h / to p ick a t,
scratch1
/ c e k / to
p e c k > / c o c e k / to pock a t re p e a te d ly *
/d o h / to
rub*
> / d o d o h / to ru b back and f o r t h
Allomorph / G o - / t
/ n u e q / *to n o d
> / n o n u a q / t o bob u p a n d down
/ t e e h / t o ' s l a p > / t o t e o h / to f l a p th e w ings

/ th e o q / to k ic k > / to th e o q / to k ick r e p e a te d ly
/lu o fl/ to com fort > /lo lu o ij/ to f l a t t e r ,
cajo l
Some l e x e m e s h a v e r e p e t i t i v e o r d i s t r i b u t i v e m e a n i n g , b u t
t h e i r u n d e r l y i n g forms n e v e r o c cu r w i t h o u t a r e d u p l i c a t i v e
prefix?
Verb's a nd a d j e c t i v e s :
/k o k e e / to n ib b le
(as a m ouse)
/b o b u e l/ to agree, to c a j o l
/k o k a e -k o k o o / b a b b lin g
/ c o c a q - c o c o c / w h e e d lin g
Allomorph / C o - / :
/to to / to trem b le
/m om li/ to f l u t t e r
(of th e e y e l i d s )
/lo lesm / flash in g

1 , Morphophonemic a l t e r n a t i o n i n r e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x e s i s
d e s c r i b e d i n 2 ,l(-3 2 1 .
71+
Nouns*
/b o b e e / 'th e l ip s '
/k o k o o / 's e d im e n t'
Allomorph / C o - / :
/ r t o n o / 'h a m m e r '
2 , a/C o- / ' i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n '

/b ao h / 'to
sw e e p ' > / b o b a o h / ( / p e b a o h / }
d ilig en tly ,
'to
sw eep
to r a i s e a d u s t'
/to oQ -taaJo/ 'w it h a lo u d c l a t t e r i n g n o is e '

> / t o t o o g - t o t a a g / ' w i t h an e x t r e m e l y l o u d c l a t t e r '
/k w e e h -k w a a h / ' awkwardly'
> /kokw eeh-kokw aah/ 'd e s p e r a t e l y , h e e d l e s s l y '
A llomorph / C o - / :
/ p l e o m / ' t o be h a p p y ' > / p o p l e o m / ' t o
be d e l i g h t e d '
/ k r o o r a / ' t o be r o u g h '
i
> /k o k r e e m / ' t o be v e ry ro u g h and u n ev en '

/Q iih-JO aah/ 'u n d i s c i p l i n e d '
> /Q O Q iih -Q O Q aa h / ' v e r y l o u d a n d b o i s t e r o u s '
3. /C o -/ ' r e p e t i t i o n
an d i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n '
When a r e d u p l i c a t i v e p r e f i x o c c u r s w i t h an u n d e r l y i n g
f o rm w h i c h a l r e a d y h a s r e p e t i t i v e o r c o n t i n u a t i v e m e a n i n g ,
it is
a p o r t m a n t e a u morpheme w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e m e a n i n g s
o f morphemes 1 a n d 2 a b o v e .
/ k a e k - k a o k / ' t h e sound o f a r g u i n g b a ck and f o r t h
> /ko k aek -k o k ao k / 'a rg u in g v i o l e n t l y together*
1$
/ p l s k - p l o q / s o u n d o f waves l a p p i n g
> / p o p l o k - p o p l o q / s o u n d o f waves l a p p i n g v i g o r o u s l y 1
/p le h - p lo h / 'c o n s ta n tly te a s in g 1
> / p o p l e h - p o p l o h / ' c o n s t a n t l y t e a s i n g and an n o y in g '
Allom orph ./C o - /:
/
qi h - Q u h /
' t o whimper'
> / iQ o Q ih -Q o g uh / ' t o w h i n e p i t e o u s l y '

/kr& ra-krim / 'b u z z in g sound
> / k o k r i m - k o k r i m / ' l o u d b u z iz in g s o u n d '
/m aok-m ook/ 's lo w ly '
> /momeok-momook/ ' v e r y s l o w l y an d s l u g g i s h l y '
I4.. / C o ~ / ' a t t r i b u t i o n '
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e from c o n j u n c t i o n s
/ d a e l / ' t h a t w h i c h ' > / d o d a e l / ' t h e sam e'
D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v e from noun:
/d a a m / ' o r i g i n ' > /dodaara/ ' o r i g i n a l l y ,
at f i r s t '
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s o r a d j e c t i v a l v e r b 3 fr o m v e r b s :
A llom orph /C o - / :
/p e e n / 't o cross the le g s '
> /p o p een / 'c r is s - c r o s s e d '
/n o q / 't o
shake' > /n o n e o q / 's h a k in g ,
/ c r u l / 'to
exceed'
trem b lin g '
> / c o c r u l / 'h e e d le s s ly , b l a t a n t l y '
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b from n e g a t i v e p a r t i c l e s
/ t e e / ' 'n o , not a t a l l '
> / t o t e e / ' t o be f r e e ,
e m p ty '
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e f r o m no uns
/ c u e / 'ro w , l i n e '
> /co cu e/ 'in
a row, d r a g g in g a lo n g '
76
3.2122 H o n - r e d u p llc a tlv e p r e f i x e s o f shape
| CV-|
1 . /ro/ a tt r ib u t i o n 1
D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/ d o o q / to p u l l u p 1
> / r o d o o q / u p r o o t e d 1
/m u e l/ to t w i s t 1
> /ro m u o l/ tw is te d 1
/ l u o t / to e x tin g u ish 1 > / r o l u o t / ex tin g u ish ed 1

D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b from i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b ;
/ w u o l / to revolve*
> / r o w u e l / t o be b u s y 1
2 . a/p o -/ i n tr a n s i t iv e 1
D e r i v e s i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s f ro m t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/ b o o t / t o p u l l o f f 1 > / r o b o o t / t o come o f f 11
/ b a s k / t o o p e n 1 > / r o b a s k / - . 1to' move ( s p o n t a n e o u s l y ) 1
/b a o k / to t e a r 1 > /ro h a e k / to te a r
(spo n tan eo iisly ) 1
3 . \ / r o - / n o m i n a l i z a t i o n 1
D e r iv e s nouns from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/ba^)/ to h i d e 1
> /ro b a ij/ a shade, screen '
/m uu/ to r o l l u p 1
> /rom uu/ a r o l l ,
scro ll1
Ij.. The p r e f i x \ /m 9- /
T h is p r e f i x i s t h e m ost f r e q u e n t allom orph o f th e
morpheme \/mu9y ~ m a a - - m o - / o n e 1.
/ d o o ^ / tim e, o c c a s io n 1
> / m o d o o 33/
'o n c e 1
/y a a g / kind1
> /m ey aa^ / 'o n e k in d o f 1
/ n e o q / p e rs o n 1
> /m snesq/ 'a lo n e ,
one p e r s o n 1
* / - ph4y/^" t w e n t y
> /meph&y/ t w e n t y 1
Allomorph / r n a a - / ( d e l i b e r a t e , s p e e c h a l t e r n a n t )
*/-ph&y/ tw e n ty
> / m a a - p h i y / txyenty
Allomorph / m u o y - / ( a l s o o c c u rs a s a f r e e form )
\ / - p h i y / tw enty
> /rauey-ph& y/ tw e n ty '
5 . The p r e f i x j / n i - / ' d i s t r i b u t i v e m e a n i n g
D e riv e s a d j e c t i v e from nu m eral:
/m uoy/ one'
> /nim uoy/ ^ 'e a c h ,
every
> /nim usy-nirauoy/ th e v a rio u s '

3.213 P r e f ix e s o f shape
[C r V - l
In p r e f i x e s o f shape JC rV -j,
sonants /p t c k s / ,
and |- V - |
jC-jJ i s one o f t h e c o n
is /-o -/., or; r a r e ly ,/- o - /3 ,
each w ith r a p i d speech a l t e r n a n t /- V /.

i s b y f a r t h e m o st f r e q u e n t .
these p refix es is u n clear,
The p r e f i x / p r o - /
The g r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n ^ o f
a n d s e v e r a l p r e f i x e s may o c c u r
w i t h a g iv e n b a se w i t h s i m i l a r o r i d e n t i c a l meaning (see
section 3 .2 ).
| C r V - | i s a l s o a common u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e
shape in u n a n a ly z a b le lexem es:

/p ro d a p / ' in stru m en t
/ c r o m o h / n o s e
/ tr o c ie q / ear'
/ k r o b o y / w ater b u f f a l o '
/srom aoc/ 'a n t'
1 . T h i s morpheme d o e s n o t o c c u r a s a f r e e ' f o r m .
2 . T h i s i s p o s s i b l e a c o n t r a c t i o n o f -- / n e o q - m u o y / ' o n e p e r s o n
3 . Vowel a l t e r n a t i o n i n t h e s e p r e f i x e s i s d e s c r i b e d i n 2.1+322
78
1 , \ / p r o - / r e c i p r o c i t y *
/kham / to b i t e
> /p ro k h am / to b i t e each o t h e r
/ c e e ^ / ' t o push ah ead 1 > / p r o c e e d / ' t o r a c e ,

/c lu o h / 'to
argue'
com pete
> /p r o c l u o h / 't o squabble to g e th e r '
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h v o w e l a b l a u t ;
/le e fl/ 'to
play'
>
/p r o la e ^ / 't o play to g e th e r
/lo o g / 'to
try , te s t'> /p ro lo o g /
' t o compete
( i n an e x a m ) '
Allomorph / p r o - / ;
/ n i t / 't o bind t i g h t l y '
> / p r o r it / 'to
e n c i r c l e one
an o th er'
/ r u o t / 'to
squeeze' > / p r o r u o t/ 't o
embrace, g r a p p l e '
2 . i/p r o - / causatio n '

D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from a d j e c t i v a l verb s?
'
/ k o e / i n a>pile*
/ k o o p / 'w h o le '
. > /p ro k o e / to p i le u p
> / p r o k o o p / ' t o combine, b estow '
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h v o w e l a b l a u t ;
/m u u l/ 't o
be r o u n d ' '>
/prom ool/ 't o g a th e r to g e th e r'
D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from i n t r a s i t i v e
/k a o t/ 'to
be b o r n '
>
v erb s;-
/p ro k a s t/ 'to o rig in a te ,
set up
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h vowel a b l a u t ;

/m uc/ 't o d iv e'
> /p ro m o c / ' t o subm erge, p u t u n d e r '
79
D e riv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e rb from p r e p o s i t i o n :
/ d o o c / iVlilce'
> / p r o d o o c / t o compare*
D e r iv e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/ c h e h / to burn'
> /p rocheh/ 'to
ig n ite;
infuse'
D e r iv e s modal v e rb from a d j e c t i v a l ' v e rb :

W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h v o w e l a b l a u t :
/ n o o p / ' t o be q u i c k '
> / pronap/ 't o hurry t o '-
3. \ / p r o - / 'n o m in a liz a tio n '

D e r i v e s noun from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/c h e h / 't o burn'
/puon/ 'to
tie ,
> / p r o c h e h / ' a w ick,

attach '
> /p ro p u o n / 'w ife ,
l i g h t e r ^
companion'
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h v o w e l a b l a u t :
/y o o l/ 'to
sw ing back and f o r t h '
> /p r o y a o l/ 'a fob'
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t n o u n from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
/wee*)/ ' t o
be l o n g '
> /p ro w ee^/ 'le n g th '
\/p ro ~ / 's p e c ia liz a tio n '

D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from g e n e r a l t r a n s . v e r b s :
/ k a c / 't o break'
> /p ro k ac / 'to
/ k a n / 't o hold, b e lie v e '

/daw / 't o
a lter,
> /p ro k a n / 't o accuse, m ain tain '
im p r e s s , mark' > / p r o d a w / ' t o
1 . The f o r m s / p r o c h e h / ' t o
are do ub lets.
falsify '
ig n ite'
in stru ct,
teach'
and / p r o c h e h / ' l i g h t e r '
80
D e r i v e s s p e c i f i c nou n f r o m g e n e r a l n o u n :
/ p h e e t / 's e x ,
gender*
> / p r o p h e e t / kind, v ariety*
5 . \ / p r o - / v e rb a liz a tio n *
/y u t/
>/
b a ttle *
,vr-?. / 1 t o ; ,~nv;*
> / p r o y u t / *t o f i g h t *
6 . \ / p r o - / a t t r i b u t i o n *
/b a e k / to break
( i n t r . ) > / p r o b a e k / broken*
7. \ / s r o - / 'i n te n s if ic a tio n *
/flaw / ' t o
be s h i n y *
> / s r o q a w / ' t o be v e r y s h in y *
/ t u o n / ' t o be s o f t *
> / s r o t u a n / 'v e ry
s o f t and g e n tle *
/ q a p / ' t o be dim*
> / s r o q a p / ' t o be dim a n d u g l y *
8 . *v/sro-/ 's p e c i a l i z a t i o n *
/ l e a p / 't o ru b , paint*
/ m u u l / ' t o be round*
>
/ s r o l a a p / ' t o a p p ly m edicine*
> /s ro m o o l/ 'e n ta n g le d ,
tied up
9 . h / s r o - / v e r b a l i z a t i o n *
/ k a a q / 'l e a v i n g s , refuse*
> / s r o k a a q / ' t o be l i t t e r e d vtith r e f u s e *
10. \ / c r o - / 'c a u s a tio n *
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h v o w e l a b l a u t :
/ l e o h / 'b e y o n d *
> /c ro la e h / 'to v io la te ,
exceed*
Allomorph / c r o - / :
/ m u c / ' t o d iv e*
> / c r o r a u c / ' t o p u t u n d e r*
11. \ /c r o - / in te n s if ic a tio n 1
/ l t i n / ' t o be c o n f u s e d '
> /c r o lo m / 'd a z e d , confused'

/ m u u l / ' t o be r o u n d '
> /c r o m o o l/ 'in te rw o v e n ,
en tan gled
12. \ /c r o - / 'a t t r i b u t i o n '

Makes a d j e c t i v a l v e r b f r o m t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/q o o h / 't o drag'
> / c r o q o o h / ' t o be l a z y ,
sluggish'
\ /c r o ~ / 'v e rb a liz a tio n *

/ b a c / 'h a n d fu l'
> /cro b ac/
't o grasp,
squeeze'
llj.. \ / k r o - / ' c a u s a t i o n '

/ p u l / ' t o be p o i s o n o u s *
> /k ro p u l/ 'to
poison*
15. \ /k r o - / 'in te n s if ic a tio n '

/ w i a c / ' t o be c r o o k e d
> / k r o w i o c / ' t w i s t e d and
deform ed'
1 6 .\ /k r o - / 'v e rb a liz a tio n '
W ith b a se a llo m o rp h vowel a b l a u t :
/w uoij/ ' c i r c l e '
> /krow o^/
' t o be c i r c u l a r '
17. \ / t r o - / 's p e c ia liz a tio n '

/b a s e / 'to
scatter'
> /tro b a a c / 'to
crum ble in th e
fin g ers'
82
3 . 21U- P r e f i x e s o f s h a p e
|CVN-|
In p r e f i x e s o f shape
JCVN-J,
consonants / b d p t c k q s r
speech a lte r n a n t / /) , /u / ,
which i s
l/,
jC~J i s o n e o f t h e
|-V -|
or /u /,
is / o /
and |-N -j
( ~ rap id
is a nasal
i n v a r i a n t i n some morphemes a n d w h i c h ,
m o rph em es, r e p r e s e n t s c o n d i t i o n e d a l t e r n a n t s .
in other
By f a r t h e
m o s t common morpheme o f t h i s s h a p e i s t h e morpheme / b o N - /

causation*.
|CVN-| a l s o o c c u r s a s a n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e
i n u n a n a l y z a b l e morphemes, e . g . *
/ b o g q u o c / 'window*
/ t u m p e / t o c h ew '
/ d o r a l o o ip / ' p o t a t o '
/ t u en3.ee/ ' r i v e r
/c oqkaa/ ' c h in '
/k u e n lo o g / 'fu rro w '
/so n d a e k / 'b e a n s
/cunce3o/ 'w a ll'
1. -/boN-/2
D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s from ' i n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s*
*
/b a e k / ' to break'
> /bom baek/ ' t o cau se t o b re a k '
/d a / ' t o w alk'
> / b o n d a / ' t o w a l k (a d o g , e t c . ) '
/c o n / 'to leav e1
> /boneon/ 't o
/ k a o t / 'b e born'
> /bo$ka t/ 't o o r i g i n a t e '
send o u t,
ex p el1
V7ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h v o w e l a b l a u t *
/w & l/ ' t o r o ta te *
> /b otQ w o l/ ' t o
cause to r o t a t e 1
1 . The a l t e r n a t i o n o f | - N - 1 i s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 . 3 .
2 . Vowel a l t e r n a t i o n i n morphemes o f t h i s s h a p e i s d e s
c r i b e d i n 2 ,i|.3 2 3 ,
Allom orph / p u s N - / ; ^
/ y u o l / ' to u n d erstan d > /p u o ny uo l/ 't o ex p lain '
/lie /
'to
sin k 1
/ r i i k / ' t o bloom'
> /p u s n lic / 'to
overthrow '
> / p u o g r i i k / ' t o expand,
increase
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s fro m a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/p in /
'to
be f u l l ' > / b o m p i n /
'to f i l l '
/turn/
'to
be r i p e 1 > / b o n t u m /
't o ripen
/rig /
'to
beh a r d ' > / b o g r i g /
't o harden
/q o o /
'to
be h a p p y ' > / b o g q o o /
't o cheer'
(tr.)'
( t r . )'
D e r iv e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :
/b a e / 'to
turn*
> /bom bae/ 't o cause to t u r n '
/ t o o / ' t o c o n tin u e > / b o n t o o / ' t o causo to c o n tin u e '

/c o o l/ 'to
en ter'
> /b o n c o o l/ 't o cause to e n te r; p u t in '
/ r i s n / 't o study'
> /b o g rio n / 'to
/ h a t / 'to p ra c tic e '
> /b o g h at/ 'to
teach'
train ,
to d r i l l '
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t chango:

/ f e k / 'to p ra c tic e '
> /bogw ok/ ' t o t r a i n ,
to d r i l l '
D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from p r e p o s i t i o n s :
/ d a o y / ' b e means o f
> /bondaoy/ 't o
fa c ilita te '
Allomorph /p u o N -/:
/ l o o h / 'b ey o n d '
> /p u onlooh/ 't o
exaggerate'
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f ro m a d j e c t i v e ;
/h a o y / 'a lre a d y '
> /b o g h ao y / 't o f i n i s h , com plete'
1 . The a l t e r n a t i o n / b - / > / p - / i s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e v o w e l
a l t e r n a t i o n , s i n c e / b - / n e v e r o c c u r s b e f o r e / - u s - / ( s e e 2 . 2.
f o r o t h e r exam ples o f t h i s k in d o f a l t e r n a t i o n ) .
2 . j / b o N - / *n o m i n a l ! z a t i o n *
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e o b j e c t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e verb *
/ p e e q / t o w e ar above t h e w a i s t
> / b o m p e o q / g a r m e n t s worn a b o v e t h e w a i s t
/tu k /
' t o p la c e , p u t' > /b o n tu k / 'c a rg o , lo a d '
/k an /
'to hold
> /b o ^ k a n / 'r a i l i n g , handle'
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h v owel a b l a u t :
/ w i c / ' t o vrrap'
> /b o g w e c / 'p a c k a g e , p a r c e l '
3 . \/boN -/ 's p e c i a l i z a t i o n '

D e riv e s s p e c i f i c t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s from g e n e r a l t r a n s .
/k o o / 'to b u ild ,
estab lish '
> /bojQ koo/ ' t o
verbs
in stig ate,
ag itate 1
/k at/
't o cu t'
>/ b o Q k a t / ' t o c r e a t e a h a l f - b r e e d '
/k ac /
't o break ( t r . ) > /b o q k a c / 't o a l t e r the t r u t h ,

*
to sla n d e r'
I4.. \ / s o N - / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '

D e r iv e s nouns from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s :
/booq/ 'to peel'
> /som booq/ 'p e e l , b ark'
/ k a t / 'to c u t'
> /s o q k a t/ 'd iv is io n ,
sector'
D e r i v e s n o u n s fro m a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/ s a o m / ' t o be w et'
> / s o n s a e m / 'dev:'

/weeia/ ' t o
be l o n g '
>
/so^w aeg/ 'le n g th '
85
5 . */soN -/ c a u s a tio n 1
D e r i v e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from, t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/ r u s n i / t o c o m b i n e > /s o i o r u o r u / ' t o c a u s e t o c o m b i n e '
/ruep-rusm / 't o
co llec t'
> / s o ^ r u o p - s o ^ r u e m / ' t o c a u s e t o combine'

D e riv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/som / 't o
come t o g e t h e r '
> /sonsom / 't o
save,
amass'
6 . n/soN -/ 'r e p e t i t i o n or i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n '

/k e n / 'to g rin d '
/k u e t/ 'to
> / s o g k s n / ' t o g r i n d o v e r and o v e r '
s h a r p e n ' > / s o ^ k u e t / ' t o w h e t o v e r and o v e r '
7. \ / s o N - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n *
/k o t/ 'to
f i x , n o t e down' > / s o c k e t / ' t o p u s h down,

b e a r down o n '
8 . iy /so N -/ ' v e r b a l i z a t i o n '

i
/k ru eh / 'f a te ,
chance'
> /so q k ru o h / 't o h elp ,
support'
9 . \/koN -/ 'n o m in a liz a tio n '

D e r i v a t i v e i s d e s c r i b e d by t h e b a s e :
/ d a a c / ' t o be t o r n ,
tattered '
> /k o n d aac/ 'r a g s ,

/ t u o q / ' t o be w r i n k l e d ,
t a t t e r e d garm ents'
sh attered '
> /k o n tu o q / 'r i c e bran,

/ c r i l / ' t o be b r i l l i a n t '
chaff'
> / k o n c r i l / 'b r i g h t ornam ents'
D e riv a tiv e is th e instrum ent of th e b a s e 'v e rb ;

/ t r o o 33/ ' t o
stra in ,
filte r'
> /k o n tro o q / 's tr a in e r '
86
10. \/k o N -/. ' a t t r i b u t i o n 1

W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h vow el a b l a u t :
/w u o l/ 't o revolve'
11.
> / k o g w o l / ' t o be i n v o lv e d , b u sy '
' caus at i on'

/ d e g / ' t o know' > / d o n d o g / ' t o
announce o n e s
in te n t io n o f m arrying a g i r l '
12. \/doN -/ 'v e r b a liz a tio n '
/daom / 'o r i g i n '
> /dondaem / ' t o
q u a rre l over, d isp u te
ow nership o f '
13* \ / d o N - / ' i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n '
/d am / ' t o cook'
> /dondam / 't o cook th o ro u g h ly '
III-, fy/rum -/ ' c a u s a t i o n '

D e r iv e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/ l e e p / ' t o sw allow '
> /rum leep/ 'to
cause to sw allow ,
to fo rce in'
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b *
/ k e l / ' t o move ( i n t r . ) '
> / r u m k e l / ' t o move ( t r . )
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f ro m a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
W ith l o s s o f / - r - / i n b a se a llo m o rp h ;^
/ c r i n / ' t o be b o r e d '
> / r u m c i n / ' t o b o re , annoy'
/ c r u e l / ' t o be e x c i t e d '
> /ru m cu el/ 't o
ex cite,
ag itate'
1, These a r e t h e o n ly exam ples o f t h i s k in d o f a l t e r n a t i o n

in th e d a ta .
87
1 5 . \/ruin-/ i n t r a n s i t i v e 1
D e riv e s i n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb from t r a n s i t i v e v e rb ;
/ l u s t / to tw is t
( tr . ) > /ru ralu et/ 'to
tw ist
(in tr.)'
1 6 . fy/rum-/ ' v e f c b a l i z a t i o n '

/ ^ e e k / '-to b e s l o w , s l u g g i s h '
> / r u m i Q s e k / ' t o be v e r y
s l o w and s l u g g i s h '
17. \/ru m -/ 'v e r b a l i s a t i o n '

/ l o o p / 'g re e d '
> /rum loop/ 't o usurp, plunder'
1 8 . \/ru N -/ 'n o m in a liz a tio n '

/w o e h / ' t o m easure l i n e a l l y *
> /rus^w doh/ 'l i n e a r

m easure'
/ w o o l / ' t o m e a s u r e t h e volu m e o f '

> /ruQQvrool/ ' a v o l u m e t r i c m e a su re '
1 9 . fy/rueN-/ ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
/ k ie q / 'to grasp,
clasp '
> /ruQ jQ kioq/ ' t o work back and f o r t h
(as a s t a k e
i n a h o l e )'
2 0 . /coJ\T- / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '
/ t u o l / 't o prop'
> /c o n tu s l/ ' a prop1
A llom orph / c u o n - / :
/ d a e / ' t o w alk'
> /cuonda / ' s t a i r s '
2 1 . */com -/ 'c a u s a t i o n '

D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s from a d j e c t i v a l v e rb s ?
/ t o s h / ' t o be opposed'
> /com tooh/ 't o
o b stru c t, prevent'
/ k a o n / ' t o be b e n t'
> /com kaon/ ' t o
stre tc h o n e se lf
2 2 . \/qoN ~/ n o m in a l i z a t i o n '
D e riv a tiv e i s th e in stru m en t o f the base verbj
/b'aoh./ / ' t o s w e e p '
> / q o m b a o h / ' a broom'
/ t e s q / 'to tra p '
> /q o n teo q / 'a tra p '
23. \/lum ~ / 'c a u s a tio n '

D e r i v e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f rom t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s
/ q a o n / ' t o bow'
> / l u m q a o n / ' t o c a u s e t o bow'
2 l|.. \ / l u m ~ / ' n o m i n a l i z a t i o n '

/now / 't o sta y , l i v e '
> /lum now / 'r e s i d e n c e ,
abode
25. \/so m -/ 'v e rb a liz a tio n '

/kaaq/ 'c h a f f
> /som kaaq/
' t o winnow, d u s t '
26, \/so m -/ 's p e c ia liz a tio n '

/ c o o t / ' t o p a r k , m o o r' > / s o m c o o t / ' t o s t o p a n d r e s t '
i
27 . \/dom -/ 'c a u s a tio n '

/ l a o ^ / 't o ascend'
> /dom laoq/
'to ra is e ,
e lev ate'
> /tu o n tim /
' t o be yoked t o g e t h e r
2 8 , \ / t u 9N - / ' a t t r i b u t i o n '
/ t i m / ' t o yoke'
3 . 2 1 5 The p r e f i x \/ q a a - / ' d e r o g a t i o n *
\ / q a a - / i s a bound p ro n o m in a l p r e f i x w i t h a d e r o g a t o r y
o r d i m i n u t iv e m eaning.
I t occurs p ro d u c tiv e ly w ith v erbs,
n o u n s, p ro n o u n s, d e m o n s t r a t i v e s , and a d j e c t i v e s ,
and i t s
d e r i v a t i v e s u s u a l l y o c c u r as d e r o g a t o r y t e r r a s o f a d d r e s s ,
89
a lth o u g h t h e y o c c a s i o n a l l y o c cu r as term s o f r e f e r e n c e .
W ith v e r b s :
/ t o o c / t o be
s m a ll * > / q a a - t o o c / l i t t l e
/ k m a w / t o be
black
>
one!, runtI*
/qaa-km aw / b la c k fe llo w '
W i t h no uns*
/c a o / t h i e f
> / q a a - c a o / 'you t h i e f 1'
/com kuet/ 'i d i o t '
> /q a a - c o m k u e t / 'y o u i d i o t ! '
W ith pronouns*
/ q a e g / ' y o u ' ( f a m i l i a r )' > / q a a - q a e g / 'y o u
(fam iliar,
in su ltin g )'
A ) a a / 'y o u
( t o s m a l l b o y s ) ' > / q a a - g a a / 'my l i t t l e
one'
W ith d e m o n s tr a ti v e s :
/n u h / 'th a t'
> /q aa-n u h / 't h a t
(dim inutive)
one'
/n ih / 'th is '
> /q a a -n ih / 'th is
(dim inu tive)
one'
W ith a d j e c t i v e s :
/ n a a / 'w h ic h '
> / q a a - n a a / 'w h ic h ( d im in u tiv e ) one?,

any ( d i m i n u t i v e ) o n e . '
3 . 2 1 6 The p r e f i x y/ p r e o h - / ' s a c r e d ,
esteem ed'
y /p reoh r/ i w i t h r a p i d s p e e c h a l l o m o r p h / p r - / ) i s a
b o u n d p r e f i x w h i c h o c c u r s b e f o r e a n y nou n whose r e f e r e n t i s
o f s a c r e d o r esteem ed n a t u r e ,
and b e f o r e any v e r b e x p r e s s i n g
a c t i o n p e rfo rm e d by a p e rs o n o f s a c r e d o r h i g h esteem .
N o u n s : / p u t / ' t h e B u d d h a > / p r e e h - p u t / t h e Buddha'

/ t q a y / 'th e
sun'
> / p r e o h - t f l a y / ' t h e su n ( w i t h
anthropom orphic c o n n o ta tio n ) '
/r e o c e o / 'k in g '
> /p r e a h - r e o c e o / 're v e re d king'
90
W ith v e r b s : .
/ s d a e : g / *t o show,
ex p lain1
> / p r e s h - s d a e f l / t o t e a c h ( o f t h e Buddha o r m onks)

/ t h a p / to sta y
(ro y alty )
> / p r e o h - t h a p / *to s t a y , l i v e ,
/r e e c c o te e n / to give
(ro y alty )'
resid e
(ro y alty )
> /p reo h -reo cco teo n / 'to present
(ro y alty )'
3,217 M iscellaneous p r e f i x e s
n
1,
~ q a ~ / 'n o n -, un- ' 1

/ p h i y / ' t o be a f r a i d '
> / q a q p h i y / ' t o be f e a r l e s s
/ m o n u h / ' a human'
> /q aq m o n u h / 'non-hum an,
/y u tto th o o / 'ju s tic e '
> /q ay u ttath o a/ 'in ju s tic e '
sp iritu a l'
2 , \ A i a q - / ' g e n e r i c p r e f i x f o r f r u i t s a n d wood p r o d u c t s
/ m a q - k l i o / 'e b o n y '
/ m a q - p r a a ) o / ' p l u m '
/rn aq -b aat/ 'a la rg e f r u i t of u n p leasa n t odor'
1 , O c c u r s o n l y i n w o r d s b o r r o w e d from S a n s k r i t o r P a l i .
2 , A p p a r e n t l y b o r r o w e d f r o m T h a i , s i n c e i t s u s e i s more
g e n e r a l i n T h a i , a n d s i n c e i t o c c u r s b e f o r e n ames o f f r u i t s
w h i c h a l s o o c c u r i n T h a i , b u t n o t b e f o r e w o r d s w h i c h do n o t
occur in T h a i, such as / i h o q / 'p a p a y a '.
91
3.22 I n f i x e s
3.221 I n f i x e s o f shape
|-C -|
S i n g l e - c o n s o n a n t i n f i x e s a r e o ne o f t h e c o n s o n a n t s
/n b m g l / ,
w i t h / - n - / b y f a r t h e m o s t common.
T h e s e same
c o n s o n a n t s a l s o commonly o c c u r a s C2 i n u n a n a l y z a b l e l e x e m e s j
/ s n a a / 'c ro ssb o w '
/tb o o x )/ 'h e a d '
/tm o o / 's to n e '
/ k Q a o k / 'goose'
/ k l a a / 'tiger'
1 . \ / - n - / 'n o m in a liz a tio n '

D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e I n s t r u m e n t o f t h e b a s e verb*
. /k e o p / 't o pinch'
> /k n eo p / 'p in c e rs '
/ t i m / to yoke'
> / t n * m / *a y o k e '
/ a i e t / 'to
> / s n i e t / ' a n i n s e r t , wed g e'
in sert'
W ith base allomorph /r-/ > / t o - / ? 1

/ro e h / 'to rake'
> /ro n o eh / 'a rake'
/ree fl/ 'to o b stru c t'
> /ro n eei]/ 'a screen'
/tro s p / 'to
> /tr o n o o p / 'a support, prop'
support'
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h / d - / > / t -/:**
/ d a o l / 't o pole a b o a t'
> / t n a o l / ' p o l e ( f o r a b o a t ) '
/ d o l/ 'to reach'
> / t n o l / ' r o a d , way'
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h / b - / > / p - / * ^
/b o o l/ 'to
fo recast'
> / p n o o l / ' a n omen'
1. T his k in d o f a l t e r n a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d in 2 . 2 .
92
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e b a s e verb*
/ c u e t / t o make i n t o a t u r b a n , w e a r a t u r b a n
> /c h u e t/ ' a tu rb an
/k u e c / to kn o t
> /k n u e c / a knot'
/ p e e n / to fo ld the leg s In d ia n -fa sh io n '

> /p n ee n / 'th e folded le g s'
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h / b - / > / p - / *
/ b a e k / t o break*
> /p n a e k / 'fra g m e n t,
section'
/ b u e $ / ' t o wear a c h ig n o n ' > / p n u a g / ' a c h ig n o n '

W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h / d - / > / t - / :
/d o o / 'to trad e'
> / t n o o / 'w h at i s t r a d e d ,
trade; p ric e
/ d a q / 't o put, p la c e 1
> /tn a q / 'c la s s ,
placem ent*
/ d o q / 'm ak e a p o c k e t *
> / t n o q / ' a pocket*
D e r i v a t iv e i s a s e m a n t ic a ll y r e l a t e d noun:
i
/ k a e t / 'b e born, a r i s e '
> / k n a e t / ' p e r i o d o f w a x i n g moon*
/cam / 't o w ait'
> /cnam / 'a y e a r
/te o q / 'a tra p ,
snare'
> / t n e e q / ' a decoy*
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h / d - / > / t - / s

/ d a m / *to p la n t* > / t n a m / ' a
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h / r - / >
plant, herb, m edicine
/ r o -/*
/ r o o c / ' t o wane ( o f t h e m o o n ) '

> / r o n o o c / ' p e r i o d o f t h e w a n i n g moon'
2 . \ / - b - / 'n o m in a liz a tio n '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e verb*
/ l i e n / ' t o be f a s t '
> / l b i e n / 's p e e d '
93
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h vowel a b la u t*
/le e g / 'to
play*
> / l b a e g / 'game*
/lu e q / 'to
s l e e p 1'
> / l b o q / *a nap*
W ith b a se a llo m o rp h / r . - / > / r o - /*

/r io n / 'to
learn '
> / r o b i e n / 'k n o w led g e, a b i l i t y '
/ r ie p / 'to
arrange'
> / r o b i o p / ' o r d e r , method*
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h / r - / > / r o - / p l u s vowel a b l a u t *

/ r o o m / ' t o dance*
> /ro b am / a dance'
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e in s t r u m e n t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e b a s e verb*
W i t h b a s e a l l o m o r p h vo w e l a b l a u t ,
/lo k / 't o c h is e l'
and / - k / > / - q / * ^
> /lb o o q / 'a c h is e l'
3 \ / - b - / ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n '
Verb*
(With b a s e a llo m o rp h vowel a b l a u t )

/ I 0 G13/
Noun*
'to
try ,
te st'
> / l b o o g / 'a n experim ent'
(W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h v o w e l a b l a u t )
/ l e e k / 'tim e ,
occasion'
> / l b a e k / 'xghat c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d i n o n e a t t e m p t ?
1+.
-m~/ ' n o m in a liz a tio n *
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e human a g e n t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e v e r b *
/soora/ ' t o beg'
> / s m o o m / 'b e g g a r *
/lu e c / 'to
> /lrau o c/ ' t h i e f '
steal'
VJith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / d - / > / t - / *
/ d a e / ' t o walk'
> /tm a e / 'p e d e s tria n '
5 * \/-m -/ 'a ttr ib u tio n '

D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e f r o m t r a n s i t i v e v e rb *
1 . The a l t e r n a t i o n / - k / > / - q / i s a u t o m a t i c i n t h i s
ment) see 1 . 1 2 5 .
en viron
9b
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h l o s s o f / - h - / i
/ c h o q / to s n a t c h 1
> /craoq/ s t e a l t h i l y ,
by s n a t c h i n g
D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v a l v e rb from noun:
/ l o o p / g ree d
6 * \Z**m/
> / l m o o p / t o be g r e e d y '
cau satio n
D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from p r e p o s i t i o n :
/ l a s h / beyond
> /lm e e h / to exceed,
v io la te
7 . \ / 3Q/ n o m i n a l ! z a t i o n '
D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e o b j e c t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e v e rb *
/ s a o y / to e at
(ro y al)
> / s g a o y / r o y a l f o o d
8. ^ / - l - / s p e c ia liz a tio n
D e r iv e s r e l a t e d t r a n s i t i v e v e rb from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b :
/lciaq / to grasp'
> / k l i e q / ' t o g r a s p and t w i s t
3 . 2 2 2 The i n f i x \ / - r o - /
The i n f i x / - r o - / o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h an i n i t i a l c o n
s o n a n t s e q u e n c e whose i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t i s / s - / .
I t s prim ary
f u n c t i o n seem s t o be s t y l i s t i c v a r i a t i o n o r i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n ,
/s d s y / 'to
speak;
inform > /s r o d e y / i d , (e le g a n t)
/ s l p / ' t o b e low*
> /sro le p / 'id .'
/sm aan/ 'i r r e g u l a r '
> /srom aan/ 'i n g rea t d is o rd e r
/sm oy/ 't o
> /srom oy/ 't o
frown'
3.223 I n f i x e s o f shape
|- V N - |
In i n f i x e s o f shape
described in
described in 2 .3 ).
scowl d a r k l y '
J-V N -|,
1- V - j
i s / o / o r / u e / (as
a n d | IIj i s a h o m o r g a n i c n a s a l
The p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f |-VNJ i s
n om inalization.
(as
1 . \/- o N - / 'n o m in a liz a tio n '

D e r i v a t i v e i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e v e rb *
/ s h o t / 't o sw ear
> /so m b o t/ 'a n o a th 1
/s d a p / to understand1
> /s o n d a p / 'u n d e rs ta n d in g ,
con v entio n'
/ k c o p / ' t o wrap'
/c h a n / 'to eat
> /koncop/ 'p a r c e l'
(of p r i e s t s ) > / c o $ i a n / ' p r i e s t s '
food'
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h / t - / > / d - / : ^

/ t b a a n / ' t o weave'
> /dom baan/ 'w eav in g '
/tw aay / 'to p resen t'
> /do^w aay/ ' g i f t
(eleg an t)'
D e riv a tiv e i s th e in stru m en t o f th e a c tio n o f th e base verb:

/ s t u u c / 't o f i s h w ith a hook' > / s o n t u u c / 'fis h -h o o k '
/k la h / 'to
sew'
/c h a a y / 'to spread'
> /k o n la h / 'n e e d le '

> /coQ haay/ 'a h a y -fo rk '
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h / t - / > / d - / i

/ t b i o t / ' t o ; pinch'
> /dom b io t/ 'p in c e r'
/ t p u e q / 't o hook'
> /dom pueq/ ' a hook'
D e r i v a t i v e i s a noun d e s c r i b e d by t h e b a s e :
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h / p - / > / b - / : ^
/p q a e m / ' t o be sw ee t'
> /bo^qaem / 's w e e ts '
D e r i v e s r e l a t e d n o u n f rom a d j e c t i v e :
/ c h a l / 'q u ic k ly '
> /c o ^ h a l/ 'a fan'
D e r i v e s a n u m e r a l f r o m an a d j e c t i v e :
/ k l a h / 'som e'
> /k o n lah / 'h a lf '
1 , T his k in d o f a l t e r n a t i o n i s d e s c r ib e d in s e c t i o n 2 ,2 .
96
D e r iv e s a b s t r a c t noun from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
Allom orph /-uqN - / j
/ p l i i / t o be l i g h t *
> / p u e n l i i / lig h t*
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t noun f r o m modal v e r b :
A l l o m o r p h /-uqN-/;
/ t l o e p / ' t o be a c c u s t o m e d t o > / t u e n l o e p / c u s t o m
2. v '-o N -/
D e r i v a t i v e i s a s e m a n t i c a l l y r e l a t e d noun:
/slo k /
l e a f
(of t r e e } > / s o n l e k / l e a f ,
sheet
(paper)
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h / p ~ / > / b - / :
/p la e / f r u i t
> /b o n la e / v e g e ta b le
3. \/~ oN -/ c a u s a tio n
D e r iv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e rb from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b :
W ith b a s e a l l o m o r p h / p - / > / b - / ;
r
/ p q a o l / t o be f r i g h t e n e d > / b o g q a o l / t o . f r i g h t e n ,
sta rtle
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f ro m i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b ;
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h / p - / > / b - / j
/ p r a a h / to g e t f r e e > /b o ^ r a a h / to f r e e
Ij.. \ / ~ o N - / a t t r i b u t i o n
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s fro m t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ;
/sbaom / to adm ire
> /som baem/ a w fu l,
im p ressiv e
97
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h / p - / > / b - / i
/ p t o s p / to a rra n g e in succession*
> / b o n t o e p / t o be i n s u c c e s s i o n *
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s f rom a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/ c b o o g / *t o be t h e e l d e s t *
> / c o m b o o r ) / m o s t ,
ex trem ely
D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v e from noun:
W ith b a se allo m o rp h / t - / > / d - / :
/ t b o o g / h e a d
> / d o m b o o tq/
f ir s t
S. \ / - o N - /
D e r iv e s p r e p o s i t i o n from a d j e c t i v e :
/cp u o h / d i r e c tl y
3*22lj. I n f i x e s o f s h a p e
> /com pueh/ e s p e c i a l l y f o r

| -V m -}
j-V m -|,
JVJ
is / - o - / or / - u - /
( a s d e s c r i b e d i n ; 2 J 4.3 2 I1 ) , . w i t h r a p i d s p e e c h a l t e r n a n t / - - / ,
an d / - i n - / i s
in v arian t.
The p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f |-V m -j i s
cau satio n .
1.
cau satio n
D e r i v e s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/k saan /
t o be p e a c e f u l
> /kom saan/ to appease,
calm '
/sq a at/
t o be c l e a n '
> /so m q aat/ 'to c le a n
/sd aeq /
t o be c l e a r
> /som daeQ / to e x p la in ,
/sru o l/
' to be e a s y
> /so m ru o l/ to f a c i l i t a t e
c la rify
W ith b a se a llo m o rp h / t ~ / > / d - /

/ t k a o g / i l l u s t r i o u s , h i g h > /dom kaeq/ 't o
/ t l o h / t o be f a l l e n '
elev ate'
> / d o m l o h / t o demote, r u i n
98
Allom orph / - u m - / *
n
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h /ro**/ > / r - /

/ro d o h / 'f re e d '
/ r o l i i i o / ' t o be
> /rum doh/ 't o

shiny'
free,
exem pt'
> /ru m liiio / 't o p o lis h ,
shine*
D e riv e s t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s from i n t r a n s i t i v e v erb s?

/ k c a t/ 'to
/slap/
separate,
leave'
'to die'
/ s r a a q / 't o abate'
> / k o m c a t / ' t o dism iss*
> /soralap/ 'to kill'
> /som raaq/ 't o r e s t , reg e n era te
( t r , )'
.Allom orph /-run-/*

/ tle o q / 'to f a l l '
>
/ t l e o y / ' t o g i v e way'
/c r e e p / 'to lea rn '
/tu m leeq / 'to f e l l ,
overthrow*
> /tu m le s y / 't o break through'

> /c u m re e p / 't o inform '
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h / r o - / > / r - / t

/r o lu e h / 't o decrease'
/ r o le e y / 't o m elt'
> /..- u m l u o h / ' t o d e c r e a s e

>
/ru m le e y / 't o m elt
( t r . )'
(tr.)1
D e r i v e s c a u s a t i v e t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s from t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s ?
/k la a c / 'to
/ c I ooq /
fear, resp ect'
'to cro ss'
> /kom laac/ 't o
frig h ten '
> /c o m lo o ^ / ' t o p u t or ta k e across*
A llom orph /-u m -/*

W ith b a se a llo m o rp h / r o - / > / r - / *
/ r o l i k / ' t o rom craber'
> /rum l& k/ ' t o
rem ind,
c omm em or ate'
1.
T his a l t e r n a t i o n i s d e s c rib e d in 2 .2 .
99
D e r iv e s r e l a t e d t r a n s i t i v e v e rb from a d j e c t i v a l v erb s
/ k h a e f l / t o be a r r o g a n t 1 > /k o m h a e ^ / ' t o f r i g h t e n '
2,
' der ogat i on*
D e r iv e s d e r o g a t o r y a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s from a d j e c t i v a l verbs*
/s k o o q / 'b e
s tu n te d ' > /som kooq/
'rid ic u lo u s ly stu n ted '
/s k o e m / 'b e
s l e n d e r ' > /somkoora/
'r id ic u lo u s ly sle n d er'
/ s n a a n / 'b e
open'
> /so m n aan / 's c o w lin g , g a p in g '
The a b o v e b a s e s h a v e
a non-em otional or m a t t e r - o f - f a c t
c o n n o ta tio n , w h ile th e d e r i v a ti v e s have a c o n n o ta tio n o f

disapproval or scorn.
The d i f f e r e n c e c a n be i l l u s t r a t e d by
a f r e e t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s*
/ k e e skoem n a h j . / ' H e ' s q u i t e s l e n d e r , '
/ k e e somkoem n a h ! . / ' H e ' s p u n y . '
/k e e c k u o tI . / 'H e 's m e n ta lly i l l . '
/k e e com kuoti-./ 'H e 's
' ' n u t t y as a f r u i t - c a k e 1' . '
3 . %/-om-/ ' s p e c i a l i z a t i o n *
Verb* / c l o o tq /
A ux iliary :
'to
cross'
(w ith base allom orph / p - / > / b - / )
/ p r o q / ' t o p r e p a r e to*
Noun:
> /com looy/ 't o copy
> /bo m vo q / 'd e te rm in e d t o '
(allom orph /- u m - /)
/k r u u / 'te a c h e r '
> /k u m r u u / 'e x a m p le , m odel'
I4.. \ / - o m - / ' v e r b a l i z a t i o n '

/ k r o t / 'la w '
> /k o m ro t/ 't o
stip u la te'
Allomorph /- u m - / *
/k ru o h / 'f a te '
> /kum rueh/ 'i n a u s p i c i o u s ,
im proper'
100
$i a /-o ra -/
,
D e riv e s a d j e c t i v e s from a d j e c t i v a l v e rb s :
/ k l a a / ' t o be b r a v e > / k o m l a a / w i t h p r e t e n d e d b r a v e r y
W ith b a se a llo m o rp h / t - / > / d - / *
/ t r o g / ' t o be s t r a i g h t '
6.
> /dom rog/ d i r e c t l y
om -/
D e r i v e s m o d a l v e r b f r o m a d j e c t i v a l v e rb *
/ k r o o / ' t o be p o o r
> / k o m r o o / ' t o be p o o r a t '
7. y ^ o m -/
D e r i v e s i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b f ro m a d j e c t i v e *
/ s l o ^ / 'fix e d ly ,
3,225 I n f ix e s o f shape
s te r n ly > /so m leg / 't o
stare,
frown*
| - Vm(n) - |
In I n f i x e s o f shape
( a s d e s c r i b e d i n 2 , lj.326),
|-V m (n } -|,
j V( i s / - o - / o r / - u ~ /
J-Vra-j o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h an
i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e , a n d J-Vmn-j o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h
i
a single i n it i a l .
The p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f | - V m ( n ) - i i s
norainalization.
1 , </-om -/ 'n o m i n a l iz a ti o n '
D e riv a tiv e is th e r e s u l t o f the a c tio n o f
/k ret/
'to
t h e b a s e verb*
n o tc h , mark
> /k o m ret/
'a n o tch , m ark1
/sd e y / 'to
speak, t e l l '
> /som dey/ 's p e e c h '
/s lo o / 'to
make a s t e w '
> / s o m l o o / *a s t e w '
/c la s y / 'to
answ er
> /c o m la o y / 'a n answer'
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / *
/tra p /
'to
Im itate
> /d o m ra p / ' i m i t a t i o n , m odel'
I
101
Allom orph / - u m - / ;
/c n e e h / to d e fe a t'
> /cum neah/ 'v i c t o r y '
/ c r a a h / to choose'
> /cu m reeh / 'c h o ic e '
/c lu e h / 'to
> /com lueh/ 'a q u a rr e l'
quarrel'
W ith a llo m o rp h / - o m n - / s
/ d e g / ' t o know'
> /dom nog/ 'i n f o r m a t i o n '
/dam / 't o p la n t'
> /d o m n a ra/ ' a p l a n t '
/ k a t / 't o cu t'
> /kom nat/ 'a cut p ie c e '
/ k o t / 'to note,
fix '
> /k o m n o t/ 'a p p o in tm e n t'
/co o g / 'to t i e '
> /com noofl/ ' k n o t '
/s a a c / 'to
> /som naec/ 'l a u g h te r '
laugh'
/ s u e / ' to ask'
> /som nue/ 'a q u e stio n '
/q a o y / 't o give'
> /qom naoy/ ' a g i f t '
W ith b a s e a llo m o rp h / t - / > / d - / *

/to o / 'to
extend'
/ta e g / 'to e sta b lish '
> /dom noo/ 'e x t e n s i o n '

> / d o m n a e ig / ' p o s i t i o n '
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h / p - / > / b - / :
/ p o o $ / ' t o hope t o '
> /bom noo^/ 'h o p e ,
in ten tio n '
Allomorph / - u m n - / :
/ t i n / ' t o buy'
> /tu m n in / 'm erch an d ise'
/cu m / to m eet
> /cu ra n um / ' m e e t i n g '
/ k i t / ' to th in k '
/ c i e / 'to b e liev e
> /c u m n is / 'b e lie f *
102
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t n o u n s f ro m a d j e c t i v a l verbs.*
/kdaw / 't o
be h o t 1
> /komdaw/ 'h e a t*
/kheij/ 't o
beangry '
> /koraha io/ ' a n g e r '
/ c g a a y / ' t o be f a r '
> /com âay/ 'd i s t a n c e '
/c ra e n / 'to
> /com raon/ 'i n c r e a s e ,
be much'
success'
W ith b a s e allo m o rp h / t - / > / d - / j

/ t l a y / ' t o be e x p e n s i v e '
/ t r e e k / ' t o be h a p p y '
> /dom lay/ 'v a lu e '

> /dom reek/ 'h a p p in e ss '
Allom orph /r-um -/:

/ t Q u e n / ' t o b e heavy'.
> /tu m tQ ue n / ' w e i g h t '
/cro w / 'to
be d e e p '
> /cum row / 'd e p t h '
/lq o o / 'to
be p r e t t y '
> /lum qoo/ 'b e a u ty '
W ith a llo m o rp h / - o m n - / j
/ q o o / ' t o be h a p p y '
> /qom noo/ 'h a p p in e s s '
/ s a e m / ' t o be w e t'
>
/som naam / 'm o istu re *
Allomorph /-u m n -/*

/ k u e / ' t o be p r o p e r '
D eriv ativ e is the agent of
/s q a a g / 'to
dress,
> /kum nue/ 'p r o p r i e t y '

the a c tio n of the verb:
decorate*
> /so m q a a g / 'o rn a m e n t, d e c o r a t i o n '
W it h b a s e a l l o m o r p h / t - / > / d - / :
/tr o o $ / 'to f i l t e r '
/tru st/
'to
in sp ect,
> /dom roog/ 'a f i l t e r

co n tro l'
> /do m ru at/ 'p o l i c e ' 1
103
Allomorph / - o m n - / :
/ s a t / to f l o a t 1
> /som nat/. d riftw o o d
Allomorph /-u m n -/*

/ t u p / to b lo c k
> / t u m n u p / o b s t r u c t i o n , dam'
/ t i m / to jo in '
> / t u r n n i i a / ' ad j u n c t
/cu o h / 'to re p la c e
> /cum nush/ 're p la c e m e n t'
D e r i v a t i v e i s a no u n d e s c r i b e d b y t h e b a s e *
/ l c t e c / ' t o be s h a t t e r e d '
. /sq o y / ' v ile-sraellin g '
> /k o m te c/ 's h r e d s '

> /som qoy/ 'r e f u s e , g a rb a g e
/ t e o p / ' t o be f l a t ,
lev el'
> /tum neop/ 'l e v e l p la c e '
D e r i v a t i v e i s a p e r s o n d e s c r i b e d by t h e b a s e :
/ k h o o e / ' t o be w ic k ed '
> /kom hooc/ 'w ick ed p e rs o n '
/ k c & l / ' t o be l a z y 1
> /kom c& l/ ' l a z y p erso n '
/ c k u o t / ' t o be c r a z y '
> /com kuot/ ' i d i o t '
W ith b a se a llo m o rp h / t - / > / d - / t

/ t l o g / ' t o be d e a f '
2 . */- om -/ ' s t y l i s t i c
> /dom lo^/ 'd e a f person'
v ariatio n '
D e riv a tiv e is a s t y l i s t i c v a ria n t o f the base:

/ k r o t / 'la w '
> /kom rot/ 's ta t u te , reg u la tio n '
Allom orph / -u m -/:

/ l q a a n / ' t r a c e , mark'
> /lu m q a a n / 'd e s ig n
(elo q u en t)'
IOLj.
Allomorph /~ o ra n -/i
/ c a a y / t o spend*
. > /com naay/ to d is p e n s e
/c u e n / to flo o d
/ t e o p / ' t o be low,
> /cum nuen/ to in u n d a te '

smooth' > / t u m n e e p / ' i d
(elo q u en t)
3 * V^-omn-/ ' s e m a n t i c s h i f t i n t h e same fo rm c l a s s '

Verbs:
/ k o t / ' t o n o t e down'
> / k o m n o t / t o make an a p p o i n t
m ent
A l l o m o r p h /-um n * -/;
/ t u k / ' t o p u t away'
> /tu m n u k/ to p la n ,
in ten d to '
N oun.(allom orph / - u m n - / ) j
/co o n / 'f lo o r ,
sto ry '
>/ c u m n o e n / ' e r a ,
stage'
I|. \ / oran~ /
/
D e riv e s r e l a t e d p r e p o s i t i o n from v e r b :
/c o h / 'to
descend'
> /coranoh/
'b e lo n g in g to ,
under the c o n tro l of'

5>. y ' - u m n - /
D e r i v e s r e l a t e d a d j e c t i v a l v e r b fro m a u x i l i a r y :
/ t e o p / ' j u s t now' > / t u m n o o p / ' t o be new, r e c e n t '
6 * \/-um n~/
D e riv e s r e l a t e d t r a n s i t i v e v e r b from a d j e c t i v a l v e rb :
/ k o e p / ' t o be p l e a s i n g '
> /k um .no o p/ ' t o
salu te, g reet'
io 5
3.226 I n f i x e s o f shape l - r V ( n )- l
|-rV (n )-|,
( a s d e s c r i b e d i n 2.1J-327).
is / - o - / or / - o - /
| - r V ~ | o c c u r s i n b a s e s w i t h an
i n i t i a l consonant sequence,
s in g le consonant i n i t i a l .
|-V -|
and J - r V n - | i n b a s e s w ith a
The p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n o f t h i s
in f ix is nom inalization.
1,
on- / 'n o m in a liz a tio n 1

/sa o k / 'to p ity '
> /sronaok/ 'p ity '
W ith b a s e allo m o rp h / t - /
> /d -/:
/d a o t/ 'to
> / t r o n a o t / 'sk ew er'
sp it-ro ast'
A llomorph / - r o n - / :
/ tu p / 'to o b stru ct'
> / tr o n u p / 'o b s tru c tio n '
/turn/ ' t o perch '
> /tro n u m / 'a p erch 1
Allom orph / - r o - / :
/s to o p / 'to d iv id e'
> /s r o to o p / 's e c tio n ,
d iv isio n '
2 , / / - r o n - / 's p e c ia liz a tio n *

T r a n s itiv e verb:
/ p e o q / ' t o w e ar a b ov e t h e w a i s t '
> / p r o n e o q / ' t o c a r r y on t h e b a c k '
A d je c tiv a l verb:
/ s o k / ' t o be h a p p y '
> /s r o n o k / 's e r o n e , peaceful*
106
3*23 S u f f i x e s
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l s u b - l e x e m i c morphemes w h i c h o c c u r i n
p o s t - b o u n d p o s i t i o n w i t h a c o n s i s t e n t meaning i n a s i g n i f i c a n t n um ber o f l e x e m e s .
T h ey a r e a n a l y z e d a s s u f f i x e s .
1 . \ / - b 9y /
D e riv a tiv e s a re su b o rd in a tin g conjunctions*
/daem / o r i g i n 1
>
/d a o m -b sy / in o rd e r t o
/ k o m / n e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e > / k o m - b a y / i n o r d e r n o t t o
/ k o o p / t o be p le a s in g *
/tu e h / i f
> /k o o p -b o y / the b e t t e r t o
> / t u a h - b a y / although*
2,. v ^ - m a a n / how much, t o \ d i a t e x t e n t

D e r i v a t i v e s a r e i n t e r r o g a t i v e and i n d e f i n i t e a d v e r b i a l s :
/ p o n / *to e q u a l
> / p o n r a a a n / how m u c h ? .
/ s m a e / *t o e q u a l
> / s m a o - m a a n / how much? 1
/ q o m b a a l / t o equal*
> / q o m b a a l - m a a n / 'h o w m u c h ?
O t h e r d e r i v a t i v e s f o r m e d on t h e b a s e * / - m a a n / ;
/ p r o m a a n / ; ' t o e s t i m a t e ; a n e s t i m a t e ; how m u ch ? '
/s m a a n / ' t o g u ess, consider*
3 . v ^ - s e p / ten*
D e riv a tiv e s are m u ltip les o f te n :^
n/saam -/ t h r e e
/saam -sop/ t h i r t y
v /sa e-/ fo u r
/ s a e - s e p / f o r t y
1 . T hese forms a r e borrow ed i n t o t o from T h a i , b u t t h e y a r e

shown t o b e c o m p l e x by t h e o b s e r v e d fo r m / h a a - r 4 4 h o k - s a p /
f i f t y o r s i x t y . F o r t h e n u m e r a l s 1 0 - 9 0 s e e I+.2Lpl0
107
3 , 3 Compounds
Compounds a r e l e x e m e s whose c o n s t i t u e n t s o c c u r a s fr.o e
lexemes in o th e r c o n te x ts .
3 .3 1 G overning lexem ic c o n s t i t u e n t s '
G o v ern in g le x e m ic c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e c o n s t i t u e n t s which
o ccu r as f r e e lexem es,
and w h i c h r e g u l a r l y g o v e r n t h e fo rm
c l a s s o f t h e compounds i n w h i c h t h e y o c c u r .
T his k in d o f
co m p o u n d in g i s p r o d u c t i v e .
1 . / k a a / work; t h e a c t o f , a f f a i r s o f
D e r iv e s a b s t r a c t nouns from a c t i v e v e r b s and v e r b e x p r e s s i o n s ,
a n d f r o m n o un s*
/n iy e e y / 'to
speak'
/tw o e-sra e/ 'to

/r o o k - s ii/ 'to
> / k a a - n iy e o y / 's p e a k in g '
farm '
> /k a a - tw s e ~ s r a e / 'fa rm in g '
earn a l i v i n g '
> / k a a - r o o k - s i i / ' e a r n i n g a l i v i n g '

/reo cco k aa/ c iv i l service
(as a b r a n c h o f g o v e rn m e n t)'
> /k aa-resccek aa/ 'c i v i l service
(p rofession)'
/b o o re te e h / 'fo re ig n c o u n trie s '

> /k a a -b o o ro te e h / 'f o r e ig n a f f a i r s '
2 , /sec-kd y/ 's i t u a t i o n ,
case; the co n d itio n o f
D e r i v e s a b s t r a c t n o u n s from a d j e c t i v a l a n d a c t i v e v e r b s :
/ l q o o / ' t o be p r e t t y '
> /sec~ kdey lq o o / 'b e a u ty '
/ s o p b a a y / ' t o be h a p p y '
> /s e c -k d e y sopbaay/ 'h a p p in e s s '
/ r i i k - r e s y / 'to progress'
> /soc-kdoy riilc - r e o y / 'p ro g re s s '
108
/ k a n p u u c / ' t o bo p a t r i o t i c
(to uphold o n e 's r a c e ) '
> / s e c - k d o y kan p u u c / ' p a t r i o t i s m '

/d o g k u n / ' t o be g r a t e f u l
(to re c o g n iz e m e r i t) '
> / s o c - k d o y kan p u u c / ' ' g r a t i t u d e 1

The d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e f u n c t i o n s o f . / k a a - / and
/ s o c - k d o y / c a n be i l l u s t r a t e d a s f o l l o w s :
/ s l a p / ' t o d i e ' | / k a a - s l e p / ' d y i n g 1; / s o c - k d o y s l a p /
'd e a th '
3 . /doranao/ 'c a s e ,
p ro ce ss; th e process o f
D e r iv e s a b s t r a c t nouns from a c t i v e v e r b s :
/p ra o / 'to use'
> /d om n a o p r a o / ' u s e '
/b o n to o h / 't o punish'
> /d o m n a o b o n t o o h / ' ( a s p e c i f i c c a s e o f ) p u n i s h m e n t '
/p ro lo o g / 'to
com pete'
> / do m n a o p r o l o o g / ' ( a s p e c i f i c
h o l d in g o f an) e x a m in a tio n '

/ tr u o t - t r a a / 'to
in sp ect'
> /d o m n a o t r u o t - t r a a / ' a n
in sp ectio n '
/ t o w - m a o k / ' t o go and come'

> /d o m n a o t o w - m a o k / ' g o i n g a n d c o m i n g '
k., / k h a a g / - / k h a g - / ' s i d e ; to w a rd *
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s f ro m n o u n s , d e m o n s t r a t i v e s ,
/sdam / 'th e r i g h t sid e '
and p r e p o s i t i o n s :
> /k h a g -s d a m / 'o n t h e r i g h t '
/ t b o o g / ' th9 s o u th '
> /k h ag -tb o o g / 'to the south
/n ih / 'th is '
> / k h a g - n i h / ' t h i s way'
/m uk/ ' i n f r o n t o f '
> /khag-m uk/ 'i n
/ k r a o y / 'b e h in d '
> /k h a g - k r a o y / 'b e h in d
fro n t,
ahead'
(a d j.)'
109
5>. / t i i /
'p la c e ;
p l a c e , o f t h e o r d e r , w hich'
D e r iv e s a d j e c t i v e s from d e m o n s t r a t i v e s :
/n ih / 'th is '
> /tii-n ih /
'h e re '
/n u h / 'th a t'
> /tii-n u h /
'th e r e '
D e r iv e s o r d i n a l n u m eral a d j e c t i v e s from n u m e ra ls and t h e

n o n - n u m e r i c a l q u a n t i f i e r / p o n m a a n / 'how m an y?'1 ( I | . 2 l i 2 ) :
/p ii/.'tw o '
>/tii-p ii/
'sec o n d '
/saam -sepprara/ ' t h i r t y - f i v e '

> /tii-sa am -se p -p ra m / 'th e t h i r t y - f i f t h '
/ p o n m a a n / 'h o w m an y ? '
/ t i i - p o n m a a n / 'hovj m a n y ' t h ? '
<
D e r iv e s nouns from a c t i v e v e r b s and a d j e c t i v e s :

/ k o e p - c e t / . ' t o be i n t e r e s t i n g , p l e a s i n g '
> / t i i - k o a p - c a t / 'ite m o f i n t e r e s t '
/ s n a e - h a a / ' t o love*
> / t i i - s n a e - h a a / 'lo v e d one'
/k o o ru p / 't o re s p e c t'
> / t i i - l c o o r u p / 'r e s p e c te d one'
/b o m p h o t/ 'm o st, l a s t '
> / t i i - b o m p h o t / ' t h e m ost, l a s t '
6* / t a e / ' b u t ,
only; on ly,
sp ecifically *
D e r iv e s a u x i l i a r i e s from v e r b s , p r e p o s i t i o n s ,
and c o n j u n c t i o n s ;
/ c e h / ' t o know'
> / c e h - t a e / 'a lw ay s'
/ ta e ^ / 'to
> / t a e g - t a e / 'u s u a lly '
estab lish '
/n o w / 't o rem ain'
> /n o w -tae/ ' s t i l l '
/ k r o a n / ' t o be e n o u g h '
> / k r o a n - ta e / 'b a r e ly '
/ t o a p / 'th e n '
> / t o e p - t a e / ' t o have j u s t '
/ m u k/
> /m u k -ta e / 'p ro b a b ly , l i k e l y t o '
' i n f r o n t of*
110
3 32 C e n t e r e d compounds
C e n t e r e d compounds a r e compounds I n w h i c h t h e f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t i s t h e h e a d and a l l t h a t f o l l o w s , i s t h e a t t r i b u t e .
T h i s k i n d o f c o m po u nd ing i s f u l l y p r o d u c t i v e .
A ll heads of
c e n t e r e d ' c o m p o u n d s a r e n o u n s , a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g compounds
a re nouns,
A t t r i b u t e s may b e :
Verb:
/ s a l a a / h a l l 1 + / r i o n / t o s t u d y
> / s a la a - r io n / school
/n e o q / p e rso n + / l u o q / to s e l l
>' / n e o q - l u o q / s a l e s m a n
V e rb a n d o b j e c t :
/ p t e o h / h o u s e + / l u o q / t o s e l l + / k a f e e / c o f f e e
> /p te o h -lu o q -k a fo e / coffee shop
/ n e o q / p e r s o n + / t w o o / t o make + / s r a e / r i c e f i e l d
> /n eo q -tw o o -sra e/ r i c e farm er
C o o r d i n a t e v e r b compound and o b j e c t :
/ n e o q / p e r s o n + ( / b a o k / t o d r i v e + / b o o / t o d r i v e >)
/b ao k -b o o / to d r iv e + / t a q s i i / t a x i
> /n e o q baek-boo t a q s i i / t a x i - d r i v e r
V e r b a n d c o o r d i n a t e noun compound o b j e c t :
/ p t e o h / h o u s e + / k a t / t o c u t 1 + ( / k h a o / ! p a n t s +
/q aaw / s h i r t > ) /khao-qaaw / c lo th e s
> / p te o h k a t khao-qaaw / t a i l o r shop
/ n e o q / p e r s o n + ( / b a o k / t o wash + / q u t /
t o i r o n >)
/b a o k - q u t/ to la u n d e r + /khao-qaaw /
> /n eo q baok-qut khao-qaaw / laundrym an
1X1
Noun:
/ b o n t u p / room1 + / t & k / ' w a t e r 1
> /b o n tu p ~ t k / 'b a th ro o m 1
/r o ti h / 'c a r t'
+ / k o o / 'o x '
> /ro tih ~ k o o / 'o x c a rt'
C e rta in nouns occur w ith g r e a t freq u en cy as heads o f

c e n t e r e d com p ou n ds.
1 . /n e o q / 'p e rs o n ,
The m o s t f r e q u e n t a r e l i s t e d below*
t h e one who'
/s r a e / 'r ic e fie ld '
> / n e e q - s r a e / 'fa rm e r*
/ t w o o - k a a / ' t o work'
> /n e o q -tw o o -k a a / 'w o rk er'
/te e h s o c o o / 'to u ris m '
> /neoq-teeh so co o / 't o u r i s t '
2 . / p t e o h / 'h o u se* shop'

/som naq/ 't o s ta y '
/ l u o q / 't o sell*
> /p teeh-som naq/ 'h o t e l '
+ /b aay / 'r ic e '
> /pteoh-luoq~ baay/ 'r e s ta u r a n t'

/ c o n / 'C h in e se '
> / p t e o h - c o n / 'C h in ese shop'
3 . /p ro d a p / 'in stru m e n t, to o l'

/ s t u f l / ' t o m ea su re ' > / p r o d a p - s tu ^ ) / 'm ea su rin g d e v ic e '
f
/ b o o m / ' t o pump' + / k y o l / ' a i r '

> / p r o d a p - b o o m - k y o l / ' a i r pump'
/ th o o t / 'to
ex tract'
+ /ru u p / 'p ic tu r e '
> / p r o d a p - t h o o t - r u u p / 'c am era '

Ij., / k r i e f l / ' t o o l , m a c h i n e , p r o v i s i o n '
/ c a q / 'w h e e l'
/ta e g -tu o / 'to
> / k r i o ^ - c a q / 'm o to r, m achine'

dress'
/k a e / 'to re p a ir'
> /k rieQ -taeia-tu o / 'c lo th in g '

> /k rio :Q -kae/ 't o o l s '
112
5 . / b o n t u p / room, p l a c e w h e r e '
/ t i k / 'vxater'
> / b o n t u p - t i k / b a th room *
/sie w -p h o w / book' > /b o n tu p -sio w -p h o w / 'l i b r a r y *

/ t w o / ' t o m ak e'
+ /q a h a a / 'fo o d '
> / b o n t u p twQ q a h a a / ' k i t c h e n *

6 . / s a l a a / ' h a l l , ro om , s c h o o l '
/ r i o n / ' t o study*
> / s a l a a - r l e n , / 'school*
/ c b a p / law*
> / s a l a a - c b a p / 'law sc h o o l'
/k a t- to o h / 'to
7. / r o o g / 'h a l l ,
ju d g e ' > / s a l a a - k a t - t o o h / 'c o u rt-h o u s e *
bu ild in g '
/ c a q / 'w h e e l'
> /roojg-caq/ 'f a c t o r y '
/ r o b a m / 'd a n c e *
> /rooia-robam / 'd a n c e - h a l l '
/k n/ ' t o
thresh*
+ / s r o w / 'p add y *
/rooi3~k9n~sr9w / ' r i c e m i l l '

8 . /w ic c e o / 's c ie n c e , p ro fe ssio n '
/ l e e k / 'n u m b ers'
> /w icceQ -leek/ 'a r ith m e tic '
/ p e e t / 'd o c to r'
> / w i c c e a - p e e t / 'm e d ic a l science*
/k r u u / 'te a c h e r '
> /w & cc ea -k ru u / 'p e d ag o g y '
9 . / w i t h i i / 'p r o c e d u r e , ceremony'
/ b o n / 'g o o d w o rk s '
> / w i t h i i - b o n / 'cerem o n y o f m erit*
/ k a a / 't o m arry'
> / w i t h i i - k a a / 'm a r r i a g e ceremony'
/b u o h / 't o
e n te r the p riesth o o d '
> /w ith ii-b u o h / 'o rd in a tio n '

10. / t i k / ' j u i c e , l i q u i d , water*
/ t a e / 'te a
(p lan t)'
> / t i k - t a e / 'te a
(beverage)'
/ tr o y / 'f is h '
> / t - i k - t r o y / ' f i s h sa u c e *
/ k r o o c / 'o ra n g e '
> /t& k -k r o o c / 'o ra n g e j u i c e '
113
11. / t g a y / 'd a y ,
sun*
/ p r & k / 'm o rn in g '
> / t ^ j a y - p r i k / 'm o r n i n g *
/ t r o j j / ' t o bo s t r a i g h t '
> / t i j a y - t r o g / 'n o o n '
/ l g i o c / 'a fte rn o o n '
> /tiQ ay-ligioc/ 'a f te r n o o n '
1 2 . / s a c / 'm ea t*
/ k o o / ' ox*
> /s a c -k o o / 'b e e f'
/m oon/ 'c h ic k e n '
> /sa e -m o o n / 'c h ic k e n
/ c r u u k / 'p ig *
> / s a c - o r u u k / 'p o rk '
13. /p o o / 'c o lo r,
aspect'
/ k h i o w / ' t o be b l u e '
> /poo-khiow / 'b lu e '
/k ro h o o m / ' t o be r e d '
> ./poo-krohoom / ' r e d '
II4.. / t i i /
(m eat) 1
'p la c e '
/k ro g / 'c ity '
> /tii-k r o jj/ 'c ity '
/soinnaap/ 's e e d li n g '
> / tii- s o m n a a p / 'se e d -b e d '
15>. / c i i / ' a n c e s t o r , r e l a t i v e '

/d o o n / 'o ld lad y '
> / c l i - d o o n / 'g ran d m o th er'
/ t a a / 'o ld m a n '
> / c i i - t a a / 'g ra n d fa th e r'
/m uoy/ 'o n e '
> /cii-doon-m uoy/ ' f i r s t cousin'
16, /m cah / 'm a s te r, p r o p r i e t o r '

/ p t e o h / 'h o u s e '
> /m c a h -p to o h / 'h e a d o f th e h o u se '
/ t l a y / ' t o be v a lu a b le *
> / m c a h - t l a y / 'g o o d f r i e n d 1
1 7, /m e e / 'fe m a le
( p e j o r a t i v e i f u s e d w i t h humans)'
/m oon/ 'c h ic k e n '

/dom r'oy/ ' e l e p h a n t '
> /m ee-m oon/ 'h e n '

> /m ee-dom roy/ 'fe m a le e le p h a n t 1
/ k a o w / ( p r o p e r name' > / m e e - k a o w / ' l i t t l e
M iss Kaow* r
lllj.
1 8 . /m e e / 'h e a d , c h i e f '
/ k a a / 'w o rk '
> /m ee~ kaa/ b o ss,
forem an
/khum / ' d i s t r i c t '
> /raee-khum / d i s t r i c t c h i e f
/ c a p / t h i e f > / m e e - e a o / ' l e a d e r o f a band o f t h i e v e s

1 9 . / m e e / p o i n t , l e s s o n , c h a r a c t e r '
/ s o o t / to r e c i t e '
> / m o e - s o o t / r e c i t a t i o n
/ k o o / 'n am e o f t h e l e t t e r
lc
> /m ee-koo/ the l e t t e r
'
k ' '
3 . 3 3 C o o r d i n a t e compounds
A c o o r d i n a t e compound i s a n y l e x e m e c o m posed o f two
c o n s t i t u e n t s o f s i m i l a r o r i d e n t i c a l moaning su c h t h a t
e i t h e r c o n s t i t u e n t can s u b s t i t u t e s y n t a c t i c a l l y f o r th e
w hole.
The c o n s t i t u e n t s may be*
1 . N o un s :
/k o o / ox + /k ro b o y / 'w a te r b u f f a l o
> /koo-krobsy/ 'liv e s to c k '
/qow puk/ f a t h e r + /m d aay/ m o th er
> /qow puk-m daay/ ' p a r e n t s
/d o m re h / 'know ledge'
+ /w icce / 's c ie n c e '
> /d o m r e h - w ic c o o / 'knoiyledge, a b i l i t y '

2 . Verbs:
/ s o k / ' t o be h a p p y ' + / s o p b a a y / ' t o b e w e l l , h a p p y '
> / s o k - s o p b a a y / ' t o be w e l l and happy'
/ p i i n i t / 'to
examine* + / m o o l / ' t o l o o k a t '
> /p iin & t-m o o l/ 't o
supervise
/c u p / ' t o m oot1 + / p r o t e e h / ' t o meet by a c c id e n t '

> /c u o p -p ro te o h ./ ' t o m eet'
3. A djectives*
/ n i k / 'q u ic k ly '
+ /n o o p / 'q u ic k ly '
> /n ik -n o o p / 'q u ic k ly ,
/ r u o c / 'a lre a d y '
freq u en tly '
+ / s r a c / 'c o m p le te ly '
+ /h a o y / 'a lre a d y
> /ru o c-h a o y / 'a lre a d y '

> /s r a c - h a o y / 'a lre a d y '
> /ru o c -s ra c -h a o y / 'a lre a d y '
1^.. P r e p o s i t i o n s :
/k r u p / .'a ll'
+ / s o p / 'e v e ry '
> /k ru p -s o p /, /s o p -k ru p / 'e v e ry ,
/cea-m uoy/ 'w ith '
e v e r y one o f
+ / n i g / 'w ith '
> /c e o -m u o y -n ig / 'w ith , to g e th e r w ith '

/to o g / 'a ll,
in c l u d i n g 1 + / q o h / 'c o m p le te ly , a l l o f
> /to o g -q o h / 'a l l o f

5* C o n j u n c t i o n s *
/h a o y / 'w ith '
+ / n i g / 'w ith '
> / li a e y - n i g / 'a n d '
6 , Num erals:
/ p i i / 'tw o '
+ /b o y / 'th re e '
> / p i i - b o y / 'tw o or t h r e e
3 * 3U- U n c e n t e r e d compounds
U n c e n t e r e d compounds a r e compounds i n w h i c h no c o n
s t i t u e n t c a n bo i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e h e a d .
Su ch compounds
u s u a l l y f o l l o w norm al s y n t a c t i c o r d e r , b u t a r e marked as
compounds b y t h e i r c o n s i s t e n t c o - o c c u r r e n c e w i t h a u n i t a r y
m e a n i n g , and by t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f s e c o n d a r y r a t h e r t h a n
116
p r i m a r y s t r e s s on t h e f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t ,
as w e ll as by th e
o c c u r r e n c e o f t y p i c a l co m p o u n d in g j u n c t u r e b e t w e e n c o n
stitu en ts
(/-/)
U n c e n t o r e d compounds may b e :
1 . Verbs:
/nara/ t o e a t + / b a a y / r i c e
> /n a m -b a a y / ' t o have a m e a l1
/ t w o o / ' t o m ake, d o '
+ / k a a / 'w o rk'
> / t w o o - k a a / ' t o work*

/ q o o / ' t o be happy'
+ /k u n / 'm e rit'
- > /q o o -k u n / 'th a n k
(you) 1
2 . Nounsi
/srao ra/ 't o
envelop'
+ /som bot/ ' l e t t e r '
> /sra o m -so m b o t/ 'a n envelope'

/srao m / 't o
envelop'
+ /c a o q / 'fo o t'
> /sraom -c99)o/ 's o c k s '

3. A d v e rb ia ls :
/b ao / ' i f
+ / q o n c Q io / ' t h e r e f o r e '
> /b a9 -q o n c 9 io / ' in t h a t case*

/ p i i / 'fro m '
+ /daom / 'o r i g i n '
> /p ii-d aem / 'o rig in a lly ,

/ s o p / 'e v e ry '
in form er tim e s
+ / t f l a y / 'd a y '
> / s o p - t ^ a y / - / s o p - g a y / 'e V e ry day, t h e s e d a y s'

Ij., A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s :
/dooc/ 'l i k e '
+ /k n e o / 'to g e th e r'
> /d o o c - k n o o / ' t o be s i m i l a r
/ c i t / 'n e a r'
+ /knee/- 't o g e t h e r '
> / c i t + k n e e / ' t o be c l o s e t o g e t h e r '
117
3*35> A p p o s i t i v e compounds
A p p o s i t i v e compounds a r e no u n compou nds whose f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t i s a k i n s h i p term o r t i t l e ,
a n d whose s e c o n d
c o n s t i t u e n t i s a s p e c i f i c i d e n t i f y i n g noun;
/ k o o n / ' o f f s p r i n g + / p r o h / 'm a le '
> / k o o n - p r o h / 's o n *
/ n e e q / g e n e ra l t i t l e + / s r o y / a fem ale
> / n e e q - s r e y / madam
/lo o k / 'r e s p e c tf u l t i t l e '
+ /k ru u / teacher'
- > /lo o k -k ru u / te a c h e r1
S u c h compounds o c c u r a s compound t i t l e s
in a p p o sitiv e
c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h p ro p e r names, e . g . :
/ n e e q - s r e y k a e w / (madam Kaew) Madam Kaew'
/ lo o l c - k r u u c h o o q / ( t e a c h e r Chang) T e a c h e r Chang
>
3 . 3 6 A s y n t a c t l c compounds
A s y n t a c t i c compounds a r e compounds whose c o n s t i t u e n t s
do n o t comform t o t h e n o r m a l s y n t a c t i c o r d e r o f t h e fo rm
/
c la s s e s in th e language.
S u c h compounds a r e n o u n s whose
f i r s t co n stitu en t is a q u a lita tiv e
sp ecifier
whos e s e c o n d c o n s t i t u e n t i s a n o u n ,
(k*2 2 1 1 ) and
e .g .:
/daem / 's p e c i f i e r fo r long sle n d e r o b je c ts ,
trees +
/ c h e e / 'wood* > / d a o m - c h s o / ' t r e e '

/ p l a e / 's p e c if ie r for f r u its
and v e g e t a b l e s '
/ s w a a y / 'm an g o' > / p l a e - s w a a y / mango f r u i t

/k ro e p / 's p e c if ie r fo r seed, g ra in s ,
e tc . +
/k a m p lee g / 'g u n ' > /k ro o p -k a m p ls e g / ' b u l l e t '
118
I n s y n t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t h e a b o v e s p e c i f i e r s a lw a y s
fo llo w num erals.
The compounds i n w h i c h t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e ,
h o w e v e r , p r e c e d e n u m e r a l s and s p e c i f y i n g p h r a s e s , e . g . s .
/daera-choo p i i daom/
t r e e two l o n g - s l e n d e r - o b j e c t s
1two t r e e s '
3 *3 7 I d i o m a t i c compounds
I d i o m a t i c compounds a r e compounds whose m e a n i n g s
c a n n o t be d e te r m in e d from t h e m eanings o f t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s
as f r e e lexem es.
Such compounds may b e :
Verbs:
/ c o o l / t o e n t e r 1 + / c o t / ' h e a r t , m ind'
> /c o o l- c o t/ 't o lik e , understand1
/ t r o w / ' t o have t o ' + / k a a / 'w o rk '
.> / t r e w - k a a / ' t o w ant, n e e d '
/ t o t u o l / 'to receiv e'
+ /te o n / 'g if t'
> /to tu o l- te o n / 'to

/ s i i / 'to
eat'
eat
(elegant)'
+ / k a a / 'w o rk , a f f a i r '
> / s i i - k a a / ' t o a t t e n d a vtedding'

Nouns*
/b aay / 'r ic e '
+ / q o o / ! t o be happy'
> / b a a y - q o o / 'c e m e n t, m o r ta r '

/k o o n / 'c h ild '
+ / s a o / 'lo c k '
/boo q -p q oo n / 's i b l i n g s '
> /k o o n - s a o / 'k e y '
+ /b o ^ k a o t/ ' t o give b i r t h to '
> /boog-pqoon b o ^ k a o t/ ' f u l l s i b l i n g s '
119
/ t k / ' w a t e r 1 + / k m a w / ' t o be b l a c k *
> / t & k - k m a w / 'ink'**3 . 3 8 N u m e r i c a l compounds
N u m e r i c a l c o m p ou n din g i s t r e a t e d i s s e c t i o n Ii-.2 I4.I
(N u m e r i c a l q u a n t i f i e r s ) .
1 . The o c c u r r e n c e o f / t i k - k m a w lcrohoom/ ' r e d i n k '

t h a t t h i s i s an i d i o m a t i c compound.
in d icates
120
' 3.1+ P s e u d o - compounds

P s e u d o - c o m p o u n d s a r e c o m p l e x l e x e m e s w h i c h a r e n o t
c o m p o s ed e n t i r e l y o f f r e e f o r m s .
For exam ple, / q a n u q -
p h e a r i y e o / m i n o r w i f e i s c o m p os ed o f t h e b o u n d a t t r i b u t e
/q a n u q - / second,
j u n i o r a nd / p h e e r i y e o / w i f e
(elo q u en t) .
Su c h f o r m s a r e f u r t h e r m a r k e d as compounds b y t h e a s y n t a c t i c
p o s i t i o n o f t h e a t t r i b u t e , which in s y n t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s
fo llo w s r a t h e r th an p rec ed e s th e head, as in /propuon t o o c /
(w ife l i t t l e )
m inor w i f e .
Some f o r m s w h i c h o c c u r a s f r e e
l e x e m e s h a v e s p e c i a l c o m b i n i n g fo rm s i n p s e u d o - c o m p o u n d s , e . g .
t h e f o r m s / p u e l l o r o o t / c i t i z e n s 1, / r o e t t h a a p h i b a a l / g o v e r n
m e n t , and / r o e t t h a q - t h o e m m a n u n / c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l c o n t a i n
t h e morpheme / r o o t / s t a t e w h i c h o c c u r s a s a f r e e l e x e m e
1
i n i t s own r i g h t .
F o l l o w i n g i s a l i s t o f morphemes w h i c h r e c u r w i t h
r e l a t i v e fre q u e n c y as c o n s t i t u e n t s o f pseudo-compounds,
3.1+1 The f o l l o w i n g c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e a l w a y s bound?
1 . /m o h a a -/ ~ /ra o h a a -/ b ig ,
im portant,
extrem ely
/s o m o t/ s e a > /m ohaa-som ot/ ocean

/ w & t t y a a l a y / c o l l e g e > / m o h a a - w & t t y a a l a y / u n i v e r s i t y *
/ k h o o c / w ic k e d > /m o h a a - k h o o c / r o t t e n t o t h e c o r e
1 . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f p s e u d o - c o m p o u n d s a r e
b o r r o w e d fro m P a l i a n d S a n s k r i t s o u r c e s , and a r e n o t g e n e r
a l l y p ro d tic tiv e in th e spoken lan g u a g e .
Whether t h e s e forms
a r e s i m p l e o r c o m p l e x i n t h e mind o f t h e s p e a k e r d e p e n d s on
h i s d e g r e e o f l i t e r a r y s o p h i s t i c a t i o n , so t h a t p s e u d o - c o m
p o u n d s m i g h t be s a i d t o c o n s t i t u t e a d e r i v a t i o n a l s u b - s y s t e m
fo r th e educated sp e a k e r.
121
2 . / q o t d o i n - / h i g h ,
e x ce llen t
/ w i c c e e / s tu d y > /qotdom -w ^ccee/ 'h ig h e r s t u d i e s '

/rauentrsy/ 'm in is te r '
/p o e t/ 'lif e ,
> /qotdora-m uentrey/ 'h i g h o f f i c i a l '
e x is te n c e > /q o td o m -c e e t/ 'h ig h lin e a g e '
3 . / c a w - / ' l o r d , m aster'^"
/ q a t h i k a a / ' c h i e f ' . . > / c a w - q a t h i k a a / ' h e a d monk, a b b o t '
> /caw -krom / 'ju d g e '
> /caw -w aay/ 'g o v e rn o r, -a d m in is tra to r '
J|. / q a n u q - / ~ / q a n u - / ' s e c o n d , f o l l o w i n g ,
/w & tty a a la y / 'c o lle g e *
ju n io r'
> / q a n u q - w i t t y a a l a y / 's e c o n d a ry
school'
/p h e e r iy e o / 'w ife '
> / q a n u q - p h e o r i y e e / 'm in o r w i f e '
/sen aan ey / 'm ilita r y o f f ic e r'
> /qanuq-senaaney/
'ju n io r o f f i c e r '
/sQ h aq -/ 'u n ite d ,
agreed,
/ - k o o / 'p e rs o n n e l'
in harmony'
> /sehaqlcoo/ ' a c o o p e ra tiv e '
/ r o o t / s t a t e > / s e h a q - r o o t / u n i t e d s t a t e s , u n i o n '
/-k a m / 'a 'c tio n '
> /sahaqkam / 'c o o p e ra tio n '
6 . / t r o y - / 'th re e *
/k a o n / 'a n g le '
> /tre y -lc ao n / 't r i a n g l e '
/ c a q k r e y e o n / 'w h e e le d v e h i c l e '
> /tro y -caq k ro y eo n /

'b ic y c le '
/ - m e o h / 'm onth'
> /tro y -m eo h / 'tr im e s te r '
7* / t r a y - / ' t h r e e '
/- b e y d o q / 'b o o k ' > / t r a y - b e y d o q / 't h e T r i p i t a k a '
1 , Not t o be c o n f u s e d w i t h / c a w / ' g r a n d c h i l d ' .
122
/c iy w o o / M onks' garm ents > /tra y -c ^ y w o o / th e th ro e
g a r m e n t s o f a monk
/ - r o o t / t r e a s u r e > / t r a y - r o e t / th e t h r e e jew els o f
Buddhism1
8. /bop p eo q -/ /b o p p o -/ /b o p - / f i r s t ,
/ k o t h a a / v e r s e ,
preceding
s t o r y > /b o p p e o q -k o th a a / p rea m b le
/ r k a m / / c o n d u c t > /boppokam / p re v io u s c o n d u c t
/ b o t / word, s t a n z a > / b o p - b o t / p r e f i x
9* /qaqkeoq-/ - /qak eo q -/ f i r s t ,
suprem e
/ r e o c c o t u u t / ro y a l m is s io n > /q a q k e o q - r e o c c o tu u t/
im p o r ta n t embassy
/ m oh e eso y/* q u e e n > / q a k e o q - m o h e e s o y / f i r s t q u e e n
10, / q a t e q - / e x c e s s iv e ,
extrem e
/-parom aa/ e x c e lle n t > /qateq-parom aa/ of h ig h est

q u ality .
/ p e o q / word, s p e e c h > / q a t e q - p e o q / h y p e r b o l e
t
11, /b o o c e n 4 y -/ p ra is e w o rth y
/ w o o tth o q / a r t i c l e > /boocen& y-w oetthoq/ sa c re d
o b ject,
tem ple
/ s t h a a n / p la c e > /b o o co n ay -sth aan / sacred s i t e ,

m onument
12, / q a p h i q - / - / q a p h i - / v e ry , g r e a t
/ i d i e o t / m u r d e r > / q a p h i q - k h e o t / m a s s a c r e
/ m u k / h e a d , c h i e f > / q a p h i m u k / g r e a t l e a d e r
13 , / q a t h i q - / - / q a t h i - / g r e a t , h i g h
/ k a a / work > / q a t h i k a a / im p o rta n t a f f a i r s ,
c h ie f
123
Ilf., / q a t t i i a q - / ~ / q a t t h a - / ~ / q a t t h e - / ' s u b j e c t , p u r p o s e '

/k e th a a / 's to ry '
/-a th ib a a y / 'to
> / q a t t h a q - k a t h a a / 's p e e c h , l e c t u r e '

explain' > /q a tth a a th ib a a y / 'to
elu cid ate'
/ b o t / 's ta n z a '
> /q a tth e b o t/ 'le s s o n '
1 5 . /k a m - / ~ /kam m a-/ 'a c t i o n ,

/ - k o o / 'p e rso n n e l*
/ w i t h i i / 'm ethod,
conduct'
> /kammakoo/ 'w o r k e r , c o o l i e

ceremony' > / k a m - w i t h i i / 'p r o c e d u r e ,
a b ility '
/ k a q s i - / 'a g r ic u ltu r e *
> /k a q s ik a m / 'fa rm in g '
16. / m o n o o - / ' h e a r t , m ind'

/-k am / 'a c tio n '
> /m o n o o k a m / ' t h o u g h t ,
feeling*
> /monoorum/ ' p l e a s i n g '

> /m onoo-sanceettenaa/ 'f e e lin g ,
sen tim en t'
1 7 . / - c o o / ' t r a v e l , movement*
/n e a w e a / 'b o at*
> /n eaw eaco o / 'm arin e t r a v e l '
/ te a h s a n a a - / 't o observe' > /te a h s a n a a c o o / 'to u ris m ,

sigh t-seein g '
> / c a r a a c o o / 'a u to m o b ile t r a f f i c '
18. / - l a y / 'p la c e '
/ w i t t y a a / 'k now ledge' > / w i t t y a a l a y / 's c h o o l '
/ p a n n a a - / 'b o o k '
> /pannaalay/ 'lib r a r y '
/ s u k ( k h a a ) - / ' t o be p l e a s a n t '
> /su k k h aalay / 'r e s o r t '
12k
19. /-p h e o p / s t a t e o f, con ditio n o f
/ s e e r e y / to be f r e e > / s e e r e y - p h e e p / freedom
/ W i b o l / t o be p r o s p e r o u s > / w i b o l - p h e e p / p r o s p e r i t y
/m & t(to -) / frie n d '
> /m ittep h eep / 'frie n d s h ip '
20. / - s a a h / the study o f, the scien ce o f

/ p r o w o e t ( t e - ) / h i s t o r y '
> /p ro w o e tte s a a h / 't h e study

o f history*
/qaqsoo/ 'l e t t e r ,
w r itin g > /q aq so o saah / l i t e r a t u r e , '

letters
/p h u u m (i-) / lan d , r e g io n > /p h uu m isaah/ geography

2 1 . / t h a a n / p l a c e , e s t a b l i s h m e n t
/ p r e y s e n i i / m a i l > / p r e y s e n i i t h a a n / p o s t - o f f i c e
/ k i l e e n ( n e - ) / a sic k p e rso n > /k ile e n n e th a a n /
in firm ary
/ p h o o c e n i i / fo o d > / p h o o c e n i i t h a a n / r e s t a u r a n t
2 2 . / - k o o / p e r s o n n e l
/ k h e e t ( t e - ) / m u r d e r > / k h e e t t e k o o / m u r d e r e r
/ s e n a a / s o l d i e r > / s e n a a k o o / m i l i t a r y p e r s o n n e l
/ k a m ( m e - ) / a c t i o n > /kammekoo/ w o rk e r, c o o l i e
2 3 . / - k a a / work, a c t i v i t y
/ k a m ( m e - ) / a c t i o n > / k a m m e k a a / a c t i v i t y
/kh o o sen aa/ to p u b lic iz e > /khoosenaakaa/ a d v e r tis in g
/te e h s e n a a - / to observe > /to e h s e n a a k a a / o b s e rv a tio n
12$
3 . ^ 2 The f o l l o w i n g c o n s t i t u e n t s h a v e a l l o m o r p h s w h i c h o c c u r
a l s o as f r e e lexemes*
1 . / r e o c / . / r e e c c e - / / r e 9c e 9/
/wu33/ / f a m i l y ,
kingdom, r e i g n j r o y a l
c i r c l e > /resccew uoia/ r o y a l f a m ily
/ - t h i p p e d e y / 'p o w er'
> / r e e c e 9t h i p p e d s y / m o n a r c h y 1
/ q a e k ( k a - ) / 'p r im e , suprem e'
> / q a e k k e r e o c / 'in d e p e n d e n c e '
2 . /vo Q t/~ /roQ tth a .-/~ /ro Q tth & q -/ ' p o l i t i c a l s t a t e '
/ m u e n t r s y / 'm an d a rin '
> /ro a t-m u e n tre y /-'m in s ite r of

state'
/ - a p h i b a a l / ' t o govern'
> / r o s t t h a a p h i b a a l / 'governm ent'
/ p u e K l e - ) / 'p e o p le '
> /p u e llo r o e t/ 'c itiz e n r y '
3 . / q a e k ( k a - ) / 'p rim e ,
/ s o n th a a n / 'k in d ,
/ s a q / 'g ra d e ,
era'
/cu o n / 'c itiz e n '
sin g le,
class'
suprem e'
> /q aek -sonthaan/ 'f i r s t c la ss '
> /q aekkesaq/ ' f i r s t 12-year c y c le

> /qaekkecusn/ 'p riv a te se c to r'
I4.. / p u t ( t o - ) / ' t h e Buddha '

#
/p r e o h - / 's a c re d '
> / p r e s h - p u t / ' t h e Buddha'
/ r u u p / 1i m a g e ; f o r m
> / p u t t o r u u p / 'B u d d h a im a g e '
/sa h sn a a / 'r e lig io n '
> / p u t t s s a h s n a a / 'B u d d h i s m '
/ q o r ) ( k e - ) / ' b o d y ,
organ'
/k a a / 'a f f a ir s '
> /q o g k aa / 'o rg a n iz a tio n '
/ce t/ 'l i f e '
> /q o Q k o c eo t/ 's e x u a l organs'
/ p r e s h - / 's a c re d '
> / p r e e h - q o iq/
's a c r e d body'
126
6. / s o a n a a / ~ / s e n a a / / s e n a - / 'm i l i t a r y ,
so ld iers'
/ - k a m / 'c o n d u ct* > /s e n a a k a m / ' m i l i t a r y a f f a i r s *

/-a th ik a a / 'c h ie f
> / s e n a a t h i k a a / ' m i l i t a r y commander'
/-an u p u sn / 'a tta c h e '
> /senaanupuon/ 'm i l i t a r y a tta c h e '
7. /p r o c e / 'p e o p l e '
/cu n/ 'c i t i z e n '
> /p r o c e s c u a n / 'p o p u la c e '
/ c e s t / 'e s s e n c e '
> /p ro c e e c 6 t/ 'r a c e ,
n atio n ality '
/ - t h 4 p p t a y / ' a u t o n o m y ' > / p r o c e t h l p p t a y / 'd e m o c r a c y *

8 . /y u w e sq /~ /y u u w & -/ 'y o u n g p e r s o n '
/cu n/ 'c i t i z e n '
> /yuuw cuen/ 'yo u n g p e o p l e '
/ c a q r i y a a / 'c o n d u c t'
/-phe p/ 's t a t e
> /y u w e q-caqriyaa/ 'y o u th t r a i n i n g '
of
> /yuuw epheep/ 'y o u th '
9. / y u t ( t h 9 - ) / ~ / y u t t h e o q - / ' b a t t l e '
/ p r o - / 're c ip ro c ity '
> /p ro y u t/ 'to
/phuum / 'a r e a '
> /yuttheoq-phuum / 'b a t t l e f i e l d '
/ - s a a h / 's c ie n c e o f
/
fig h t'
> /y u tth e s a a h / 'm ilita r y science'
1 0 . / y u s n ( t - ) / ~ / y u a n t a q - / ' m o t o r , m achine*
/-h o h / 'to fly '
/-kam / 'a c tio n '
> /yuon -ho h/ 'a ir p la n e '

> /y u e n to k a m / 'm ech an ics
/w 4cce / 's c i e n c e '
(profession)'
> / y u s n t a q - w i c c e e / 'm e c h a n i c s ( s c i e n c e )'
11. /y e n ( -)/ 'v e h i c l e '

/m ohaa-/ 'g r e a t'
/ th a a n / 'p la c e '
> /m ohaayoon/ ' g r e a t v e h i c l e '

> /y e o n e th a a n / 'g a ra g e , hangar'
/qakaah(s9-)/ 'a ir '
> /qakaahsoyean/ 'a ir p l a n e '
127
1 2 . / s a p ( p o - ) / ' w o r d , s p e ec h *
/re cc -/ 'r o y a l '
> /re cc sap/ 'r o y a l v o c a b u la ry '
/k e q riy a a / 'a c tio n '
. > /k e q r iy a a - s a p / 'v e rb '
/ n e s m / 'name*
> /sappeneom / 'p ro n o u n '
1 3 . / t u u t / ' d i p l o m a t i c m i s s i o n , e m b a ss y '
/ l e e k h a a / 's e c r e t a r y 1 > / l e e k h a a t u u t / 'd ip lo m a tic
secretary '
/r e e c c e - / 'ro y a l'
> /re cc tuut/ 'r o y a l m ission'
/s th a a n / 'p la c e '
> / s t h a a n - t u u t / 'em b assy '
11+. / p h u u r a ( i - ) / ' l a n d , r e g i o n
/p h eeq / 'p a r t'
> /p h u u m ip h e eq / 're g io n *
/ - s a a h / 's tu d y o f
> /p h u u m is a a h / 'g e o g rap h y '
/y u tt * / '.b a ttle '
> /yuttaph uu m / ' b a t t l e f i e l d '
lj?. / k u n ( n - ) / ' q u a l i t y , m e r i t '

/ q a t h i - / 'h ig h , g re a t'
> /q a th ik u n / 'm e r ito r io u s '
/ s a p / 'w ord'
> /ku n n o sap / 'a d je c tiv e '
/-p h eap /
's t a t e of'
16. / s t h a a n / ' p l a c e ,
> /k u n n p h e p / ' q u a l i t y '
estab lish m en t'
/ k r i h / 'fo u n d a tio n , s i t e '
> / k r i h - s t h a a n / 'b u ild in g ,

site'
/ t u u t / 'd ip lo m a tic m issio n '
> / s t h a a n - t u u t / 'em bassy'
17. /k c/ 'd u ty , b u s in e s s '

/ k a a / 'w ork'
> /k c-kaa/ 'd u tie s ,
affairs'
/ t e s h s e n a a - / 't o observ e' > /te h s n a a k c /'in v e stig a tio n '
128
/ s e e t t - / m o n e t a r y
> / s e e t s k s o / 'e c o n o m ic s'
1 8 . / p u l ( l - ) / 'people*
/ro t/ 's ta te '
> / p u o l l e r o s t / 'c itiz e n r y *
/ p r o c e / 'p eople*
> /p ro c e p u e l/ 'p o p u la c e '
19. /sa h sn a a / 'r e lig io n '

/lrr& h-/ 'C h r i s t '
> /k rih -sa h s n a a / 'C h ris tia n ity '
/ p u t t - / 'B uddha'
> / p u t t s a h s n a a / 'B uddhism '
20. /sa q k o ra a c / 'e r a ,
century'
/ k r i h - / 'C h rist*
> / k r a h - s a q k e r a a c / ' C h r i s t i a n Era*
/ p u t t - / 'B uddha' > / p u t t o s a q k s r a a c / 'B u d d h i s t E r a '

21. / s a q / 'g ra d e ,
era
/qaekk -/ 's in g l e '

/p an c a-/ 'fiv e '
22
/ce t/ 'l i f e ,
> /qaekk saq/ 'e q u a l in rank'
> /p a n c a s a q / ' f i f t h 12- y e a r c y c le '
essence'
/thoam m -/ ' c a u s a t i o n ,
/rukkh -/ 'p l a n t ,
tree'
d h a rm a ' > / t h o a m m e c e e t / ' n a t u r e *

> /rukkh ce t/ 'v e g e t a t i o n '
129
3 .5
R ed u p licativ es
A r e d u p l i c a t i v e i s a n y l e x e m e whose c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e
s i m i l a r o r i d e n t i c a l i n shape and m eaning.
R ed u p licativ es
may b e c o m p o s ed o f
1 ) two o r more b o u n d c o n s t i t u e n t s
2 ) a f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t f o l l o w e d by a b o un d c o n s t i t u e n t
3 ) a bound c o n s t i t u e n t f o llo w e d by a f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t
I4.) tw o f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t s
I n r e d u p l i c a t i v e s c o n s i s t i n g o f two o r more' b o u n d f o r m s ,
t h e f i r s t form i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e b a s e and t h e f o l l o w i n g
form o r form s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i t s r e d u p l i c a t i o n s .
In r e d u p l i -
c a t i v e s c o n t a i n i n g one f r e e f o r m , t h e f r e e f o r m i s c o n s i d e r e d
th e b a s e , w hether i t p reced es or fo llo w s i t s r e d u p l i c a t i o n .
R e d u p li c a t iv e s in v o lv in g a f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t u s u a l l y belong
t o t h e same form c l a s s a s t h e f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t .
R edupli
c a t i v e s in which b o th c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e f r e e a r e r e d u p l i c a t
i v e compounds.
*
3 .5 1 C om plete r e d u p l i c a t i o n
3,511 R e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
R e p e t it i v e r e d u p l i c a t iv e s Involve r e d u p l i c a t io n o f the
e n tire base.
A l l r e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s a r e compo sed
e i t h e r o f tw o b o u n d c o n s t i t u e n t s o r two f r e e c o n s t i t u e n t s .
In e ac h c a s e t h e c o n s t i t u e n t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e b a se .
3.5111
B o t h c o n s t i t u e n t s bou n d
Almost a l l bound r e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s a r e
130
o n o m a to p o e tic a d j e c t i v e s , w i t h a few k i n e s t h e t i c a d j e c t i v e s .
These a d j e c t i v e s m odify b o t h nouns and v e rb s i n t h e f o l l o w
i n g way*
/ c m a a yum l & i s o o : gaaw-flaaw*.. /
c a t c r y h e a r s o u n d meow-meow
C a t s make a 1 meow-meow s o u n d . 1
/kn o m l l i k e e c l u o h * . k o k a o k - k o k a o k * . /
I h e a r th em a r g u e s o u n d - o f - a r g u i n g - v i o l e n t l y
I h e a r d th em a r g u i n g v i o l e n t l y , '
F u r t h e r e x am p le s*
/ k r i m - k r i m / 1d e s c r i p t i v e . o f a s t r u m m i n g sound*
/ k r u e p - k r u o p / d e s c r i p t i v e o f a c r u n c h i n g sound*
/ p r i c - p r & c / t h e sound o f water, d r i p p i n g '
/p d e o t-p d o Q t/ slow ly, w ith g re a t e ffo rt*
/ru Q ^w o o l-ru aQ w o sl/ slovtly, slu g g ish ly *
D e s c r i p t i v e r e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s may c o n t a i n u p
to four or fiv e c o n s titu e n ts .
The p r o c e s s i s t h u s p r o d u c t i v e .
Example*
/ k i k - k i k / d e s c r i p t i v e o f t h e n o i s e o f m achines o p e ra tin g *
/ k i k - k i k - k i k / id'
/k&k-k&k-kl-k-k-ik/ i d
3 .5 1 1 2 Both c o n s t i t u e n t s f r e e
R e d u p l i c a t i o n o f f r e e lexem es t o form r e p e t i t i v e r e -
d u p l i c a t i v e compounds i s p r o d u c t i v e .
I t s function v a rie s
131
w i t h t h e form c l a s s o f t h e r e d u p l i c a t e d form .
I ."1 Nouns:
p lu ra lity ,
g en erality
/ s r o y / woman > / s r o y - s r e y / s e v e r a l women, women i n

g en eral
/ k m e e q / c h i l d > /kmeeto-kmeeio/ c h i l d r e n , c h i l d r e n i n
general
/ p r d h / m an > / p r o h - p r o h / men, men i n g e n e r a l
2*) A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s *
/ p s e e i 3/
in te n sifica tio n , p lu ra lity
t o be d i f f e r e n t > / p s e e g - p s e e q / v a r i o u s
/ t o o c / t o be s m a l l > / t o o c - t o o c / t o be q u i t e s m a ll ,
s m a ll and n u m erous
/ k p u o h / t o be h i g h > / k p u e h - k p u e h / t o be v e r y h i g h j
h i g h and n u m ero u s
/ l & o n / t o be f a s t > / l i o n - l i o n / t o b e v e r y f a s t
3.
Pronouns and a d j e c t i v e s :
p l u r a l i t y
/q w o y / w hat, so m e th in g , a n y th in g ( s i n g u l a r )
> /qw oy-qt^sy/ what, a n y th in g , som ething ( p l u r a l )
/ n a a / w hich,
anywhere
(sin g u lar)
> / n a a - n a a / w h i c h , a n y w h ere
(p lu ral)
/ q a e - t i e t / a n o t h e r > / q a e t i o t - q a e t i o t / v a r i o u s o t h e r
Ij., D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e f r o m n u m e r a l :
/m uoy/ o n e
> /muey-m uoy/ s l o w l y
D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e from p r e p o s i t i o n :
/ c i t / close t o
> /c& t-c& t/ c lo s e ly ,
quite c lo s e
132
6. A d je c tiv e s :
r e p e a te d a c t i o n
/ k r i p / short,
a b ru p t > /kr& p-kr& p/ d e s c r ip tiv e o f

th e sound o f l i v e s t o c k c ro p p in g g r a s s
/ p i 9e k / s l o w l y > / p l o e k - p l e s k / s l o w l y and r e p e a t e d l y
3 5>2 P a r t i a l r e d u p l i c a t i o n
3.21 A blauted r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
A blauted r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
b a s e w ith vowel a b l a u t .
involve r e d u p lic a tio n o f th e
The g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f a b l a u t e d
r e d u p l i c a t i v e s a r e com posed o f two b o u n d c o n s t i t u e n t s .

Most o f s u c h r e d u p l i c a t i v e s a r e e i t h e r k i n e s t h e t i c o r
onom atopoetic a d j e c t i v e s .
The p a t t e r n s o f v o w e l a l t e r n a t i o n a r e a p p a r e n t l y
random, b u t c e r t a i n a l t e r n a t i o n s o c c u r w i t h r e l a t i v e
f r e q u e n c y , a n d seem t o h a v e s e c o n d a r y s e m a n t i c a s s o c i a t i o n s .
The m o s t f r e q u e n t a r e l i s t e d below*
1 . / - e e - / " / - a a - / u n s t r u c t u r e d ,
confused
/ k r o w e e m - k r o w a a m / m a r k e d u p , d i s f i g u r e d
/ro h eeQ -ro h aag / 'i n confusion,
careless'
/pdeeh-pdaah/ 'h e lt e r - s k e l t e r ,
lack ad aisical'
/ k w e e h - k w a a h / 'a w k w a r d , d e s p e r a t e '
/teeij-taaio / incoherent,
confused'
2 . / - 0 e / ~ / OO-/ 'u n str u c tu re d , confused'

/kroheeJQ-krohooj]/ ' i n c o n f u s i o n '
/ro h eet-ro h o o t/ i d . '
/ k r o l e e Q - k r o l o c q / to s p l a s h a ro u n d '
133
3 . / ~ i i ~ / " / 09/
irreg u lar,
^.ineffective'
/ t o t r i i p - t o t r e e p / s t a g g e r i n g , wandering a i m l e s s l y
/ k r i i t - k r e a t / ' t o be r o u g h , u n e v e n
/ k n i i - k n e a / 'm o tle y group'
/m onii-m onea/ 'h u r r ie d ly ,
p recip ito u sly '
I}.. / - o o - / ~ / - a a - / ' h e t e r o g e n e o u s ,
in p ro fu sio n '
/to o ^ -taaio / ' c la tte r in g ly '

/ t o o c - t a a c / 's m a l l and num erous
/cro o q -craaQ / 'th ic k ,
in p ro fu sio n '
/sraoon-sm aan/ ' i n p r o f u s i o n ,

5 . / - i i - / - / * 9 - / ' i n e f f e c t i v e ,
irreg u lar'
v a cilla to ry
/ t o t i i m - t o t a a m / 's l o w and h e s i t a n t , u n c o o r d i n a t e d '

/tii-ta a /
's c a re d , v a c illa to ry '.
/ p l i i - p l a a / ' t o be s l o w , s t u p i d '
/ l o ^ i i - l o ^ e a / ' t o be s l o w , . s t u p i d '
6. /-e -/ /* * -/ 're p e a te d ,
/te h - to h / 'a l i t t l e
annoying'
of th is ,
a little
of th a t'
/qompeh-qompoh/ ' d e s u l t o r i l y '

/ l e h - l o h / !te a s in g ,
annoying'
/p o p leh -p o p lo h / ' i d . '

7 . / - a * * / ~ / 0 /
'd e s u lto ry '
/lp a n -lp o n / 'in to
everything
/c ro n -c ro n / 'h a ltin g ly ,
(of c h ild r e n ) '
in effectiv ely '
/ t a n - t o n / , /cram -crom / ' i d . 1
13k
8 . /-a e -/~ /* * a o -/ 'd iso rd e r*

/ k a e k - k a o k / s o u n d o f an u n s e e m l y r u c k u s
/prohaeQ -prohaofl/ 'i r r e g u l a r ,
sp o tty
9. / - a e - / ~ / - o o - / in co n seq u en tial n o is e
/ q a e - g o o / t o whine, im p o r tu n e
/kokae-kokoo/ b a b b lin g
3 . ^ 2 2 Rhyming r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
Rhyming r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n v o l v e r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
n u c le u s and f i n a l c o n so n a n t
( i f one o c c u r s ) o f t h e b a s e .
3 .5 2 2 1 Both c o n s t i t u e n t s bound
Rhyming r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
i n which b o t h c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e
bound a r e u s u a l l y a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s or a d j e c t i v e s ,
/ r e e q - t e e q / t o be p o l i t e ,
/caog-haoio/ 't o
be r u d e ,
e.g .:*
affab le
arrogant'
/ c a e q - m a s g / ' t o be h a u g h ty , p r e t e n t i o u s
/sa oQ-m aojQ/ ' g r o g g y , b e w i l d e r e d '
3 . 5 2 2 2 One c o n s t i t u e n t bound
Most r h y m i n g r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n w h i c h one c o n s t i t u e n t
i s bound i n v o l v e i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e b a s e ,
e .g .:
/khae^)~raeg/
( ' t o be b o l d ' / -
) 'to
be a r r o g a n t , f e a r l e s s
/sru o l-b u o l/
( t o be e a sy ' / -
) to
be e a s y , e n j o y a b l e '
/tu en -p lu en /
( t o be s o f t ' / -
) 'to
be t e n d e r , g r a c e f u l '
/ r e o y - m e o y / ( ' t o be s c a t t e r e d ' / /pqaem -rohaem / ( ' t o
be s w e e t /
) ' t o be h e l t e r - s k e l t e r
) ' t o be s i c k e n i n g l y s w e e t '
13*
/clo sn -p esn / ( - /
't o tram p le* ) 'to
in v a d e , usurp*
3 . 5 2 2 3 B o th c o n s t i t u e n t s f r e e
Most r h y m i n g r e d u p l i c a t i v e s composed o f two f r e e c o n
s t i t u e n t s i n v o l v e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e m eanings o f t h e
co n stitu en ts,
e .g .:
/ c a a n - k b a a n / ( 1d i s h ' / c r o c k * ) c r o c k e r y *
/ p r i o p - t h i o p / ( to s e t a l o n g s i d e '/ to compare ) to compare
/c ro o h -ro o h / ( to c h o o s e '/ 't o s e l e c t ) to choose,
elect*
3.523 A l l i t e r a t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
A l l i t e r a t i v e r e d u p lic a tiv e s involve r e d u p lic a tio n of
the i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t o r c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e o f t h e b a s e , o r
. in the case of d is y lla b le s ,
o f the p r e f i x plu s th e i n i t i a l
consonant or consonant sequence o f th e b ase.

3 . 5 2 3 1 B o t h c o n s t i t u e n t s bo u n d
1. A d je ctiv e s?
/p ram -p ro y / cu te, l i k a b l e
/p ro m -p ra a y / p le a s in g to h e a r'
/ k c i i - k c e o y / h a p h a z a r d
/ r o p o c - r o p o y / ' t r i v i a l and n u m e r o u s '
/ k o m p e c - k o m p o k / ' s m a l l and n u m e r o u s '
2. Verbs:
/chaek-chee/ 'to
in v estig ate,
/chaa-chaw / 't o p e s te r ,
in terro g ate'
tease*
/k la e q -k la e / 'to pretend
/k sek -k su o l/ 'to
sob'
136
3 . 5 2 3 2 One c o n s t i t u e n t b o u n d
1.
I n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e m e a n in g o f t h e b a s e :
/ c q a e t - c q a n / ( - / t o be d o n e ) w e l l done, cooked j u s t r i g h t
/ p h i t - p h i y / ( - / t o be a f r a i d ) t o b e t e r r i f i e d
/ t u l u m - t u l e a y / ( - / t o be roo m y')
' t o be w i d e a nd s p a c i o u s '
/bom plec-bom plaan/ ( - / ' to d e s t r o y ')

/cm aaiQ -cmay/ ( ' t o be p r o u d ' / /b ia t- b ia n / ( 'to
s q u e e z e /
-)
/ c o m p e a q - c o m p a n / ( ' t o owe / -
'to dev astate'
) 'c o n c e ite d ,
self-im p o rtan t'
't o oppress'
) ' t o be t i e d u p, i n v o lv e d '
2 . G e n e r a l i z a t i o n o r p l u r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e m e a n i n g o f b%a s e :
/ban-bua/
( ' l a k e 1/
' l a k e s and ponds'
/th u an -th ean /
('tv e a lth '/ -
/krat-kroem /
( ' l a w ' / - )
/prodap-prodaa/
( 'in s tru m e n t'/-
p o ssessio n s, p ro p e rty
'la w s, r e g u la tio n s '
) 'to o ls ,
instrum ents'
3. D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s f r o m v e r b s :
/p ro n ap -p ro n al/
('to h u r r y '/ - )
/tro lo p -tro lo n /
( 'to r e v e r t '/ -
'h u r r ie d ly '
) 'h e a d over h e e l s '
3 . 5 2 3 3 B o th c o n s t i t u e n t s f r e e
1 . S p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e m e a n in g o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s :
/ s d u a c - s d a a j o / ( ' t o be s h a r p ' / ' t o b e t h i n ' )
t o be s m a l l a n d
in sig n ifican t'
/ lc p u ^ j- k p u o h / ( ' t o b e t o w e r i n g ' / ' t o b e h i g h ' )
'im p o rta n t,
e x alted '
/boh-baok/ ( 'to d i s c a r d '/ 't o b e a t')
'to
be c r u d e ,
im p o lite'
137
/b o n d aet-b o n d ao y / ( 't o
f l o a t * / 't o fo llo w ')
' fco a l l o w ,
facilitate*
/ b o n c h s t - b o n c h i 3 3 / ( ' t o b r u s h p a s t * / 1t o t \ i r n a s i d e ' )
' t o s k i r t an i s s u e , t o c i r c u m l o c u t e '
/b o iQ k h et- b o Q k h o m / ( ' t o m o v e ' / ' t o f o r c e ' )
'to s triv e
d ilig en tly '
2. C o o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e m eanings o f t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s ;
/ruep-ruoin/ ( 't o c o l l e c t '/ 't o
com b in e')
'to c o lle c t,
bring
to g eth er'
/cu o p -cu m / ( ' t o r a e e t '/ 't o a sse m b le ')
/ p t u k - p t e e / ( ' to l o a d ' / ' t o u n lo a d ')
/bo^koo-boQ kaet/ ( ' t o
'to
assem ble'
' t o l o a d and unload*
e s ta b lis h '/'to
o rig in a te ')
'to a g ita te ,
/bo^qoo-bo^quet/ ( ' t o c h e e r '/ 't o
show o f f ' )
in stig a te'
' t o show o f f ,
amuse*
3 . D e r i v e s a d j e c t i v e s f ro m v e r b s ;
/d o h - d a a l/ ( ' t o g r o w '/'to sp re a d ')
'r ic h ly , p ro fu sely '
/r u u t- r e o h / ( 't o h u r r y '/ 't o h u rry ')

/ p i c - p i e 013/
('to
'h u r r ie d ly ,
f o r g e t '/ 't o r e la x ')
/ro w lo h -ro w iy / ( ' t o h u r r y '/ 't o
turn,
desperately'
'c a r e le s s ly '
spin')
'h u r r ie d ly ,
ex cited ly '
/b ontoop-bontoo/ ( ' n e x t ' / ' t o
extend')
'c o n tin u o u s ly '
3* 5 3 I n c o m p l e t e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
I n c o m p le te r e d u p l i c a t i v e s i n v o l v e t h e rhym ing r e d u p l i ~
c a tio n o f th e second s y l l a b l e o f a d i s y l l a b i c
base.
.138
1. V erbs:
'in te n s ific a tio n *
/ k r o b i p / ' t o be r o b u s t 1 > / k r o b i p - b i p / t o be f a t a n d r o b u s t 1
/ c r o l a a h / ' t o be a rro g a n t*
> /c r o l a h - b a h / r u d e and forxârd
/p o p is h / te a s in g 1 > /s e h -p o p le h / friv o lo u s , u n p rin c ip le d

/k r o lu u k / co n fu sed > /s u u k -k ro lu u k / confused, dazed
2 . Nouns I
/ t r o l 4jo~ti?3/
'a species of t r e e
/k o n d a e -ra e / 'a kind o f dance
Pseudo- r e d u p lic a t iv e s
P s e u d o - r e d u p l i c a t i v e s a r e c o o r d i n a t e compounds whose
c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e s i m i l a r i n m e a n i n g , b u t e x h i b i t no f o r m a l
s i m i l a r i t y o t h e r t h a n word s h a p e . S u c h compounds c a n n o t by
d e f i n i t i o n be c o n s i d e r e d r e d u p l i c a t i v e s ,
s i n c e no c o n s i s t
e n t p a t t e r n o f r e d u p l i c a t i o n can be found.
They d o , h o w e v e r ,
seem t o r e f l e c t a p r e f e r e n c e f o r w o r d s o f s i m i l a r s h a p e
i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c o o r d i n a t e com pounds.
The m e a n in g o f
such shape r e d u p l i c a t i o n s is p l u r a l i t y or g e n e r a l i t y .
Exam ples:
/q a a c a o - q a a k in / ( t h i e f /
) th iev es, c rim in a ls
/ tu m n i e m - t u m l o e p / ( c u sto m / custom ) c u sto m s, c u l t u r e

/ s o m l i a q - b o m p e e q / ( l o w e r g a r m e n t s / u p p e r g a r m e n t s )
c lo th in g
139
3 . 6 Sound s y m b o l is m
C e r t a i n vowels r e c u r i n g ro u p s o f s e m a n t i c a l l y r e l a t e d
lex em es, and th u s a p p ea r t o have s e c o n d a ry se m a n tic f u n c t i o n .
F o l l o w i n g a r e some t o t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t *
1 . / - ! - / 'p r e s s u r e , t i g h t n e s s
/ a i t / ' t o i n s e r t i n to a t i g h t place*
/ c o Q q i s t / ' t o be t i g h t ,
crow ded'
/ b i e t - b i e n / 't o oppress'
/k io q / 'to
squeeze'
/ b i e q / ' t o com press'
<
/ b i o m / ' t o h o l d t i g h t l y i n t h e mouth'
2 . / 8/ ' s l o w ,
s l u g g i s h i n m in d o r g a i t '
/m e e k - m o Q k / ' s l o w l y , s l u g g i s h l y '
/p leo k -p leo k / ' i d . '
/neek-neek/ ' i d . '
/ r u 9 Q W 0 0 l - r u 9 Q W 9 0 l/ ' i d . '
/ p i / ' t o be s l o w and s t u p i d '

/lg o / ' i d . *
/lm / ' i d . 1
3. / - a - / 'l a r g e s iz e ,
in crease'
/ c r a s n / '.much, many'
/ka n/ 't o in c re a s e '
/ s b a e m / ' t o f e a r , b e i n awe o f
/ s o m b a e m / ' t o be l a r g e ,
/ 1 b.qx) / * i n c r e a s i n g l y ,
awesome'
to clim b'
lj.. / - a - / , /--/* e x c e s s i v e , a r r o g a n t
/le h / beyond, e x c e e d in g
/c r o la e h / 't o
exceed'
/c rb la h * b a h / ' t o be a r r o g a n t , c r u d e '
/p r o h o e n / to be i n s o l e n t '
/cxnaq/
't o
be p ro u d , c o n c e it e d
/caQ-raaX)/ ' i d . '
1 . T h e s e v o w e ls a r e c o r r e l a t i v e a l t e r n a n t s ,
in
as d e s c r ib e d
Ij.. 0 Lexeme c l a s s e s
A 3-Qxeme c l a s s i s a s e t o f l e x e m e s w h ic h s h a r e a s e t o f
s y n ta c tic p riv ile g e s o f o ccu rren ce.
The m a j o r c l a s s e s a r e
l i s t e d b e lo w w i t h t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e a b b r e v i a t i o n s .
S m a lle r
s u b - c l a s s e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e b a s i s o f a d d i t i o n a l s y n
ta c tic c rite r ia ,
o r o f se m a n tic c r i t e r i a .
lj.,1 I s o l a t i v e s
1+.11 I n t e r j e c t i o n s
1+.12 R e s p o n s i v e s
lj.,2 S u b s t a n t i v e s
1|, 21 Nouns
li-. 22 S p e c i f i e r s
lj.,23 P r o n o u n s
P ro
Ij..2l|. Q u a n t i f i e r s
1 |.2 D e m o n s t r a t i v e s
X
D
l|..3 P r e d i c a t i v e s
I|.,31 A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s
Va
I4..32 A c t i v e v e r b s
I}.,321 T r a n s i t i v e v e r b s
Vt
Ij., 322 I n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s
Vi
1|. 33 M odal v e r b s
Vra
4.. 3'U- D i r e c t i o n a l v e r b s
Vd
35 C o m p l e t i v e v e r b s
Vc
I4..I4. A d v e r b i a l s
Adv
A d je c tiv e s
Adj
lj.,6 A u x i l i a r i e s
Aux
1k i
li|2
14-. 7 R e l a t o r s
I}.. 7.1 P r e p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t o r s
Rp
14. . 72 S u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s Rs
1|. 73 G e n e r a l r e l a t o r s
Rg
I47U- C o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s
Rc
1+. 75 C o p u l a t i v e r e l a t o r s
Cop
14..8 P a r t i c l e s
14.. 8 1 P i n a l s e n t e n c e p a r t i c l e s
I4.*82 P a u s e p a r t i c l e s
F
*
14..1 I s o l a t i v e s
I s o l a t i v e s , t y p i c a l l y o c c u r a s s o l e le x e m ic c o n s t i t u e n t s
o f u t t e r a n c e s and as s o l e le x e m ic c o n s t i t u e n t s o f p re p o s e d
p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e s w h ic h a r e s e p a r a t e d fro m t h e i r c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s by a p h ra se c o n to u r.
T hey n e v e r o c c u r a s
s u b s ta n tiv e s o r as p r e d i c a t i v e s .
14.. 11 I n t e r j e c t i o n s
M ost i n t e r j e c t i o n s h a v e g r e a t a l l o m o r p h i c v a r i e t y .
The
p r i n c i p a l members o f t h e c l a s s a r e l i s t e d b e lo w , w i t h t h e i r
com m onest a l l o m o r p h s an d t h e i r t h e i r t y p i c a l p h r a s e c o n t o u r s .
1) /qool~
qaoV
Oh! 1 ( e m p h a s i s , e x c i t e m e n t )
2) / c o h l /
Come o n ( e x h o r t a t i o n , p e r s u a s i o n )
3) /to h 'l'/
Go a h e a d I '
ij.) / n a e ' l ' /
H ey! (to a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n , p r o h i b i t )
5) /c o m !/
Oh r e a l l y ?
6 ) /n a o V
Look h e r e l ( t o a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n )
7) / y i l f ~
y e e t/
(im p e ra tiv e ,
e x h o rta tio n )
(su d d en r e v e l a t i o n )
(D isa g ree m e n t, m ild o r p l a y f u l re b u k e )
11+3
8 ) /m a e t/
W ell! 1 ( s u r p r i s e , annoyance)
9) / h 00^ /
H ey! (to a t t r a c t a t t e n t i o n )
1 0 ) / q e 'i /
On t h e c o n t r a r y *
1 1 ) / t a o 1/
R e a lly ? (as i s o l a t e d u t te r a n c e )
( m il d d i s a g r e e m e n t )
T e l l m e ( a s c o - c o n s t i t u e n t )
1 2 ) / q a y y a a '|'/
G e e . ( a d m i r a t i o n , w o n d e r)
1 3 )/q ay y a h !/
H eav ens I , ( a l a r m , s u r p r i s e )
lij.) /q o y y o o y |/
O u c h
15> ) /q u u l~ q u y l /
O h ! ( f e a r , a l a r m )
1 6 )/p u tth o o l/
Damn! ( m il d o a t h )
Ip. 12 R e s p o n s i v e s
R e s p o n s i v e s o c c u r i n t h e same e n v i r o n m e n t a s i n t e r j e c t
i o n s , b u t o n ly i n u t t e r a n c e s s u b s e q u e n t to t h e o p e n in g u t t e r
ance o f an exchange.
c o n to u r / { / .
T hey t y p i c a l l y o c c u r w i t h t h e p h r a s e
T h e i r f u n c t i o n i s p o l i t e a c k n o w le d g e m e n t o f a
p r e v i o u s u t t e r a n c e by a n o t h e r s p e a k e r , w h e t h e r t h e p r e v i o u s
u t t e r a n c e was a s t a t e m e n t o r a q u e s t i o n .
F o llo w in g a q u e s tio n ,
th e o c c u rre n c e o f a r e s p o n s iv e as th e s o lo le x e m ic c o n s t i t
u e n t o f an u t t e r a n c e i m p l i e s a f f i r m a t i o n ,
A n e g a tiv e r e p ly is
i n d i c a t e d by a r e s p o n s i v e f o l l o w e d by t h e n e g a t i v e f i n a l s e n t
ence p a r t i c l e / t e e f / ,
o r by / t e o i 1/ a l o n e .
In exchanges b e
tw e e n e q u a l s , r e s p o n s i v e s t e n d t o be d i s c o n t i n u e d a f t e r t h e
i n i t i a l exchanges.
H ow ever, i n e x c h a n g e s b e tw e e n a s u p e r i o r
a n d an i n f e r i o r , r e s p o n s i v e s t e n d t o b e u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e
e x c h a n g e by t h e i n f e r i o r ,
a l t h o u g h t h e y may b e d i s c o n t i n u e d
by th e s u p e r i o r p a r t y in th e ex ch an g e.
ll&
The c l a s s i s s m a l l and c l o s e d .
One m em ber, / q a / , h a s
t h r e e a llo m o rp h s.
1) /b a a tV
( P o l i t e r e s p o n s i v e u s e d by men)
2) /c a a h f" - c a h l/
( P o l i t e r e s p o n s i v e u s e d b y women)
3 ) / q a ,l,~ q'l'~-'qi&}/ ( F a m i l i a r r e s p o n s i v e u s e d by b o t h
men a n d women)
P e r s o n a l nam es, k i n s h i p te r m s , and t i t l e s ,
a l l o f w h ic h
a r e s u b - c l a s s e s o f s u b s t a n t i v e s , a ls o , o c c u r i n t h e i s o l a t i v e
p o s itio n , as w e ll
as f i n a l l y , in v o c a tiv e c o n s tr u c tio n s
( .1 2 5 ), w ith th e fu n c tio n o f
id e n t if y in g th e
ad d ressee.
^ .2 S u b s ta n tiv e s
A s u b s t a n t i v e i s a n y n o n - p r e d i c a t i v e le x e m e w h ic h c a n
o c c u r a s t h e s u b j e c t o r t o p i c o f an u t t e r a n c e .
a l s o f u n c t i o n a s o b j e c t s an d a t t r i b u t e s .
can fu n c tio n as s u b s ta n tiv e s ,
S u b sta n tiv e s
Many p r e d i c a t i v e s
but su b s ta n tiv e s never fu n c tio n
as p re d ic a tiv e s .
I4. . 2 I Nouns
A n o u n i s a n y s u b s t a n t i v e w h ic h may o c c u r i n t h e c o n t e x t
# J C S # , w h e re # r e p r e s e n t s s i l e n c e , X r e p r e s e n t s a n u m e r a l ; o r
and S r e p r e s e n ts a s p e c i f i e r .
In o t h e r w ords, a noun i s any
s u b s t a n t i v e w h ic h c an b e c o u n t e d ,
1;. 211 G e n e r a l n o u n s a r e n o u n s w h ic h c a n o c c h r a s h e a d s o f
n u m e r i c a l noun p h r a s e s w i t h o u t a s p e c i f i e r ,
t e x t #_X#.
i.e .
in th e con
The g r o a t m a j o r i t y o f n o u n s b e l o n g t o t h i s s u b
c la s s .
ii|5
E x a m p le s : / l a a n p i i /
/ck a e b e y /
c a r txfo
dog t h r e e
tw o c a r s *
th re e dogs'
A l t h o u g h g e n e r a l n o u n s t y p i c a l l y o c c u r i n t h e abo ve c o n
te x t,
t h e y may a l s o o c c u r i n t h e c o n t e x t #_XS7f ,
o f th e g e n e ra l s p e c if ie r s
w h e re S i s on e
(I4. . 2 2 1 3 ) .
E s a m p le : / l a a n p i i y a a g /
c a r two k i n d
't w o k i n d s o f c a r s '
i
ii.,212 S p e c i f i c n o u n s a r e n o u n s w h ic h n o r m a l l y o c c u r i n
n u m e ric a l noun p h r a s e s o f t h e p a t t e r n
q u a lita tiv e s p e c ifie r
E x a m p le s :
T h is
, w h e re S i s a
(I}..2 2 1 1 ) .
/rao n u h b e y n e e q /
/ b a r e y p i i daom /
human t h r e e p e r s o n
c i g a r e t t e two l o n g - o b j e c t s
'th r e e p e rso n s'
two c i g a r e t t e s '
c l a s s i s much s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t o f g e n e r a l n o u n s ,
and t h e f a c t t h a t i t s members s o m e tim e s o c c u r i n i n f o r m a l

speech w ith o u t a s p e c i f i e r
(i.e .
a s g e n e r a l n o u n s ) may i n
d ic a te th a t th e c la s s i s d e c re a sin g in s iz e .
F u r t h e r s u b - c l a s s e s o f s p e c i f i c n o u n s c a n be e s t a b l i s h e d
on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s p e c i f i e r s w i t h w h ic h t h e y o c c u r .
The
l a r g e s t s u b - c l a s s i s t h a t o f common p e r s o n a l n o u n s , a l l o f
W hich c o - o c c u r w i t h t h e q u a l i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r / n e e q / ' p e r s o n
o f o rd in a ry e s t a t e '.
Such nouns a r e :
1 ) n o u n s whoso r e f e r e n t i s a p e r s o n
E xam ple::; / n e e q - t w e e - s r a e p i i n e e q /
't w o f a r m e r s '
p e r s o n - d o - f i e l d two p e r s o n
1I+6
2 ) k i n s h i p term s
Exam ple* /b o c n j-p q o o n p ram n e e q /
o ld e r-a n d -y o u n g e r-s ib lin g s f iv e p erso n
' f i v e b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s '
3 ) title s
Exam ple* / l o o k b e y n e e q / .
g e n tl e m a n t h r e e p e r s o n
't h r e e g e n tle m e n '
lj.,213 Mass n o u n 3 a r e n o u n s t h a t a lw a y s o c c u r , when c o u n t e d ,
i n n u m e r i c a l n o u n p h r a s e s o f t h e p a t t e r n #_XS#, w h e re S i s a
q u a n tita tiv e s p e c ifie r
(!}..2 2 1 2 ) .
Xn o t h e r w o r d s , m ass n o u n s
n e v e r o c c u r i n t h e fr a m e #_X#.
E x a m p le s : / t i k muey k a e w /
/b aa y p i i c a a n /
w a t e r one g l a s s
r i c e tw o p l a t e
'a g la s s o f w a te r'
't w o p l a t e s o f r i c e '
I4. . 2 H4. Name3 o c c u r i n t y p i c a l s u b s t a n t i v e p o s i t i o n s a s t o p i c s ,

s u b j e c t s , o b j e c t s , and a t t r i b u t e s , b u t th e y a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
by t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e a s t h e s e c o n d c o n s t i t u e n t o f a p p o s i t i v e
p h rases.
E xam ples* / t u e n l e e meeko*]/
/k ru u th o o n /
r i v e r Mekong
t e a c h e r Than
' t h e Mekong R i v e r '
'T e a c h e r Than'*1,
1 . P e r s o n a l names a l s o o c c u r a f t e r t i t l e s a s g e n i t i v a l a t t r i
b u te s.
F o r e x a m p le , / k r u u t h o o n / c a n a l s o mean 'T h a n ' s
t e a c h e r 'j th e a m b ig u ity i s r e s o lv e d o n ly in c o n te x t.
11*7
lj.,22 S p e c i f i e r s
A s p e c i f i e r i s a n y le x e m e ( o t h e r t h a n a n u m e r a l ) w h ic h
o c c u rs in p o s t- p o s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n w ith a n u m e ra l, i . e .
c o n t e x t #X__#.
in th e
The r e s u l t i n g c o n s t r u c t i s a s p e c i f i e r p h r a s e .-
I4. . 2 2 I Noun s p e c i f i e r s a r e s p e c i f i e r s w h ic h may o c c u r i n s p e c i

f i e r p h r a s e s w h ic h a r e a t t r i b u t i v e
t o noun h e a d s , i . e ,
in th e
c o n t e x t #NX__#.
E x a m p le s ; / d a e m - c h e e p i i d a e m /
/e n a c t p ii so n le k /
t r e e two S - f o r - t r e e s
t i c k e t two s h e e t ; :
tw o t r e e s '
't w o t i c k e t s '
Noun s p e c i f i e r s a l s o o c c u r w i t h o u t a no un h e a d when t h e
a n te c e d e n t o f t h e s p e c i f i e r h a s been m e n tio n e d , o r i s o b v io u s
fro m t h e c o n te x t.
E xam ples* w i t h t h e s p e c i f i e r / n e o q / ' o r d i n a r y p e r s o n ' ;
/n e sq - n u h / (p erso n t h a t )
't h a t r p e r s o n *
/ p i i n e e q n u h / (two p e r s o n t h a t )
. :
' t h o s e two p e r s o n s '
/ n e e q th u m n u h / ( p e r s o n t a l l t h a t )
't h a t t a l l p erso n '
ij.,2211 Q u a l i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r s a r e s p e c i f i e r s w h ic h h a v e , a
s p e c i a l se m a n tic r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith a g ro u p o f n o u n s.
Most
q u a l i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r s o c c u r o n l y a s s p e c i f i e r s an d d e f i n e
th e c la s s .
The c l a s s i s s m a l l a n d c l o s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e
f o l l o w i n g l i s t may n o t be c o m p l e t e .
1 ) /n e sq /
'p e r s o n s o f o r d i n a r y e s t a t e '
2) /q o $ /
' p rie s ts j
3 ) /p re sh -q o x i/
Lj.) / d a e m /
Buddha im ag es? h o l y
p e rso n s'
'r o y a l p e rs o n s '
' l o n g s l e n d e r o b j e e t s j t r e e s '?
c ig a re tte s '
1U-8
$)
/t U 9 /
le tte rs
o f th e a lp h a b e t; c h a r a c te r s o f a p la y 1
6 ) /k ro e p /
seeds,
g ra in s , p e lle ts*
7) /dom/
p i e c e s , lu m p s
8 ) /sb n le k /
th in s h e e ts
9) / p l a e /
f r u i t s
1 0 )/ c h a p /
in d iv id u a l c o p ie s,
1 1 )/so sa y /
's in e w s , t h r e a d s
1 2 )/p h ae n /
fla t cakes
13)/k b a a l/
v o lu m e s o f b o o k s ; l i v e s t o c k '
ll+ J/ru u p /.
p i c t u r e s ,
l )/s n e t/
h an d s o f b a n a n a s
1 6 )/p ro d ap /
in stru m e n ts, t o o ls
1 7 ) / k r i 9X)/
m o to rs, m a c h in e s
l e t t e r s , n e v rs p a p e r S
im a g es, s h a p e s
Q u a l it a t i v e s p e c i f i e r s f r e q u e n tly o c cu r as h e ad s o f
n oun.' com pounds. E x a m p le s :
/n e o q -p ro h /
/d ae m -c h ee /
p e r s o n - + m ale
l o n g - s l e n d e r - o b j e c t *./wood
i man
It*. 2212 Q u a n t i t a t i v e s p e c i f i e r s
t r e e
a r e s p e c i f i e r s w h ic h d i v i d e
th e r e f e r e n t s o f nouns in to s p e c i f i c
m a rk e tin g .
q u a n t i t i e s c r m a n n e rs o f
Most members o f t h e c l a s s o c c u r a l s o a s n o u n s .
The c l a s s i s a s . ' l a r g e a s t h e num ber o f n o u n s d e n o t i n g con~

t a i n e r s o r a g g lo m e ra tio n s in th e la n g u a g e .
/s r e v ? mu ay t a w /
u n h u sk e d -ric e -o n e b u sh e l
a b u sh e l o f r i c e
E x a m p le s :
/ b i y e o muoy do o p /
beex* o n e b o t t l e
a b o ttle o f b e e r
ll{-9
/ t r e y m usy k o n t u y /
f i s h one t a i l
' a strin g of fish '
14..2213 G e n e r a l s p e c i f i e r s a r e s p e c i f i e r s vriilch o c c u r a f t e r a
w id e r a n g e o f n o u n s .
E x am p le ss
/m hoop p i i y a a J j / ( f o o d tw o k i n d s )
two k i n d s o f f o o d '
/ s b a e k - c o o j j muoy k u u / ( s h o e s one p a i r )
/ p t e o h p i i l m a a t / ( h o u s e two s i z e )
a p a ir of shoes
't w o s i z e s o f h o u s e s '
[{..222 V erb s p e c i f i e r s o c c u r i n t h e c o n t e x t #VX_#, and d i v i d e

th e a c tio n o f . t h e v erb i n to p h ases o r o c c u rre n c e s .
E x am p le s* / p o e t b e y c u m /
e n c i r c l e t h r e e c irc u m a m b u la tio n s
't o
go a r o u n d t h r e e t i m e s '
/w a y b e y q o n l u u g /
h i t th re e s tro k o s-o f-a -m a lle t
' t o h i t th r e e tim e s
(w ith a m a l l e t )
V e rb s p e c i f i e r s d i f f e r fro m noun s p e c i f i e r s i n t h a t t h e y
n e v e r o c c u r i n c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a nou n h e a d , and fro m i n d e
pendent s p e c ifie rs
in t h a t th e y n e v e r o ccu r in d e p e n d e n tly o f
a v e rb head in f i r s t r e f e r e n c e .
a b ly c lo s e d ,
Tho c l a 3 s i s s m a l l and p r o b
a l t h o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t may n o t be c o m p l e t e .
1 ) /d o o io /
'tim e s , o c c a s io n s '
2 ) /lo o k /
'a tte m p ts , o c c a s io n s '
3) /c u m /
'r e v o l u t i o n s '
[{.) / c o p /
'c o m p l e t i o n s '
i5 o
5 ) /k a m b o t/
s la s h e s , stro k e s
(o f a k n if e ) '
6 ) /tro lo p /
'r o t a t i o n s , o v e r-tu rn in g s'
7 ) /q o n lu u g /
's tr o k e s
8 .) / m a t /
'u t t e r a n c e s , m o u th fu ls'
9) /tik /
'r o u n d s , h e a ts
1 0 ) /w u 9io/
'c i r c l e s , re v o lu tio n s '
1 1 )/lb a a k /
'e x c u r s io n s , d i s t a n c e s '
1 2 )/lb o q /
'n a p s , p e rio d s o f s le e p '
( o f a hammer o r m a l l e t ) '
(of a c o n te s t) '
I+.223 I n d e p e n d e n t s p e c i f i B r s a r e s p e c i f i e r s w h ic h o c c u r i n
n u m e r i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e p a t t e r n #X__#, i n d e p e n d e n t l y
o f a noun o r v e r b head*
Su ch s p e c i f i e r s a r e u n i t s o f t i m e ,
m oney, o r d i s t a n c e .
E xam ples*
/ p i i tf la y t i o t f knom tow p n u m -p ih k .i /
t*?o d a y m ore I go Phnom -Penh
' I ' m g o i n g t o Phnom P e n h i n txyo d a y s . '
/knom mean dop r i e l I . /
I have te n r i e l
' I have te n r i e l s . '
/y o s Q d a a pram k i l o o - m a e t | , /
we w a lk f i v e k i l o m e t e r
'We w a lk e d f i v e k i l o m e t e r s . '
151
lj.,32 P ro n o u n s
P ro n o u n s a r e n o u n s u b s t i t u t e s w h ic h f u n c t i o n a s t o p i c s ,
su b je c ts,
o b je c ts ,
a n d a t t r i b u t e s , b u t w h ic h do n o t o c c u r a s
head s o f n u m e ric a l p h ra s e s .
^ 2 3 1 P e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s a r e n o u n s u b s t i t u t e s w hose r e f e r e n t s
are p e rso n sB
P e rs o n a l pronouns a re n o n - s p e c i f i c as t o g en d er
a n d n u m b e r, a l t h o u g h p l u r a l i t y c a n b e s p e c i f i e d by a d d i n g one
-o f t h e p a r t i t i v e pronouns
t o t h e p e r s o n a l pronoun.
(14-.23I+), s u c h a s / t e o ^ - q o h / a l l * ,
P e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s fo rm r e f l e x i v e
p r o n o u n compounds w i t h t h e r e f l e x i v e p r o n o u n / q a e g / o n e s e l f .
m
___*1 ^ * / /_*?_____
^ / t t
J W L tu u p A tj;
j s j j u i u - q u t y j y /
jl
_i a i .......
.................
A lth o u g h th e c l a s s o f p e r s o n a l pro n o u n s p e r se I s q u i t e
lim ite d ,
te rm s,
i t i s su p p le m e n te d by th e u s e o f t i t l e s ,
and names i n p r o n o m i n a l f u n c t i o n .
a n d / l o o k / o c c u r a l s o as t i t l e s ,
k in sh ip
The fo rm s / n e s q /
b u t th e frequency o f t h e i r
u s e a s common 2n d - p e r s o n p ro n o u n s seem s t o
ju s tify th e ir in
c l u s i o n in t h e in v e n to r y o f p e r s o n a l pronouns as w e ll.
1 s t - a n d 2n d - p e r s o n p r o n o u n s a r e c o n t e x t - o r i e n t e d , so
t h a t t h e c h o i c e o f a p ro n o u n h a s many s e m a n t i c i m p l i c a t i o n s .
The f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n s a r e o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e .
le x e s occur th ey a re l i s t e d
When a l l o -
in d esce n d in g o rd e r o f f o r m a lity .
I*.2311 1 s t - p e r s o n p r o n o u n s
1 . /k n o m / ( g e n e r a l, p o l i t e )
2 . / q a n / (b e tw e e n i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s ,
a d u lt to c h ild ;
su p e rio r to in f e r io r ,
o th e riy ise I n s u l t i n g )
or
3* /y9 ^)/ ( s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l e x c l u s i v e when u s e d b y s u p e r i o r

t o i n f e r i o r t p l u r a l i n c l u s i v e when u s e d among i n t i m a t e s )
1+ /yo ejQ -k n o m / ( s u b s e r v i e n t ,
i n f e r i o r to s u p e rio r)
/ q a e y / ( b e tw e e n i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s , c o n t r a s t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n )
6e /k n e s / (in tim a te f r ie n d s ,
sin g u la r or p lu ra l in c lu siv e )
7. /k n o m -p re e h -b a a t/ ^
I ( in f e r io r to s u p e rio r, r e s p e c tfu l or
/k n o m -p re b a a t/
/
I e x tre m e ly fo rm a l)
/k n o m -b a a t/
J
8 . /k n o m -p re o h -k a q ru n a a / 1
I (la y m a n t o p r i e s t , i n f e r i o r t o
/k n o m -k a q ru n aa /
r
1 su p e rio r o f e x a lte d rank)
/k n o m -k e n a a /
J
9 . /q a a tm a a -p h e o p / 1
) ( p r i e s t t o la y m a n )
/q a a tm a a /
*
I4..2312 2n d - p e r s o n p r o n o u n s
1.
/lo o k /
(fo rm a l, p o l i t e ,
in f e r io r to su p e rio r)
2.
/ n e e q / ( b e tw e e n e q u a l s , o r s u p e r i o r t o i n f e r i o r )
3.
/ q a e $ / (b e tw e e n i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s ,
or su p e rio r to
in fe rio r)
1| . / k l u o n / (b e tw e e n i n t i m a t e f r i e n d s , r e f l e x i v e c o n n o t a t i o n )
5 . / q a a - q s e q / ( d e r o g a t o r y , g o o d - n a t u r e d i n s u l t b e tw e e n f r i e n d s ,
a d u lt to c h ild )
6 , /p re e h -d a c p re e h -k u n / ( i n f e r i o r to su p e rio r o f e x a lte d
/p re e h -d a c c e e h -k u n /
ra n k , o r to v e n e ra b le p r i e s t )
U-.2313 3r d - p e r s o n p r o n o u n s a r e c o n t e x t - o r i e n t e d o n l y i f t h e
re fe re n t is p re se n t.
O th e rw ise t h e c h o ic e o f pronoun depends
on t h e a b s o l u t e s t a t u s o f t h e r e f e r e n t o u t s i d e t h e f a c e - t o - f a c e
c o n te x t.
153
1 , / k o o t / ( r e s p e c tf u l, younger o f e ld e r,
2 , / k e e / (in fo rm a l, o th e r,
in f e r io r o f su p e rio r)
e x c lu siv e )
/ k e e / a l s o o c c u r s a s an i n d e f i n i t e p r o n o u n s
/ k e e th aa 'J' l q o o n a h l , /
/th e y say b e a u t if u l v e ry
T hey s a y [ i t ' s ]
v ery b e a u t if u l . 1
3 , /w e / ( s u p e r i o r o f i n f e r i o r ,
a d u lt of c h ild j
o th e rw ise
in su ltin g )
/w e / a l s o o c c u r s a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r n o n - p e r s o n a l
n o u n s , e '. g . s
/ c k a e n u h t we k c i l n a h l . /
dog t h a t i t l a z y v e r y
'T h a t d o g , i t ' s
v ery la z y . 1
A f u r t h e r u s e o f /w e / i s a s a n e x p l e t i v e p r o n o u n :
/ r a a e t we kdaw n a h l . /
in te rje c tlo n -o f-a n n o y a n c e i t b e-h o t v ery
'S a y ,
i t's
re a lly h o tl'
lj.,232 I n d e f i n i t e p r o n o u n s a r e p r o n o u n s w h ose r e f e r e n t s a r e
in d e fin ite .
T hey t y p i c a l l y o c c u r a s o b j e c t s i n b o t h
a f f i r m a t i v e and n e g a t i v e c l a u s e s .
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s
i n v o l v e t h e i n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n / q w e y / 's o m e t h i n g , a n y t h i n g ' .
A f f i r m a t i v e : /knom t i n qway h a y f t r o l o p to w p t e o h l . /
i
I b u y s o m e th i n g p e r f e c t i v e r e t u r n go h o u s e
'A f t e r I buy so m e th in g ,
N e g ativ es
[ I 'm ] g o i n g b a c k h o m e .'
/kno m m in t i n qwy t e e * ! ', /

I n e g a t i v e bu y a n y t h i n g e m p h a t i c - p a r t i c l e
'I
d i d n 't buy a n y th i n g .''
151*.
The c l a s s h a s f o u r m em bers, t h e f i r s t member h a v i n g t h r e e
a llo m o rp h s :
1 ) /q w e y - s q e y - q o y /
's o m e t h i n g , , a n y t h i n g '
2 ) /n e q -n aa /
' so m e o n e , a n y o n e '
3 ) /n a a /
's o m e w h e r e , a n y w h e r e '
Ip) / q a a n a a ~ q a n a a /
'w h i c h e v e r o n e , a n y o n e '
R e d u p lic a te d i n d e f i n i t e pronouns o c c u r in a f f i r m a t i v e
u tte r a n c e s w ith a c o n n o ta tio n o f v a r i e t y or g e n e r a l i t y .
E x a m p le ; /d a tow m s e l qwy-qwy h a s y t t r o l o p tow s o n th a a k e 4 './
w a lk go s e e v a r i o u s - t h i n g s a l r e a d y , r e t u r n go h o t e l
'When [ I h a d ] w a lk e d a r o u n d t o s e e v a r i o u s t h i n g s ,
[ I ] w ent back t o th e h o t e l . 1
I n d e f i n i t e p r o n o u n s a r e n o n - s p e c i f i c a s t o n u m b er, b u t
s i n g u l a r n u m b e r c a n be s p e c i f i e d by a d d i n g t h e n u m e r a l /m u y /
' o n e ' t o t h e i n d e f i n i t e p ro n o u n s
E x a m p le ; /b a l o o k c o q t i n qw o y-m uoy f q o n c e e n to w I . /
i f yo u w a n t b u y s o m e t h i n g - o n e , i n v i t e f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
' I f you w a n t t o buy some ( o n e ) t h i n g , go a h e a d . '
P l u r a l i t y may a l s o be s p e c i f i e d by a d d i n g t h e p a r t i t i v e
p r o n o u n / k l a h / 's o m e ' t o t h e i n d e f i n i t e p r o n o u n .
E x a m p le :
/knom t i n q w e y - k la h h a o y f k i t to w nam b a a y { . /
I b u y s o m e t h i n g - p l u r a l a l r e a d y , p l a n go e a t r i c e
'[ A f t e r ]
I bu y some t h i n g s , I p l a n t o go e a t .
I n d e f i n i t e pronouns a ls o o c c u r w ith a d j e c t i v a l f u n c t i o n
a f t e r nouns.
155
E x a m p le : / l o o k lo it t i n p o e qwey koo b a a n h /
you th in k , buy c o l o r w h a te v e r th e n a b le
You c an b u y w h a t e v e r c o l o r y o u l i k e . 1
1+.233 I n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s
The c l a s s o f i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s h a s t h e same m em ber
s h i p a s t h e c l a s s o f i n d e f i n i t e p r o n o u n s , (ty..2 3 2 ) , b u t i n t e r
r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s may o c c u r i n u t t e r a n c e - f i n a l p o s i t i o n ,
w h i l e i n d e f i n i t e p r o n o u n s do n o t .
As i n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s ,
t h e fo r m s h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g m e a n in g s :
1 ) /q w o y /
w h a t?
2 ) /n o o b -n a a /
w h o?
3 ) /n a a /
w here? 1
U-) / q a a n a a /
'w h i c h o n 8?
E x a m p le s : / l o o k c o q t i n
qwoyt , /
you w a n t buy w h at
'W h a t 'd o y o u w a n t t o b u y ?
/ l o o k maok r o e k n e e q - n a a f . /
yo u come s e e k who
Whom d i d you come t o s e e ? '
/ l o o k tow n a a f . /
yo u go w h e re
'W here a r e you g o i n g ? '
/ l o o k cog t i n
q a a n a a f./
you w an t b u y w h ic h -o n e
'W h ic h o ne do you w a n t t o b u y ? 1
l 6
A l l o f t h e a b o v e e x c e p t / n a a / a l s o s u b s t i t u t e f o r noun
s u b je c ts , e .g .*
/n e e q -n a a m a o k f,/
w ho.com e
W ho's c o m in g ? 1
I n t e r r o g a t i v e p r o n o u n s a l s o o c c u r w i t h a d j e c t i v a l fu n $ * ~
tlo n a f t e r n o u n s , e . g . *
/ l o o k s o m r a c - c o .t n^tf t&n p o e q w o y f . /
y o u s e t t l e - h e a r t f u t u r e b u y c o l o r w hat
What c o l o r d i d y o u d e c i d e t o b u y ? '
ij.. 2.34 F a r t i t l v e p r o n o u n s
a m o u n ts o r q u a n t i t i e s .
a r e s u b s t i t u t e s whose r e f e r e n t s a r e
T hey d i f f e r f r o m i n d e f i n i t e p r o n o u n s
in t h a t t h e y a r e s p e c i f i c
i n t e r r o g a t i v e p ron o u n s.
a s t o n u m b e r, a n d do n o t o c c u r a s
P a r t i t i v e pronouns t y p i c a l l y o c c u r
as s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t s i n a f f i r m a t i v e u t t e r a n c e s .
E xam ples /k n o m y o e k t o S Q - q o h 'J './
I ta k e a l l
I 'l l
t a k e a l l [ o f th e m ] .*
The c l a s s i n c l u d e s a t l e a s t t h e f o l l o w i n g members*
1 ) /te e g -q o h /
a ll*
2 ) /te e y -q o h -k n e e /
'e n t i r e group'
3) /k la h /
's o m e '
I4.) / b o n t o c /
'a l i t t l e '
5 ) /c ra sn /
'm u ch , m any'
157
^235 R e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s a r e p r o n o u n s w h ic h o c c u r a s h e a d s
o f a t t r i b u t i v e p h r a s e s w h ic h t h e n f i l l t h e t y p i c a l s u b s t a n t i v e
p o sitio n s of to p ic ,
su b je c t,
and o b je c t.
exam ples-, i n v o l v e t h e r e l a t i v e
p ro n o u n / d a e l / t h a t w h ic h ,
t h o s e w h i c h 1.
As t o p i c : .
/ d a e l l q o o t knom l u o q q o h h a e y j . /
th o se -w h ich p r e t t y
I s e l l c o m p le te ly a lr e a d y
I ve a lr e a d y s o l d a l l t h e p r e t t y o n e s ,
As s u b j e c t : / d a e l l q o o t l a y n a h l , /
th o se -w h ich p r e t t y b e -e x p e n siv e v ery
The p r e t t y o n e s a r e v e r y e x p e n s i v e . 1
As o b j e c t s
/knom c o g t i n
d a el lq o o i'./
I w an t buy t h a t - x y h i c h p r e t t y
I w ant t o buy a p r e t t y o n e . 1
The c l a s s h a s o n l y two members*
1 , / d a e l / t h a t , t h a t w h i c h , t h o s e w h ic h '
2 . /d o n / 't h a t ,
t h a t w h i c h , t h o s e w h ic h ( c o l l o q u i a l ) '
ip.2lp Q u a n t i f i e r s
Q u a n t i f i e r s a r e d e f i n e d b y th e ii> o c c u r r e n c e i n t h e
c o n te x t #N J3#.
Q u a n tif ie r s a re c l a s s i f i e d as n u m e ric a l
and n o n - n u m e r i c a l .
158
i | , 2 l4-l N u m e r i c a l q u a n t i f i e r s
N u m e ric a l q u a n t i f i e r s
(o r sim p ly n u m e ra ls ) a re q u a n ti -
f i e r s whose r e f e r e n t s a r e n u m b e r s .
C am bodian h a s t w e l v e
s im p le n u m eral lex e m e s, as f o llo w s ;

1) /m u o y /
' one'
7) /ro o y /
'h u n d r e d *
2) / p i i /
1tw o '
8 ) /p o o n /
' th o u san d '
3) / h a y /
' th re e
9 ) /m o o n /
' te n -th o u sa n d '
k) / b u o n /
'f o u r 1
10) /sa e n /
' h u n d red -th o u sa n d '
$) / p r a m /
' fiv e '
11) /le e n /
'm illio n '
6) / d o p / '
1t e n 1
12) /k a o t/
' te n -m illio n '
The f o l l o w i n g n u m e r a ls a r e c o m p le x l e x e m e s :
1 3 ) /m op h4y/ ; 1
1t w e n t y '
ll|) /s a a m -s o p /
't h i r t y '
15) /sa e -se p /
' fo rty '
16) /h a a - s o p /
'f i f ty '
1 7 ) /fro k -s o p /
' six ty '
18) /c o t-so p /
' se v en ty '
19) /p a e t-s o p /
' e ig h ty '
2 0 ) /k aw -so p /
'n i n e t y '
1 . The lex e m e / m o p M y / ' t w e n t y 1 s o m e tim e s o c c u r s i n t h e fo rm

/ m u o y - p h l y / , p o s s i b l y by a n a l o g y w i t h t h e c l a s s o f m u l t i p l i
c a n d s ( s o e b e l o w ) , b u t i t . i s n e v e r m u l t i p l i e d by a n y n u m e r a l
o t h e r t h a n 'o n e * ,
/ m o p h i y / may bo a r e s i d u a l fo rm o f an o l d
s y s te m o f m u l t i p l i c a n d s w h ic h i n c l u d e d t h e p a r t i t i v e s p e c i
f i e r s / d o m b o o / ' a f o u r s o m e ', / p l o o n / f a f o r t y - l o t , a n d / s l o k /
' a Ij-OO-lot' w h ic h a r e now l i m i t e d t o s p e c i f y i n g l o t s o f f r u i t s
or v e g e ta b le s.
2 . E x am p le s llp -2 0 ab o v e a r e com posed o f t h e bo und morphem es
13 9* and t h e bou nd m u l t i p l i c a n d / - s o p / ' t e n ' .
T h e se fo rm s
a r e a p p a r e n t l y b o rro w e d i n t o t o fro m T h a i , b u t t h e y a r e p r o v e n
t o b e c o m p lex by t h e o b s e r v e d fo rm / h a a - r i i h o k - s o p / ' f i f t y
or s i x t y '.
159
A l l o t h e r n u m b e rs a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by s e q u e n c e s o f t h e
a b o v e n u m e r a l s , in . e i t h e r a d d i t i v e o r m u l t i p l i c a t i v e
c o n stru c tio n .
The b a s i c p a t t e r n i n s u c h c o n s t r u c t i o n s
i s as fo llo w s:
Any n u m e r a l i s . i n
a d d itiv e c o n s tr u c tio n w ith a fo llo w in g
s m a lle r n u m e ra l.
Any n u m e r a l i s
in m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s tr u c tio n w ith a
f o llo w in g l a r g e r n u m era l.
The f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i v e n p in e r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s o c c u r w i t h s t r e s s
a n d j u n c t u r e p a t t e r n s t y p i c a l o f com pounds, a n d a r e t h u s
a n a l y z e d a s n u m e r i c a l com pounds:
2 1 ) /p ra m m u o y /
*s i x
2 2 ) /p ra m p ii p ra m p ll/
1s e v e n
23) / p r a m b e y /
1e i g h t
21+) / p r a m b u e n /
1n i n e
2 5 ) / d o p - m u e y / ~ /mu e y -d o n d o p / *'
1e l e v e n
2 6 ) / d o p - p ii/ /p ii-d o n d o p /
1t w e l v e
2 7 ) /d o p -p ra m m u e y - p ra ra m u e y -d o n d o p /
six te e n
2 8 ) /d o p -p ra m p il ~ p ra m p il-d o n d o p /
se v e n te e n
2 9 ) /m o p h ly - r a u o y /
tw e n ty -o n e
30) /s a a m -s p -p ra m m u e y /
1t h i r t y - s i x
I n e x a m p le s 22 a n d 2 5 - 2 8 a b o v e , t h e s e c o n d fo rm i s t h e
m ore c o l l o q u i a l .
1'. T h e ' a l t e r n a t i v e fo rm s f o r " t h e n u m e r a l s 1 1 - 1 9 (e x a m p le s 25
2 8 ) , x d iich a r e fo rm e d w i t h a d e r i v a t i v e o f / d o p / t o n , may
be t h e o r i g i n a l fo rm s o f t h e n u m e r a ls 1 0 -9 0 w h ic h w e re r e
p l a c e d by t h e T h a i f o r m s , s i n c e t h e y a r e t h e o n l y a d d i t i v e
c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n w h ic h a s m a l l e r n u m e r a l p r e c e d e s a l a r g e r .
160
A l l o t h e r n u m b e rs a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y s e q u e n c e s o f t h e
a b o v e le x e m e s i n s y n t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n . ^
E x a m p le s 7 - 1 2
above o c cu r as m u ltip lic a n d s in m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t io n

a f t e r th e n u m e ra ls o n e t o
n i n e * , e . g . :
3 1 ) / p r a m r o s y / - (5 x 1 0 0 ) ' f i v e h u n d r e d '
3 2 ) / p r a m b e y p o a n / (8 x 1 , 0 0 0 ) ' e i g h t t h o u s a n d , e t c .
VJhen. t h e m u l t i p l i e r i s / m u a y / o n e , i t u s u a l l y o c c u r s a s
t h e bound m u l t i p l i c a t i v e a llo rao rp h / m e - / (s e e 3 . 3 1 2 2 ), e . g . :
/ m a r o o y / 'o n e h u n d r e d
/ m a p 5 o n / 'o n e t h o u s a n d , e t c .
N u m e ra l le x e m e s i n a d d i t i v e , c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e t y p i c a l l y
f o l l o w e d by r i s i n g p h r a s e c o n t o u r / f / ,
e .g .:
. / p i i s a e n t pram m aanf bu on p o a n t b a y r o a y t h a a - s a p - p r a m ! . /
2 0 0 ,0 0 0 +
5 0 ,0 0 0
+ I; , 000 + 300 + 55
/ 25^355
The le x e m e / s o o n / i s a no un m e a n in g ' z e r o ' , n o t a
n u m e ra l, s in c e i t does n o t o c cu r b e fo r e s p e c i f i e r s .
I t is
u s e d , h o w ev er, in r e a d in g n um bers, su c h as a l o t t e r y t i c k e t
n u m b e r:
/ p r a m m u a y t b u a n t s o o n t s o o n t p ram l1 m u a y i . /
S ix , fo u r,
zero ,
z e ro ,..fiv e , o n e .'
1 . T hey a r e t h u s d e a l t w i t h on t h e l e v e l o f s y n t a x ( s e e 5 A
N u m e ric al c o n s t r u c t i o n s ) .
These c o n s t r u c t io n s a r e a ls o '
i l l u s t r a t e d h e r o , hox-rover, i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e an o v e r a l l
v ie w o f t h e n u m e r i c a l s y s t e m . .
161
l+.2l|2 Non- n u m e r i c a l Q u a n t i f i e r s o c c u r i n t h s c o n t e x t #N JS#,'
a s do n u m e r a l s , b u t a r e i n d e f i n i t e o r p a r t i t i v e
The c l a s s i s
i n n u m b er.
s m a ll and c l o s e d .
1 ) /p o n m a a n /
how m any, s o m any
2) /c ra e n /
m any
3) / k o n la h /
h a l f
U-) / p l a a y /
a fra c tio n
5) / n e e - n e e /
v a rio u s
E xam ples*
/ l o o k mean b o o g - p q o o n ponmaan n e e q f . /
y o u h a v e o l d e r - a n d - y o u n g e r - s i b l i n g s how-m any p e r s o n
How many b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s do y o u h a v e ?
/k n o m mean b o o ^ - p q o o n c r a e n n e o q K /
I h a v e o l d e r - a n d - y o u n g e r - s i b l i n g s many p e r s o n
I h a v e many b r o t h e r s a n d s i s t e r s .
/ t i i ~ n u h m*n mean ponmaan n e e q t e e t . /
t h e r e n o t h a v e so -m a n y p e r s o n n e g a t i v e - f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
T h e r e w e r e n ' t s o many p e o p l e t h e r e .
/ p o n m a a n / ..a n d / c r a e n / s h a r e w i t h t h e n u m e r a l s o n e t o n i n e '
th e p r iv il e g e o f o c c u rrin g in th e m u lt i p li e r p o s itio n b e fo re
m u ltip lic a n d s
(I+.2I+1, e x a m p le s 7 - 3 2 } . ^
When / k o n l a h / h a l f
o c c u rs b e fo re a s p e c i f i e r i t has th o
m e a n in g h a l f a , e . g . *
1 . See 5.1+2.
162
/ b a r o y k o n l a h k o n c o 'p /
c ig a r e t t e h a l f package
h a lf a pack o f c i g a r e t t e s
When i t o c c u r s a f t e r a s p e c i f i e r ,
in g
i t h a s t h e a d d i t i v e m ean
'a n d a h a l f , e . g . :
/ b a r o y muey k o n c o p k o n l a h /
c i g a r e t t e one p a c k a g e h a l f
a p a c k and a h a l f o f c i g a r e t t e s '
The n u m e r a l / p l a a y / 'a n d a f r a c t i o n , a n d som e' o c c u r s o n l y i n

a d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n a f t e r b o t h n u m e r a ls a n d s p e c i f i e r s ,
e .g .*
/knom meen dop p l a a y r i o l ! . /

I h a v e t e n a n d -so m e r i e l s
' I have a l i t t l e
over te n r i e l s . '
B u t : /k n o m meon pram r i o l p l a a y ! . /
I have f i v e r i e l a n d - a - f r a c tio n
',1 h a v e f i v e a n d a
fra c tio n r i e l s . '
The s p e c i f i e r / c o m h i o ^ / ' h a l f a n o b j e c t '
a ls o o c cu rs in add
i t i v e c o n stru c tio n a f te r o th e r s p e c if ie r s , but i t
is not a
n u m e ra l, s in c e i t n e v e r p re c e d e s s p e c i f i e r s .
/ p r a q p i i r i o l c om h i $/
money two r i o l h a l f
' tw o -a n d ~ a -h a lf r i e l s
163
D e m o n stra tiv e s
D e m o n s t r a t i v e s a r e d e f i n e d by t h e i r a b s o l u t e f i n a l
p o s i t i o n in any s u b s t a n t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n .
The c l a s s h a s o n l y
tw o m em bers, e a c h w i t h s e v e r a l a l l o m o r p h s .
1 ) / n i h ~ n e h ~ n s io /
th is /th e s e
(in s i g h t ) , th e r e f e r r e d
to
2 ) /n u h ~ noh ~ noq - n o ^ / t h a t / t h o s e
(in s i g h t, b u t d i s t a n t ,
or out of s ig h t),
th e r e f e r r e d t o
D e m o n stra tiv e s o c c u r in a l l th e t y p i c a l s u b s ta n tiv e p o s i t io n s s

As t o p i c j
/ n i h q w s y t,/
t h i s w hat
What i s t h i s ?
As s u b j e c t ;
/ n i h maok p i i n a a f . /
t h i s come fro m w hore
Where d i d t h i s come f r o m ? 1
As o b j e c t ;
/ c u o y y o s k n i h tow c a o l l . /
h e l p t a k e t h i s go th ro w - a w a y
P le ase ta k e t h i s
[ a n d ] th r o w [ i t ]
a w a y .'
As a t t r i b u t e ; / k o o n - s o h p i i n e o q n i h c l a a t n a h i . /
s t u d e n t two p e r s o n t h i s c l e v e r v e r y
T h e s e two s t u d e n t s a r e v e r y c l e v e r . 1
161}.
lj.,3 P r e d i c a t i v e s
A p r e d i c a t i v e i s a n y le x e m e w h ic h may o c c u r i n t h e fra m e
/m&n ___ t e e . / ,
w h e re / m i n / i s a n e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r y
(I}.,51+)
and / t e e / i s a n e g a t i v e f i n a l s e n te n c e p a r t i c l e ( I + . 8 1 ).
In
o t h e r w ords* a p r e d i c a t i v e i s a n y le x e m e w h ic h may b e n e g a t e d .
A p r e d i c a t i v e may o c c u r a s t h e s o l e l e x e m i c c o n s t i t u e n t
o f a p re d ic a tio n .
A p r e d i c a t i o n i s any v e rb o r v e rb p h ra s e ,
w i t h o r w i t h o u t a s u b j e c t o r t o p i c , w h ic h c a n o c c u r a s an
is o la te d u tte ra n c e .
"V
A p r e d i c a t e i s any v e rb o r v e rb p h r a s e
i n a n y o c c u r r e n c e a s t h e co m p lem en t o f a s u b j e c t o r t o p i c .
P re d ic a tiv e s a ls o f i l l ty p ic a l s u b s ta n tiv e p o s itio n s as to p ic s ,
s u b je c ts , or o b je c ts .
s u b s ta n tiv e and a
Any le x e m e w h ic h f u n c t i o n s b o t h a s a
p re d ic a tiv e is a p re d ic a tiv e ;
a n y le x e m e
w h ic h o c c u r s o n l y a s a s u b s t a n t i v e i s a s u b s t a n t i v e .
1+.31 A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s
An a d j e c t i v a l v e r b i s any p r e d i c a t i v e w h ic h may p r e c e d e
th e in te n s if y in g a d je c tiv e / n a h / v e ry .
A d je c tiv a l v erb s
n ev er occur in c o n s tr u c tio n w ith a s u b s ta n tiv e o b je c t.

o c c u rr in g as p r e d i c a t i v e s ,
a ttrib u te s
B e sid es
a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s a l s o o c c u r as
i n a t t r i b u t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h b o t h n o u n and
verb h ead s.
As p r e d i c a t e ;
/ s r e y nuh l q o o l . /
g i r l th a t -p re tty
That g i r l i s p r e t t y . 1
As n o u n a t t r i b u t e s
/ s r e y Iqoo n u h f m it k n o m !./
g ir l p re tty th a t,
f r i e n d my
T hat p r e t t y g i r l
[ i s ] my f r i e n d .
16$
As v e r b a t t r i b u t e : / s r e y n u h s o s e e I q o o ' h /
g i r l th a t w rite p r e tty
T hat g i r l w r ite s p r e t t i l y . 1
Ip. 32 A c t i v e v e r b s
A c t i v e v e r b s a r e p r e d i c a t i v e s w h ic h do n o t p r e c o d e t h e
i n t e n s i f y i n g a d j e c t i v e / n a h / v .e ry * .
A c t i v e v e r b s may be
p r e c e d e d by m o d a l v e r b s iCIp.33) w h i l e a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s may
n o t.
Ip.321 T r a n s i t i v e v e r b s
A t r a n s i t i v e v e r b i s a n y a c t i v e v e r b w h ic h may o c c u r i n
A yv%
A/
4>Vkt1 A
AVV
u u iio i/ru v u x ^ n
4-
vw j_ u x x
aa.
1%A 4* AV%4* 4 f A
l"P VI A Vt A 4
4 A A 4*
u u jo v > u e
4 4 * t A
V\ n
AV
>
Uw?
a l s o o c c u r w i t h i n t r a n s i t i v e a n d a d j e c t i v a l f u n c t i o n . E x a m p le s :
T ra n sitiv e :
/k n o m baelc t w e e j ' , /
I open door
I I o p e n /o p e n e d th e d o o r . '
I n t r a n s i t i v e : / t w e e kompuQ b a e k ' k /
d o o r i n - p r o c e s s - o f op en
'T h e d o o r i s o p e n i n g . '
A d je c tiv a l:
/tw e e b ask h a e y K /
door open p e r f e c t i v e - p a r t i c l e
The d o o r i s o p e n . '
C e r t a i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b compounds t y p i c a l l y o c c u r a s
s o l e lex e m ic c o n s t i t u e n t s o f u t t e r a n c e s ,
/c u m re e p / 't o
in fo rm ' + / s u e / 't o
e .g .:
ask'
> /cu m ro o p -su o / 'g r e e t i n g s '

/s u e / 't o
ask'
+ /s d e y / 't o
s a y ' > / s u e - s d e y / 'h e l l o *
166
/so o m / 't o
.
b e g 1 + / t o o h / ' p u n ish m en t'
> / s o o m - t o o h / 'p a r d o n '
S u c h v e r b s , h o w e v e r , do o c c u r w i t h s u b j e c t s a n d o b j e c t s ,
e .g . ?
/ k o o n t r e t * s o o m - to o h k r u u i ' . /
c h i l d m u st b e g i-p a rd o n t e a c h e r
You ( c h i l d ) m u s t b e g t h e t e a c h e r i s p a r d o n . 1
^322 I n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s
An i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b i s a n y a c t i v e v e r b w h ic h n e v e r
p reced es a s u b s ta n tiv e o b je c t.
S uch v e r b s d e s c r i b e s e l f -
m o tiv a te d a c tio n .
E x am p les* / d e s k / ! l i down'
/tle e q / 'f a l l '
/ b a o k / 'b r e a k '
Many i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s s e r v e a s b a s e s f o r t r a n s i t i v e v e r b
d e r i v a t i v e s w h ic h o c c u r w i t h o b j e c t s .
F o llo w in g a re th e
t r a n s i t i v e d e r iv a tiv e s o f th e th r e e i n t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s c it e d
above:
/p d e e k /
' t o l a y . ( s o m e th i n g o r
so m e o n e) down1
/ t u m l e a q / ' t o drop (s o m e th in g )'

/b o m b a e k / ' t o b re a k (so m e th in g '
ip* 33 Modal v e r b s
A m odal v e r b i s a n y p r e d i c a t i v e w h ic h o c c u r s i n c o n
s t r u c t i o n w i t h , a n d i n some \ my q u a l i f i e s o r l i m i t s ,
in g a c t i v e v e rb .
E x a m p le s : /k n o m c e h n i y e e y p h e e s a a c o n I - . /
I k n o w -h o w -to s p e a k l a n g u a g e C h i n e s e
' I know how t o s p e a k C h i n e s e . '
a fo llo v r.
>
/ k o e t t r a w tow p t e e h i . /
ho m u s t go h o u s e
He h a s t o go h o m e .
Modal v e r b s a lw a y s f o l l o w a u x i l i a r i e s
( l |..6 ) , i n c l u d i n g t h e
n e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r y / m i n / w h ic h ' d e f i n e s t h e c l a s s o f p r e d i c a t
i v e s . E x a m p le *
/k n o m m in t r e w to w t e e i| ' . /
I n e g . m u s t go n e g a t i v e - f i n a l - p a r t i c l
I don t have to g o . '
A l t h o u g h some m o d al v e r b s a l s o o c c u r a s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s
w h ich t a k e s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t s ,
an o b j e c t n e v e r I n t e r v e n e s
b e tw e e n a m o d al v e r b and t h e v e r b i t m o d i f i e s .
E x am pleJ / k o o n c u e y t w e e - k a a m d a a y i '. /
c h i l d h e l p w ork m o th e r
The c h i l d h e l p s [ h i s ] m o th e r w o r k .
I f a s u b s ta n tiv e o b je c t in te rv e n e s , th e f i r s t v erb is a
t r a n s i t i v e v e r b , n o t a m o d al v e r b ,
/ k o o n tow p s a a t i n
as i n t h e f o l l o w i n g exam ple*
t r e y * ! '. /
c h i l d go m a r k e t buy f i s h
The c h i l d i s g o i n g t o t h e m a r k e t t o b u y f i s h .
S e v e r a l m od al v e r b s may o c c u r i n a s e q u e n c e , e a c h on q u a l i
f y i n g t h e s u c c e e d i n g m o d al v e r b .
A s e q u e n c e o f t h r e e 1h a s b e e n
observed*.
/k n o m min d a a l b a a n r l s n n i y e e y p h e e s a a c e n K /
I n e g . h a v e - o v e r g e t - t o l e a r n - t o s p e a k la n g u a g e C h in ese
I ve n e v e r h ad th e ch an ce to l e a r n to sp e ak C h in e s e .
168
The p o s i t i o n a l s u b - c l a s s e s o f m o d a l v e r b s h a v e n o t y e t b e e n
f u l l y a n aly ze d .
For th e p re s e n t,
t h e f o l l o w i n g two s u b
c l a s s e s a r e s e t up* 1 ) s p e c i f i c m odal v e r b s , w h ic h o c c u r
b n l y l a s m od al;.:verbs', a n d w h ic h d e f i n e t h e c l a s s ,
and
2 ) g e n e r a l m o d al v e r b s , w h ic h f o l l o w s p e c i f i c m o d al v e r b s ,
a n d w h ic h o c c u r b o t h a s m o d al v e r b s a n d a s t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s .
T he c l a s s e s a r e s m a l l a n d c l o s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t s
may n o t b e c o m p l e t e .
14..331 S p e c i f i c m o d a l v e r b s
1 ) /p ro o m /
't o
ag ree to
2 ) / t a 013/
't o
be a c c u s to m e d t o * :
3 ) ./k ro o n /
't o
be e n o u g h t o '
l\.) / c o g /
' t o w ish t o '
5>) / t l o a p /
'u s e d t o ,
6 ) /h e p n /
't o
7) / p r o n a p /
't o h u rry to '
8 ) /q a a c /
't o
9 ) /k u /
'o u g h t t o '
10 ) / r o w u l /
to be busy a t '
1 1 )/k h o m /
't o
12)/d a e l/
't o have e v e r'
to have e v e r '
d a r e to*
be l i k e l y t o '
striv e to
I4. . 3I12 G e n e r a l m od al v e r b s
1 ) /c e ll/
' t o know how t o '
2) /rie p /
't o
3 ) /tro w /
't o have t o
Ij.) / n o w /
's t i l l to '
p rep are to '
169
5) / c o o l - c s t /
't o
6) / tr e w - k a a /
't o need to '
7) / c a p /
' t o b e g in t o '
8 ) /p d a e m / '
' t o b e g in t o '
9) /cap -p d a m /
1t o b e g i n t o '
lO j/la e g /
' t o q u it*
ll)/c h u p /
' to sto p '
1 2 )/to tu e l/
' t o t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r*
1 3 )/cu y /
' to h e lp t o '
ll|) /k h o o q /
' t o f a i l to*
l i k e to ';
't o p la n to '
1 6 )/lo /
' to tr y to '
1 7 )/so m /
't o
18)/b a a n /
' t o have been a b le t o , t o g e t to
1 9 )/m e e n /
' to have t o '
2 0 )/q a a n e t/
1t o be good enou gh t o '
2 1 )/k h a a n /
't o m iss, f a i l t o '
22 J / p r s t o /
1t o be d e t e r m i n e d t o '
2 3 ) / m * n - b a c / *'
'n o t n e c e s s a ry t o '
2 l} .)/c a m -b a c /^
'n e c e s s a r y t o '
2 ^ ) /b o m r o t3 /
' to in te n d to '
2 6 )/q o n c e sn /
1t o i n v i t e t o '
2 7 )/q o t/
' to la c k , m is s'
ask t o '
1* / b a c / ' n e c e s s a r y ' o c c u r s o n l y n e g a t i v e l y a n d i n com pounds.
170
L}., 3k- D i r e c t i o n a l v e r b s
D i r e c t i o n a l ' v e r b s o c c u r a f t e r a c t i v e v e r b 3 which a r e
n o n - s p e c i f i c as t o d i r e c t i o n o r g o a l ,
and s p e c i f y t h e
d irec tio n or o rie n ta tio n of th e i n it i a t e d actio n .

The c l a s s i s s m a l l and c l o s e d .
.>
1 ) /to w /
to
g o ; away , t o w a r d (away f r o m
2 ) /m aok/
to
come; t h i s way, t o w a r d ( i n s p e a k e r s d i r e c t i o n ) '
3 ) /co h /
'to
go dovm; down'
I4.) / l a 53/
'to
go u p j u p , i n c r e a s i n g l y '
5 ) /co o l/
'to
en ter;
6 ) /can /
'to
go o u t ; o u t
7 ) /taam /
'to
follow ;- a lo n g , f o l l o w i n g
8 ) /now /
'to
rem ain; s t i l l ,
9 ) /qaoy/
'to
give;
as a f a v o r ,
for
1 0 )/cuun/
'to
give;
as a fav o r,
for
in,
speaker)
in to '
a t
(elegant)
E x am p le s* / q s w p u k m i n - t o a n t r o l o p maok4*./
f a t h e r n o t - y e t r e t u r n come
F a t h e r h a s n ' t come b a c k y e t . '
S u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t s i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n an I n i t i a t i n g v e r b
and i t s d i r o c t i o n a l v e r b a t t r i b u t e .
/ y o o k h o p n h tow I . /
t a k e bo x t h i s go
'T a k e t h i s box a w a y . '
When a d i r e c t i o n a l v e r b i s f o l l o w e d by a s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t ,
i t has a p r e p o s i t i o n a l f u n c tio n ,
stress / ' /
a nd c a r r i e s t h e s e c o n d a r y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f p r o p o s i t i o n s . (JLp. 71 ) s r a t h e r
t h a n p r im a r y s t r e s s / * / as in t h e above e x am p le s.
171
/ y e o k h e p n f h tow p t e e h j . /
t a k e box t h i s go h o u s e
T ak e t h i s b o x t o t h e h o u s e . '
^35 C o m p l e t i v e v e r b s
C om pletive v e rb s o ccur i n p o s t - p o s e d c o n s t r u c t i o n w ith ,
and ex p ress th e com pletion, ex p ected r e s u l t ,
or p o s s ib ility
o f a c h ie v e m e n t o f , v e r b s which i n i t i a t e , an a c t i o n .
n eg ativ e expressions,
In
t h e n e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r y alw ays f o l lo w s
t h e i n i t i a l vei*b, a s o p p o s e d uo c o o r d i n a t e o r a t t r i b u t i v e
verb sequences,
i n which t h e n e g a t i v e p r e c e d e s t h e f i r s t v e rb
o f th e sequence.
C o m p l e t i v e v e r b s a r e o f tw o k i n d s : 1 ) s p e c i f i c c o m p l e t i v e
v e r b s , which have a r e s u l t a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith a s p e c i f i c
i n i t i a t i n g verb,
and 2 ) g e n e r a l c o m p l e t i v e v e r b s , w h i c h o c c u r
a f t e r a l a r g e number o f v e r b s ,
achievem ent', o r th e c o m p l e t i o n ,
and e x p r e s s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
of the i n i t i a t e d a c tio n .
The n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n o f e i t h e r c l a s s i m p l i e s f a i l u r e o r
i n a b i l i t y to achieve th e i n i t i a t e d a c tio n .
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s i n v o l v e t h e s p e c i f i c c o m p l e t i v e
verb / l u e q / to s le e p 'x
/ y u p m i n t knom d o e k l u e q s o p b a a y n a h / . /
night l a s t ,
I lie-dow n s le e p p le a s a n t very
'L a s t n ig h t,
I s l e p t very w ell.*
N o g . : / y u p m i n t knom d e e k min l u e q s o h l . /
night l a s t ,
I lie-dow n neg. s le e p a t - a l l
I d id n 't sleep at a ll l a s t n ig h t.'

Or:
*1 c o u l d n ' t s l e e p a t a l l l a s t n i g h t . '
172
A l t h o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t s may n o t b e c o m p l e t e , t h e
c la s s is probably closed.
lj.. 35>1 S p e c i f i c c o m p l e t i v e v e r b s
Each s p e c i f i c co m p letiv e v e rb i n t h e fo llo w in g l i s t
shown t y i t h i t s
s p e c ific an teced en t,
and i t s
is
sp e c ia l function
i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n b o t h a f f i r m a t i v e and n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s .
1 ) / l u e q / t o go t o s l e e p
/deek lu e q / 't o
(/d eek / to l i e
down )
sleep 1
/ d e e k m in l u e q / t o f a i l t o s l e e p '
2 ) /k h een / 'to
see'
( / k it / 'to
th in k )
/ k i t kheen/ to understand'
/ k i t m in k h e e n / ' t o f a i l t o u n d e r s t a n d '
(/m e e l/ ' to look, w a tc h ')
/m eel k h e e n / 't o se e'
/meeji min k h e e n / ' t o
f a i l to see'
(/ro e k / 'to hunt f o r )
/ro o k kheen/ ' to fin d '

/ r o e k min k h e e n / ' t o f a i l t o f i n d '
( /n ik / 'to r e f le c t')
/n ik kheen/ 'to r e a liz e
/ n i k m in k h e e n / ' t o f a i l t o r e a l i z e '
3 ) / i o e n / ' t o b e on t i m e '
( / t o w / 1t o g o ' )
/tow to o n / 't o c atch '

/ t o w m in t o e n / ' t o
lj.) / l i i /
f a i l to c a tc h , to m iss'
'to hear'
/sdap l i i /
(/sd ap / 'to l is te n ')
'to hear'
/ s d a p m in l i i /
'to
f a i l to h ear'
173
/ s d a p / c a n a l s o b e f o l l o w e d by on o f t h e g e n e r a l c o m p l e t i v e
v e r b s , / b a a n / ' t o be a b l e ' ,
in which c a s e t h e m eaning o f th o
ex p ressio n is
't o u n d e rs ta n d '.
$) / p h o t / ' t o
be c l e a r o f
/c ie h p h o t/ 'to
(/c ie h / 'to
a v o id ')
escape'
/ c i o h min p h o t / ' t o f a l l t o a v o i d '

6 ) / c . e h / ' t o know'
(/rio n / 'to
stu d y ')
/ r i e n cell/ 't o le a r n '

/ r i e n m in c e h / ' t o f a i l t o l e a r n '
7) /th u m /
'to
sm ell'
/ h e t thum / ' t o
sm ell'
/ h e t m in t h u m / ' t o
8 ) /m at/
(/h o t/ 'to s n if f ')
f a i l to sm ell'
'to pierce'
(/c a q / 'to s ta b ')
/ c a q m u t/ ' t o s t a b tlirough, t o p e r f o r a t e 1
/ c a q m in m u t / ' t o f a i l t o p i e r c e '
9 ) /coop/
't o s tic k to '
/p ro lo o g co o p / 't o pass
( / p r o l o o ^ / ' t o c o m p e te ')
(an e x a m i n a t i o n ) '
A l t h o u g h / p r o l o o g mill c o o p / ' f a i l t o p a s s ' may o c c u r , t h e

n e g a t i o n o f / p r o l o o g c o o p / i s u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d by a n o t h e r
s p e c i f i c com pletive verb / t l e o q / ' t o f a l l '*
/proloojQ t l e o q / ' t o f a i l
(an e x a m i n a t i o n ) '
I|. 3S>2 G e n e r a l c o m p l e t i v e v e r b s
The i n i t i a t i n g v e r b s u s e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l
c o m p l e t i v e v e r b s a r e o n l y e x a m p le s o f t h e k i n d s o f v e r b s
which can p re c e d e g e n e r a l c o m p letiv e v e rb s .
1 ) / b a a n / ' t o be a b l e
/to w b a a n / can g o
/ t o w min b a a n / c a n t g o
2 ) / k a e t / t o be a b l e o c c u r s l e s s g e n e r a l l y t h a n / b a a n /
and u s u a l l y o n l y I n n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n s *
/kn o m maok min k a e t t e e K /
I come n e g .
ab le f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
' I c a n ' t com e.

3 ) / r u e c / t o be a b l e ,
to finish*
o c c u r s i n two c o n t e x t s
1) p h y s i c a l c a p a b i l i t y
/ k n o m l e e k t o k n i h m in r u e c v l - . /
I lift
t a b l e t h i s neg. ab le
' I c a n 't l i f t th is ta b l e ;
2 ) co m p letio n in term s of tim e
/ k no m m e e l siewphow n i h min r u e c K /
I r e a d book t h i s neg. f i n i s h
I c a n t f i n i s h read in g t h i s b o o k .
or *
'I 'm n o t th ro u g h re a d in g t h i s book.'
I}.) / s r a c / ' t o
f i n i s h , com plete
/k n om t w e e k a a n i h m i n - t o e n s r a c I . /
I do w o r k t h i s n o t - y e t f i n i s h
' I havent y e t fin is h e d t h is w ork.
5 ) / c o p / ' t o g e t t o th e end, to c o m p lete '
/kn o m m e e l k a s a e t n i h min c o p j ; /
I re a d newspaper t h i s neg. com plete
' I d i d n 't f i n i s h re a d in g t h i s n ew spaper.'
175
6 ) /kham i/ to lack , f a i l , m iss
/ l o o k t r o w to w mi-n k h a a n l , /
y o u m u s t go n e g .
fail
You m u s t go w i t h o u t f a i l .
14-. 14- A d v e r b i a l s
A d v e r b ia l s a r e lexem es which o c c u r as a t t r i b u t e s o f
e n tire predications.
I4..I4I G e n e r a l a d v e r b i a l s
G eneral a d v e r b i a l s a r e a d v e r b i a l s which e i t h e r p re c e d e
o r f o l l o w t h e c o n s t i t u e n t which t h e y m o d ify .
a ttrib u te s,
As p r e p o s e d
a d v e r b i a l s c a r r y g r e a t e r em phasis th a n as p o s t -
posed a t t r i b u t e s ,
and a r e t y p i c a l l y s e t o f f f r o m t h e r e
m a in d e r o f t h e u t t e r a n c e by t h e p h r a s e c o n t o u r / f / .
Preposed:
/ t h o o m m o d a a f knom maok nara b a a y t i i - n i h K /

u s u a l l y I come e a t r i c e h e r e
U su ally ,
I come h e r e t o e a t .
P o s t - p o s e d * '/ k n o m maok nam b a a y t i i - n i h th oGm medaa'i'./

I come e a t r i c e h e r e u s u a l l y
I u s u a l l y come h e r e t o e a t .
G e n e r a l ad\re r b i a l s m o d i f y t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s w i t h w h i c h t h e y
c o - o c c u r a s t o mode, p l a c e ,
as:
or tim e,
and a r e t h u s c l a s s e d
1 ) modal a d v e r b i a l s
2 ) lo c a tiv e adverbials
3 ) tem poral a d v e rb ia ls
No more t h a n one member f r o m e a c h c l a s s may o c c u r i n : . a s i n g l e

u tteran ce.
I f more t h a n o n e - c l a s s i s r e p r e s e n t e d , t h e o r d e r
176
i s u s u a l l y 1 - 2 -3 in p ro p o se d p o s i t i o n ,
p o s e d .i p o s i t i o n .
an d 3 - 2 - 1 i n p o s t -
T y p i c a l members o f t h e t h r e e c l a s s e s a r e
l i s t e d below .
I4. . i p l l Modal a d v e r b i a l s
1 ) / q one 13/
' th erefo re
2 ) /dooccnoh/
th erefo re, lik e th a t
3 ) /ha y/
then, th e r e f o re
C e r t a i n p r e p o s i t i o n a l a n d no u n p h r a s e s t y p i c a l l y o c c u r
w ith modal a d v e r b i a l f u n c t i o n s
Exam ple s*
1 ) /ba q o n c e g /
in t h a t case'
2 ) /ba y a a q - n a a k o o - d a o y /
' h o w e v e r t h a t may b e
.3 ) / h a e t n i h /
'f o r th is reason'
lj..l|12 L o c a t i v e a d v s r b i a l s
1) /til-n ih /
h e r e
2 ) /tii-n u h /
' there'
3 ) /khag -m u k //
' in fro n t? 5
C e r t a i n p r e p o s i t i o n a l an d no un p h r a s e s a l s o o c c u r w i t h
lo c a tiv e adverbial function.
E xam ple s*
1 ) /k o n la eg nuh/,
th ere,
in th a t p la c e '
2 ) /booriw een n i h /
'[ in ]
3 ) /knoQ s r o k n u h /
' in t h a t country!
th is region'
l!-.l|13 T e m p o r a l a d v e r b i a l s
1 ) /qsylew " q sy lsw -n ih /
' nov;'
2 ) /sq aek /
' tomorrow'
3) / t g a y - n i h /
' today'
Ll-) / c u o n - k a a l /
1s o m e t i m e s '
177
Many n o u n p h r a s e s t y p i c a l l y o c c u r i n . t e m p o r a l a d v e r b i a l
function,
e.g . t
1) /tg a y c a n /
[ o n ] Monday
2) / p r i k l a o g /
'
th e n e x t m orning
3) /saraay n u h /
[in ] those days
b'kZ I n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b i a l s
I n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b i a l s alw ays o c c u r w i t h i n t e r r o g a t i v e
m eaning i n u t t e r a n c e - f i n a l p o s i t i o n . .
closed.
The c l a s s i s s m a l l and
Most o f t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s i n v o l v e s e q u e n c e s o f
m orphem es.
I t i s n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e y s h o u l d be t r e a t e d as
compounds o r a s p h r a s e s ,
pound a d v e r b i a l s
b u t t h e y a r e t r e a t e d h e r e a s com
b e ca u se o f t h e i r t y p i c a l o c c u rre n c e as u n i t s
.in t h a t f u n c t i o n .
E xam ple s
/ l o o k k i t to w d o o c - m d o c ^ . /
y o u t h i n k go how
How do y o u p l a n t o g o ?
1) /dooc-m doc/
how?
2) / y a a q - n a a /
how?
3) /y aa q -m o c /
how?
l|.) / q o ^ k a l /
when ( f u t u r e ) ?
) / p i i - q o ^ k a l /
. when ( p a s t ) ?
6) / k a a l - n a a /
when ( f u t u r e ) ?
7) / p i i - k a a l - n a a /
when ( p a s t ) ?
8) /ponm aan/
how m u c h ?
9) / p o n n a a /
how m uch?
10)/sm ao-m aah/
how much, t o w h a t
e x ten t?
1 1 )/qom baal~m aan/
how much, t o w hat
ex ten t?
178
lj..I|-3 I n d e f i n i t e a d v e r b i a l s
The c l a s s o f i n d e f i n i t e a d v e r b i a l s h a s t h e same member
s h ip as t h e c l a s s o f i n t e r r o g a t i v e a d v e r b i a l s
(i|..I|.2) , b u t
th ey nev er occur i n . u t t e r a n c e - f i n a l p o s i t io n ,
a s do i n t e r
ro g ativ e ad v erb ials.

n o n -fin al clau ses,
They o c c u r i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n o n l y i n
and a r e f o l lo w e d by a f i n a l s e n t e n c e
p a r t i c l e in sim p le p r e d i c a t i o n s .
E x a m p l e s : / l o o k t o w d o o c - m d o c t t r s w t o w d o m r D o j j^ . /
y o u go h o w e v e r
m u s t go r i g h t - a w a y
However y o u g o ,
/l/V irtW
^ titiv ia
vn4.v\
xu zzn
Irl
Am
<ruw k >lx
[ y o u ] m ust go r i g h t a w a y .
v\AV\vnr>
am
p v ;4 x u a a li
4* a
vvv/
!.
I neg. be-hungry to -a n y -e x te n t f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
I 'm n o t so h u n g r y .'
The f o r m s a r e l i s t e d b e l o w w i t h t h e i r i n d e f i n i t e m e a n i n g s :
1) /d o o c-m d ec /
h ow ever
2) /yaajQ -naa/
however'
3) /y a a g -m e c /
'h o w ev e r'
14-) / q b ^ k a l /
'w henever ( i n t h e f u t u r e ) '
$) / p i i - q o q k a l /
'w h en e v er ( i n t h e p a s t ) '
6) / k a a l - n a a /
'w h en ev er ( i n t h e f u t u r e ) '
7) / p i i - k a a l - n a a /
'w h e n e v e r ( i n t h e p a s t ) '
8) /ponm aan/
'to
any e x t e n t '
9) / p o n n a a /
'to
any e x t e n t '
1 0 ) / smaefmaan/
'to
any e x t e n t '
1 1 ) / q omb a a l -ma a n /
' t o any e x t e n t '
179
k*5 A d j e c t i v e s
A d j e c t i v e s a r e lexem es which o c c u r a s p o s t - p o s e d
m o d ifie rs o f nouns, v e rb s , or o th e r a d j e c t i v e s ,
and w hich
n e v e r o c cu r as s u b s t a n t i v e s o r p r e d i c a t i v e s .
A d jectivo s are d iv id e d in to th re e su b -c la ss e s s
1) general a d je c tiv e s
2) Im ita tiv e a d je c tiv e s
3) o r d i n a l num eral a d j e c t i v e s
Ip. ^1 G e n e r a l a d j e c t i v e s
"
T h is C l a s s i s l a r g e and o p e n -e n d e d , and i n c l u d e s a l l
a d j e c t i v e s w h i c h do n o t b e l o n g t o c l a s s e s 2 a n d 3 a b o v e .
A d je c tiv a l verbs
t h i s group,
(Lp.3 1 ) a l s o f u n c t i o n l i k e a d j e c t i v e s o f
in a d d itio n to t h e i r p re d ic a tiv e fu n c tio n .
G eneral a d je c tiv e s are d iv id e d in to th e fo llo w in g th r e e

sub-classes*
1 ) A d j e c t i v e s which m odify e i t h e r nouns o r v e r b s
Noun m o d i f i e r s /k n o m mean p r a q b o n t e c K /
I h a v e money a - l i t t l e
' 1 have a l i t t l e
m oney.1
Verb m o d i f i e r s
/ t w e o - k a a b o n t o c 'l ' l e e Q b o n t e c t s r u o l c e o Q k /
work a - l i t t l e
play a - l i t t l e
To work a l i t t l e
c o m f o r t a b l e more
an d p l a y a l i t t l e
i s m ore a g r e e a b l e . '
2) A d j e c t i v e s which m o d ify o n l y v e r b s and o t h e r a d j e c t i v o s

A d je c tiv e s o f t h i s c l a s s have a d v e r b i a l f u n c t i o n ,
d i f f e r from t h e c l a s s o f a d v e r b i a l s
but
(Ip.lj.) i n t h a t t h e y do
180
n o t occur as preposed m o d if ie r s ,
and a r e alw ays a t t r i b u t i v e
t o a p r e c e d i n g v e r b o r a d j e c t i v e , r a t h e r t h a n t o an e n t i r e
p red icatio n .
Many, r e d u p l i c a t i v e com p o u n d s , e s p e c i a l l y
t h o s e i n v o l v i n g vowel a b l a u t
(3.521) belong to t h i s group.
E x a m p le s * / m o n u h c a h d a e t o t r e e t - t o t r o o t ' i ' . /
man o l d w a l k s t a g g e r i n g l y -
The o l d man w a l k e d u n s t e a d i l y . 1
F r e q u e n t l y u p t o t h r e e su ch a d j e c t i v e s occtir i n c o o r d i n a t e
c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h an i n t e n s i f i e d m e a n i n g ,
as f o llo w s :
/ k m e e g l.ee g k n e e t e e n - t a a f l r o 3 e e m - r o s a a m r o w i i m - r o w e e r a t o w l . /
c h i l d r e n p l a y t o g e t h e r s k i t t i s h l y b o i s t e r o u s l y c o n f u s e d l y on
The c h i l d r e n p l a y e d on t o g e t h e r [ i n a ] s k i t t i s h ,
b o istro u s,
and c o n fu s e d [ m a n n e r ] .1
(A ll o f th e s e a d je c tiv e s are d e s c r ip tiv e o f u n s tru c tu re d
b e h a v i o r o f one k i n d o r a n o t h e r .
The g l o s s e s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e . )
3) A d j e c t i v e s which o c c u r o n ly as m o d i f i e r s o f nouns.
The c l a s s i s q u i t e s m a l l a n d may be l i m i t e d t o t h e
f o l l o w i n g m em bers:
1) / q a e t i o t /
o th er
2) / q a e t i o t - q a e t i e t /
v a rio u s
3) /nirau ey /
each
lj.) / n i m u e y - n i m u o y /
'e a c h i n i t u r n
5) / d o t i y /
'o th e r,
6) /d o d a e l/
'sam e'
M o d if ie r s which d e s c r i b e t h e s i z e ,
other'
foreign
shape, or c o lo r of t h e i r
n ou n h e a d s a r e u s u a l l y a d j e c t i v a l v e r b s .
181
b*$2 I m i t i a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s
I m i t a t i v e . a d j e c t i v e s a re onom atopoetic a d j e c t i v e s
w h i c h o c c u r a f t e r v e r b s and a f t e r t h e no un / s o o / ' s o u n d ' .
The c l a s s i s l a r g e an d o p e n - e n d e d , a nd t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y
o f i t s members a r e r e p e t i t i v e r e d u p l i c a t i v e s
(3.5>ll).
Such
a d j e c t i v e s a r e u s u a l l y accom panied by a s p e c i a l i m i t a t i v e
i n t o n a t i o n , p r e c e d e d , an d i f n o n - f i n a l , f o l l o w e d , by p a u s e .
E x a m p l e s ; / k e e b a n k n e e * c c h a ^ s ! ; chafl: I qonc-eg t o w l /
t h e y s h o o t t o g e t h e r bang bang l i l c e - t h a t c o n t i n u a t i v e
'
They w e r e f i r i n g a t e a c h o t h e r [ w i t h a]
bang! b a n g ! * ( t h u s ) .
/pdey -p ro p u en c lu e h knee l i i
s o o : kokaolc-kokaoki! /
h u s b a n d - w i f e a r g u e t o g e t h e r h e a r so u n d y a k k i t y - y a k
The c o u p l e w e r e a r g u i n g t o g e t h e r
(w ith a) y a k k ity -
yak' s o u n d ,'
O rd in al numeral a d j e c t i v e s
N um erals, as w e l l as th e --n o n -n u m e ric a l q u a n t i f i e r
/ p o n m a a n / how man y , c o m b in e w i t h t h e o r d l n a l i z i n g p r e f i x
/ t i i - / t o form o r d i n a l num eral a d j e c t i v e s .
Such compounds
a re n o t num erals, sin c e th e y never occur b e fo re s p e c i f i e r s .

E xam ples: /k o o n - p r o h t i i - b e y /
son t h i r d
't h e t h i r d son'
/tg a y tii-p o n m aan /
day how -m any'th

'w h at day ( in a s e r i e s ) ? '
182
lj.,6 A u x i l i a r i e s
A u x i l i a r i e s a r e lexemes which q u a l i f y a f o llo w in g v e rb
o r m o d a l v e r b , b u t w h i c h n e v e r o c c u r a s p r e d i c a t i v e s , a s do
modal v e r b s .
A u x il ia r ie s a re d e fin e d by th e fo llo w in g
criteria:
1 ) They p r e c e d e m o d al v e r b s
2 ) They n e v e r o c c u r a s p r e d i c a t i v e s
3 ) They a r e n e v e r n e g a t e d
Ip) T hey n e v e r p r e c e d e s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t s
Many compound a u x i l i a r i e s i n c l u d e t h e p r e p o s i t i o n / t a e / ' b u t 1,
w ith secondary s t r e s s ,
/ t a e / is o p tio n al,
W ithout / t a e / :
as second elem ent.
I n some a u x i l i a r i e s
a nd h a s an i n t e n s i f y i n g f u n c t i o n :
/k n o m t o e p maok p i i p t e e h s m j . /
I j u s t come f r o m h o u s e Sim
' I ve j u s t come f r o m S i m ' s h o u s e . '
W it h / t a e / :
/k n o m t e e p - t a e maok p i i p t e e h s i m j . /
'I 'v e
j u s t t h i s m inute-com e from S im 's h o u s e . '
In o t h e r a u x i l i a r i e s , however, / t a e / i s a d e r i v a t i o n a l
e le m e n t which d e r i v e s a u x i l i a r i e s from v e r b s :
V/ithout / t a e / : / k e e c e h n i y e e y b a r a q s a e h '! '. /
h e knows s p e a k F r e n c h
'H e knows how t o s p e a k F r e n c h , '
W ith / t a e / :
/k e e c e h -ta e n iy ee y b a ra fls a e h 'k /

h e alw ays sp e a k F re n c h
'H e a l w a y s s p e a k s F r e n c h . '
I n t h e f i r s t e x a m p l e , / c e h / i s a m odal v e r b ; / c e h - t a e / i n t h e
s e c o n d e x a m p le i s a n a u x i l i a r y .
183
The c o p u l a t i v e / c e e / ' i s 1 a l s o o c c u r s a s an o p t i o n a l
s e c o n d e l e m e n t i n some compound a u x i l i a r i e s .
I ts function
se em s t o be p r i m a r i l y o ne o f s i g n i f y i n g g r e a t e r f o r m a l i t y
or d e lib e ra tio n ,
e.g .:
/ q o w p u k knom mult tow d a e f . /

f a t h e r ray l i k e l y - t o go t o o
My f a t h e r i s l i k e l y t o go t o o .
But* / q e i ^ p u k knom m u k - c e e to w d a e j / . /
v
'I t
i s q u i t e l i k e l y t h a t my f a t h e r w i l l go t o o , '
^ 6 1 G e n e r a l a u x i l i a r i e s a r e a u x i l i a r i e s w h i c h may a l s o o c c u r
ff a. v a a
u U
v v i,
it/ j* .
r* -I? r\v
w
a. v i u v
d i c a t i o n th e y m odify.
np jn. nwn v
o r M v ir p
f.ViCi
vaav
011K
wm v.i w
r\
f*
v a
fv. a
Ka nv
iva
The c l a s s i s c l o s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e
f o l l o w i n g l i s t may n o t b e c o m p l e t e .
1) /so o m /
' please'
2) / c o o /
'g o ah ead and'
3) / c r a n ( - t a e ) /
'm o stly *
) /coranara-t& e/
'u s u a lly '
5>) / t a e i o - t a e /
*u s u a l l y '
6) / tr w - ta e /
'n e c e s s a r ily '
7) / r o m e e Q ( - t a e ) /
1u s u a l l y '
8) / s o t ( - t a e ) /
' a l l w ithout ex cep tio n '
9) / k u g ( - t a e )
'u s u a lly '
10)/m uk(-tao)
'p ro b a b ly '
11 ) / s r a p ( - t a e ) /
'.su d d en ly '
12 ) / k u ~ t a o ) /
'p ro p e rly '
13)/p ro h ael(-ceo )/
'p e rh ap s*
1814-
ll}.) / m u k ( - c e s ) /
p r o b a b ly 1
l) /to o l - t a e /
w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n ,
16) / m a c ( - k o o j /
'w h y ? '
1 7 ) / m d 0c ( k o o ) /
'w hy?'
1 8 ) /m c....raoc/
' i f . . . t h e n why?'
1 9 ) /m d o c .. .m doc/
' i f . ..
then
en tirely '
why?'
E x a m p le s 18 a n d 19 a b o v e a r e p a r a l l e l a u x i l i a r i e s .
They
o c c u r i n c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t i n g o f one o r more d e p e n d e n t
clauses,
f o llo w e d by a main c l a u s e ,
and s i g n a l th e f a c t t h a t
the m ain -clau se i s a r h e t o r i c a l q u e stio n , e . g . j

/ t u m r o o m qewpuk w e s t indec wee min k l a a c _ coh
cohtl n e e q d o t i y t mdec wee k l a a c _ . /
if - e v e n f a t h e r h i s i f he neg. r e s p e c t
tell-m o
person o th er
then-why he r e s p e c t
' I f he d o e s n ' t r e s p e c t even h i s f a t h e r ,
t h e n t e l l me, why
1 sh o u ld he] r e s p e c t anyone e l s e ? '

I}..62 P r e v e r b a l a u x i l i a r i e s a r e a u x i l i a r i e s w h i c h a l w a y s p r e
cede v e r b s .
The c l a s s i s c l o s e d , a l t h o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t
may n o t b e c o m p l e t e .
1 ) /t9 o p (-tao )/
Ito
have j u s t '
2) /stee -ta e/
'o n
the p oint of'
3) /c it/
'n e a rly '

)
Ll) /kompug(-tae)/
'i n the process of'
5 ) /seg (-tae)/
'a lm o s t a l l '
6 ) /k an -tae/
'in c re a s in g ly '
7) /c e h - ta e /
'always'
185
8 ) /ri-t ( - ta e )/
1i n c r e a s i n g l y
9 ) /k ro sn -tae/
b a re ly
10)/rio p -tae /
1a l m o s t
1 1 )/ n o w - t a e /
s t i l l ,
12 ) / r o w u o l - t a e / .
'e n g ro sse d in '
1 3 )/khom -tae/
t r y only t o
lL}.)/c o m p u e h - t a e '/
esp ecially
1 5 )/ m e o n - t a e /
v h a v e o n l y t o
16 ) / s a e n /
1e x t r e m e l y
17)/koo/
's o ,
;
co n tin u ally
then, acco rd in g ly
The f o l l o w i n g two e x a m p l e s o c c u r o n l y a s compound n e g a t i v e

a u x iliaries:
18)/m in-toon/
not y e t
1 9 )/m in-s w /
' h a r d l y , n o t so v e r y
lj.,63 The i n c i p i e n t a u x i l i a r y / n i g / w i l l ,
ju s t about t o
precedes n e g a tiv e a u x i l i a r i e s , but fo llo w s a l l o th e r aux

ilia rie s,
e . g . * /knom c-it n i g min t o w j . /

I a l m o s t f u t u r e n e g a t i v e go
I a l m o s t d i d n ' t g o . ,
I4. . 6 I4. N e g a t i v e a u x i l i a r i e s f o l l o w a l l o t h e r a u x i l i a r i e s .
T h eir o c cu rren c e im m ediately p rec ed in g v erb s d e fin e s th e
class of p red ic ativ es.
The c l a s s h a s f o u r m em bers.
1 ) /m in/
not (g e n e ra l)'
2 ) /q o t/
n o t ( c o l l o q u i a l )'
3 ) /pum /
not ( l i t e r a r y ) '
lj.) / k o m /
don t
(negative
im perative)
186
b*7 R e l a t o r s
R e l a t o r s a r e l e x e m e s whose f u n c t i o n i s t o i n d i c a t e t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n two c o - c o n 3 t i t u e n t s .
not su b stan tiv es,
verbs
Such lexemes a ro
s in c e th e y n ev er occur as s u b je c ts o f
(1|*2), a n d t h e y a r o n o t p r e d i c a t i v e s ,
n e v e r n e g a t e d Cl}..3 ) .
o f syntax,
sin ce they are
R e l a t o r s a r e d i v i d e d , on t h e b a s i s
in to fiv e c la s s e s ,
1) p r e p o s itio n a l r e l a t o r s
as fo llo x js i
(prepositions)
2) su b o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n a l r e l a t o r s
(subordinating
' conjunctions)
3) g e n e ra l r e l a t o r s
( w h ich o c c u r b o t h a s p r e p o s i t i o n s
and a s s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s )
I4.) c o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s
(coordinatin g
co n ju n ctio n s)
S) c o p u l a t i v e r e l a t o r s
U-* 71 P r e p o s i t i o n a l r e l a t o r s
(co p u lativ es)

(or sim p ly p r e p o s i t i o n s ) a re
r e l a t o r s w h i c h p r e c e d e o n l y s u b s t a n t i v e o b j e c t s a n d w h ic h
show t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s u b s t a n t i v e t o a c o - c o n s t i t t i e n t ,
A c o n s t r u c t i o n whose c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e a p r e p o s i t i o n and i t s
object is a p re p o sitio n a l p hrase.
P r e p o s itio n a l p h ra se s are
alw ays a t t r i b u t i v e t o a c o - c o n s t i t u e n t .
e x a m p l e s i n v o l v e t h e p r e p o s i t i o n / k r a o m / u n d e r 1:
/ k r o b o y d e e k now lcraora p t e o h ' h /
b u f f a l o l i e rem ain u nder house
The b u f f a l o a r e l y i n g u n d e r t h e h o u s e . *
187
/ k r o b o y k rao m p t e h n u h t th u m n a h l ; /
b u f f a l o under* h o u s e t h a t
b o -b ig very
The b u f f a l o u n d e r t h a t h o u s e a r e v e r y b i g !
Many p r e p o s i t i o n s o c c u r w i t h a d j e c t i v a l f u n c t i o n t ^ i t h o u t a
follow ing o b je c t,
e .g .:
/k am pu cc e k r a o m /
Ca mbodia u n d e r
Lower Ca m bo d ia!
The f o l l o w i n g s u b - c l a s s e s o f p r e p o s i t i o n s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d
on t h e b a s i s o f s e m a n t i c c r i t e r i a :
1|. 711 L o c a t i o n a l p r e p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h e l o c a t i o n a l r e
l a t i o n s h i p o f a fo llo w in g o b je c t to a c o - c o n s titu e n t.
1) / k n o q /
in
2) /k r a w /
' o utside
3) / l o o /
onj a b o v e
U.) / k r a o m /
u n d e r
5) /m uk/
in f r o n t o f
6) / k r a o y /
a f t e r , behind'
7) / c i t /
n e a r
8) / q a e /
at
9) / b o n t o o p /
succeeding, next t o
10 )/k b ae/
' b eside
11)/k o n d aal/
in the c e n te r o f
12)/co p/
'a tta c h e d t o
188
lj.,712 D i r e c t i o n a l ! p r e p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h e d i r e c t i o n a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p of a follow ing o b je c t to a c o -c o n s titu e n t.'
1) / p i i /
- f r o m 1
2) / d o l /
1t o w a r d
3) /cu m w in /
around1
lj.) /
around
wuoq/
$) / c w i e l /
c ir c lin g
^ . 7 1 3 Q u a n t i t a t i v e p r e p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e - t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e -or
d i s t r i b u t i o n a l r e la tio n s h ip o f a follow ing o b jec t to a
c o -co n stitu en t.
1) /sm ao/
eq u allin g
2) / t e e p /
including
3) / q o h /
a ll of
lj.) / t e o Q - q o h /
inclu ding a l l o f
5) / p i n /
to th e e x te n t o f
6)
/ 00353/
m ore t h a n '
7) / I e o h /
exceeding'
8) /h u o h /
exceeding
9) /c o m /
ex actly
1 0 )/ta e/ .
only'
11 ) / r o o l / V
every (w ith u n i t s o f tim e )'
12)/sop/
every'
13)/k ru p /
a l l of'
11).) / l c r u p - k r u p /
every'
l5 )/k ru p -so p /
e v e r y one o f '
16 ) / s o p - k r u p /
e v e r y o ne o f
1 7 )/cuoh/
in stead o f
189
lj., 711). Q u a l i t a t i v e p r e p o s i t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h e q u a l i t a t i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p of a fo llo w in g o b je c t to a c o - c o n s titu e n t.
1) / r o b o h /
o f, belonging t o
2) /q o m p ii/
about, o f
3) / p t o e l /
concerning
k) / c e a -m usy/
w ith
5) /c e o - m u e y - n ig /
to g e th e r w ith'
1)..72 S u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n . j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s
(or sim ply
s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s ) a r e r e l a t o r s which i n t r o d u c e
su b ordinate c la u se s.
The r e s u l t i n g c o n s t r u c t s a r e a l w a y s
in a t t r i b u t i v e c o n s tru c tio n w ith a c o -c o n s titu e n t.
In t h e
f o l l o w i n g exam ple, / b a o / i s a c o n j u n c t i o n m eaning ' i f ' :

/ b a o p q oo n c o g t i n l a a n t qan c u e y b o n t o c b a a n j - . /
i f y o u ( o l d e r t o y o u n g e r s i b l i n g ) want b uy c a p
I help a - l i t t l e
ab le
' I f y o u want t o buy a c a r ,
I c an h e l p a l i t t l e . '
In t h e m inim al c a s e , t h e c o - c o n s t i t u e n t o f a s u b o r d i n a t i n g
c o n j u n c t i o n may b e a s i n g l e p r e d i c a t i v e
le ss a p redicationj
(w h i c h i s n e v e r t h e
s e e i)..3) a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e :
/ b a e t h a o k f knom t i n b a a n j . /
i f inexpensive
I buy a b l e
I f [ i t s ] i n e x p e n s i v e , I c a n buy [ i t ] .
Most o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s a r e m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y com
plex.
The bou n d morpheme / - b e y / w h i c h o c c u r s a s a s e c o n d
e l e m e n t i n e x a m p le s 6 - 8 b e low se ems t o f u n c t i o n o n l y as a
marker o f s u b o r d in a ti n g c o n ju n c tio n s
(see 3 .2 3 ) .
Sequences
190
o f morphemes e a c h o f w h i c h o c c u r s b y i t s e l f a s a c o n j u n c t i o n
a r e t r e a t e d a s c o o r d i n a t e compound c o n j u n c t i o n s ,
e.g .?
/ t u e h / a lth o u g h + / c e e / t h a t > /tu o h - c e e / 'a lth o u g h

Some o f t h e ' f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s c o n s i s t o f s e q u e n c e s o f
morphemes w h i c h o c c u r e l s e w h e r e as f r e e f o r m s , b u t whose
f u n c t i o n a s e l e m e n t s o f c o n j u n c t i o n a l compounds seem s t o be
id io m atic.
F o r exam ple ?
/b aa/ 'i f '
+ / s e n / ( o c c u r s e l s e w h e r e o n l y a s an i m p e r -
a tiv e f i n a l sentence p a r t i c l e )
+ / n a a / 'w h ic h '
> /bae-sen-naa/ ' i f

Both / b a a - s e n - n a a / i f
below ) can s u b s t i t u t e
and / b a a - s a n - c e a / ' i f '
( e x a m p le H 4.
s y n t a c t i c a l l y and s e m a n t i c a l l y f o r th e
m o r p h o lo g ic a lly sim ple c o n ju n c tio n / b a a / i f .
Su c h s e
q u e n c e s a r e t r e a t e d a s i d i o m a t i c compound c o n j u n c t i o n s .
Some o f t h e e x a m p l e s b e l o w c o u l d p o s s i b l y ; be a n a l y z e d
as s y n t a c t i c p h r a s e s .
lik e co n ju n ctio n s,
However, s i n c e t h e y seem t o f u n c t i o n
t h e y a re f o r t h e p r e s e n t a n a ly z e d as
compound c o n j u n c t i o n s . The f o l l o w i n g l i s t may n o t be c o m p l e t e .

1) / b a o /
'if '
2) / l u l l /
' when'
3). / c e e /
'th a t'
I4.) / t h a a /
' th at'
$) / k a a l /
' when'
6) /d a e m -b e y /
in o rd er to '
7) / k o m - b e y /
'in order to n o t'
8) /s o o m - b o y ( - ta e ) /
1a l t h o u g h
9) / t u 0h ( ~ c e o ) /
1a l t h o u g h
10) / t u a h - b a y ( - b a a ) /
1 a lt h o u g h
11) / t u m r o a m /
u n t i l ,
12) / t u m r o a m - d o l /
u n til
13) / b a a - s a n - n a a /
i f
Ilf.) / b a a - s a n - c e a /
i f
15) / k a a l - n a a /
' whenever
16) / k a a l - d a e l /
' wh en
17) / k a a l - n a a - b a a /
w h e n e v e r
18) / b a a - k a a l - n a a /
' w henever
19) / k a a l - p i i /
when ( i n t h e p a s t )
20) / p e e l - n a a /
1w h e n e v e r
21) / p e e l - d a e i /
when ( i n t h e p a s t ) '
22) / k n o j 3- p e e l d a e l /
w h ile
23) / d o l - p e e l d a e l /
' when
2k) / q a o y /
so t h a t '
25) / q a o y - t a e /
's o long as'
26) / k o m - q a o y /
'in
27) / k o m - q a o y - t a e /
' s o l o n g as n o t '
28) / l u h - t a e /
' o n ly when'
29) / l u h * * t r a a ~ t a e /
'u n le s s '
30) / t u k - b a a ( - c e a ) /
'g iv e n t h a t '
31) / c i i - c e a g /
' although
32) / d b a t ( - t a e ) /
' alth o u g h '
even i f
order th a t not'
192
14-. 72X C o r r e l a t i v e c o n ju n c tio n s a r e p a i r e d f o r m s , t h e f i r s t
o f t y h ic h i n t r o d u c e s t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e ,
and t h e second
o f w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s t h e m ain c l a u s e , o f c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e s
(6.12),
The s e c o n d member o f s u c h c o r r e l a t i v e p a i r s i s
in v a ria b ly the c o o rd in a tin g co n junction / t a e / b u t, n e v er

theless .
1) / d b e t . . . t a e /
1a l t h o u g h . . . n e v e r t h e l e s s
2) / t u o h , . . t a e /
alth o u g h ,. .n e v e rth e le s s
3) / c i i - c e o f l / . . t a e /
alth o u g h .. .n e v e rth e le ss
I}.) / s o o m - b o y . , . t a e /
alth o u g h .. .n e v e rth e le ss
Example*
/ d b o t knom c h i & f t a e knom t o w t w e o - k a a d a e l . /
although I b e - i l l
A lth o u g h I [was]
b u t I go work anyhow
ill,
n e v e r t h e l e s s I w e n t t o work
(anyhow) . 1
b*7 3 G e n e r a l r e l a t o r s a r e r e l a t o r s w h i c h o c c u r w i t h b o t h
p r e p o s i t i o n a l and s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l f u n c t i o n .
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i n v o l v e / s o m r a p / f o r ?
As p r e p o s i t i o n s
/ k n o m t i n sio wphow n i h so m ra p k o o n - p r o h ' l , /
I buy book t h i s f o r son
I b o u g h t t h i s b o o k f o r [my] s o n ,
As s u b o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n :
/ k n o m t i n siew p h o w n i h so m ra p y o e k tow s a l a a - r i e n l . /
I b u y bo o k t h i s f o r t a k e t o s c h o o l
I bought t h i s book to ta k e to s c h o o l .
193
The f o l l o w i n g l i s t may n o t be c o m p l e t e :
1) /so m rap /
1f o r 1
2) / daoy/
by*
3) /m un/
before
k) / k r a o y ( - p i i ) /
afte r
>) / r u o c - p i i /
after
6) / t a g - p i i /
since'
7) / d o o c ( - c e s ) /
lik e
8) / d o l /
u n til'
9) / r o h o o t ( - d o l ) /
up u n t i l '
1 0 )/srac-tae/
depending on'
11 ) / c o m p u e h ( - t a e )
ju st for'
1 2 )/k raw -p ii/
besides'
1 3 )/rioio /
about1
lLl-J/cumnuoh/
in stead o f
l )/p ro p en /
lik e '
16 J / p r o e m - t e e q /
w hile *
l?)/p ru 9 h /
b ecau se1(o f ) '
18)/p ip ru 9 h /
because (o f ) '
1 9 -)/to 9 l-tao /
to tftil*
20)/d ao y -sas/
because ( o f ) '
k*7k C o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n a l r e l a t o r s
(or sim ply c o o rd in
a t i n g c o n ju n c tio n s ) in tro d u c e th e second c o irc o n stitu e n t o f

co o rd in ate c o n stru c tio n s.
icativ es,
or p red icatio n s.
They p r e c e d e s u b s t a n t i v e s , p r e d
The f i r s t t h r e e members o f t h e
c l a s s l i s t e d below a r e p u re m a rk e rs
(i.e .
s e r v e o n l y t o m ark
1914c o o rd in a te c o n s t r u c t io n ; ty p e s ), w hile o t h e r s have sem antic

content,
e .g . *
/ y e e g to w nara b a a y f t e e p t o w m e a l k o n h /
we go e a t r i c e
t h e n go w a t c h f i l m
' W e t ' l l ] go e a t , t h e n g o t o a m o v i e , '

The c l a s s i s s m a l l and c l o s e d . E x a m p l e s 9 -1 1 a r e com pounds.
1) /rii/
' or'
2 ) /haay/
7 ) / t a e / 'b u t'
'a n d '
8 ) /p o n ta e / 'b u t'
3 ) / h a e y - n i g / 'a n d *
9 ) / k o o - p o n ta e / 'b u t'.
l\.) / r u a c / ' t h e n '
1 0 )/k 4 i-th aa / 'th a t is '
5 ) /se ra / 'a n d th e n '
11)/dooc-thaa/ 'th a t is '
6 ) / t a a p / 'o n ly th en '
i|.. 7U1 P a r a l l e l c o o r d i n a t i n g con . j u n c t i o n s o c c u r b e f o r e b o t h
c o -c o n stitu e n ts o f a co o rd in ate c o n stru c tio n .
Example* / r 4 4 t knom tow p n u m - p 4 n 1 ' ' r 4 i f knom tow s i a m - r e a p ' J . /
or
I go Phnom-Penh
or
I go S i e m - r e a p
' I ' m g o i n g e i t h e r t o Phnom Penh o r t o S i e m r e a p . '

The c l a s s h a s o n l y two members*
1) / r 4 4 . . , r 4 4 /
' e ith e r .. .o r'
2 ) / t e e q . . . teeô/
'b o th . ..a n d '
I4.. 7k2 P a i r e d c o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c t i o n s a r e p a i r s o f c o n
junctions,
th e f i r s t o f which o c c u rs b e f o r e th e f i r s t c o -
co n stitu en t,
and t h e s e c o n d o f w h i c h o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e s e c o n d
c o -c o n s titu e n t, o f co o rd in ate c o n stru c tio n s .

Example* / t e e q knom tow p l o w n i h f h a e y - n i g l o o k t o w p l e w n u h J - , /
b o t h I go s t r e e t t h i s
a n d yo u go s t r e e t t h a t
195
I ' l l go [ b y ] t h i s
street,
a n d ( a t t h e same t i m e ) y o u
go [ b y ] t h a t s t r e e t .
The c l a s s h a s two m em bers:
1) / t e e g . . .h a e y -n ig /
b o th ...a n d
2 ) /pro8m -te933.. .h a e y -n iio /
w h i l e . . . a t th e same tim e
1+. 71+3 P o s t - p o s e d p a r a l l e l c o o r d i n a t i n g con . j u n c t i o n s f o l l o w

t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s which t h e y mark as c o o r d i n a t e ,
e.g .:
/ m i t to w k d e y I min t o w k d e y f knom tow d a e ^ . /

y o u ( f r i e n d ) go w h e t h e r
n o t go w h e t h e r
W h e t h e r y o u go o r n o t ,
I m g o i n g .
I g o anyhow
The c l a s s h a s ' t h e f o l l o w i n g two m em b ers:

1) / k d e y . . . k d e y /
w h e th e r. . . o r
2) /k o o -d a o y .. .k o o -d ao y /
p o s s i b l e . . . a l s o
1+. 75 C o p u l a t i v e r e l a t o r s
p o ssib le'
(or sim ply c o p u l a t i v e s ) occur b e
tween t h e c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s o f e q u a t i o n a l o r to p ic -co m m en t
c o n stu ctio n s
(5 .1 2 ).
The c l a s s h a s t h r e e m em bers:
1) / k i i /
be
2) / c e e /
'b e'
3) /m in-m een/
not b e
Exam ples
1a n d 2 a r e n o t
c la s s e d as v e rb s ,
s i n c e t h e y do n o t
meet th e re q u ire m e n t o f o c c u rrin g a f t e r th e n e g a tiv e aux

i l i a r y /m in/.
E xam p le 3 i s t h e n e g a t i o n o f e x a m p l e s 1 a n d 2 .
/ m e e n / and i t s n e g a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n a l s o o c cu rs, a s,^ .a n ^ a d je c tiv a l

v e r b , b u t w i t h t h e m eaning ' t o be t r u e ' ,
/ c e e / o c c u r s a l s o as
an a d j e c t i v a l v e r b w i t h t h e m e a n i n g ' t o b e w e l l ,
i n good
h e alth .
196
ij.,8 P a r t i c l e s
P in a l sentence p a r t i c l e s
P in a l sentence p a r t i c l e s occur in a b so lu te f i n a l
p o s itio n in a l l se n ten c es except sen ten ces in v o lv in g a
p o s t - p o s e d , t o p i d ' , , i n w h i c h c a s e t h e y f o l l o w t h e comment
(5.122).
P in a l p a r t i c l e s co-occur in c a r e f u l speech w ith
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c phrase contburs;
H ow ev er, i n r a p i d s p e e c h ,
many f i n a l p a r t i c l e s h a v e r e d u c e d a l l o m o r p h s w h i c h c o - o c c u r
w ith th e p h rase con to ur / l / .
The p a r t i c l e s b e l o w a r e c i t e d
in t h e i r c a r e f u l sp eech a llo m o rp h s , fo llo w e d by t h e i r r a p i d

sp e e c h a llo m o rp h s where d i f f e r e n t .
P i n a l p a r t i c l e s as
l i s t e d below a r e m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e .
Those se q u e n c e s w hich
do c o - o c c u r seem t o b e compounds.
1 ) /tee-I' - t e h l /
em phatic p a r t i c l e '
2) / t e e J ~ t e h l /
negative p a r t i c l e 1
3) / r i i t - r i h l /
question p a r t i c l e 1
h) / r 4 4 - t e e f - r i t e h l /
or not?'
5) / t e e l r i i /
really ?'
6 ) / d a e 'l ' ~ d e h l /
as w ell ( c o n tr a ry to b e l i e f ) '
7) /phooiQ I . htxgl/
too, a lso '
8 ) /h ae y ^ ~ heyl ~ q e h l /
'a lre a d y (p e rfe c tiv e p a r t i c l e ) '
9) /n a a l
'y o u s e e ? ! ( p o l i t e i m p e r a t i v e H
- nahl ~ n h l/
1 0 )/sen l/
firstj
11)/co h l/
'g o ahead'
12)/tov7-l' ~ t o h l /
go o n '
13)/n a e |/
'e m p h a tic im p e r a tiv e '
l l 4. ) / n a o 1 /
' em phat i c imp e r a t i v e '
go a h e a d '
197
1 5 >)
/w e e y l - way! - weh 1 /
'j o c u la r emphatic p a r t ic le '
16) /q e e y l - q e y l /
emphatic p a r t ic le '
17) / s o h ' /
a t a l l ( a f t e r n e g a tiv e s ) '
18 ) / l a e y l /
a t a l l ( a ft e r n e g a t iv e s ) 1
19) / s o h - l a e y |/
a t a l l ( a ft e r n e g a t iv e s ) '
20) /te e -so h -la e y l/
a t a l l ( a f t e r n e g a tiv e s )'
21) / t e e - t a o t /
p o l i t e q u e stio n p a r t ic le '
22) /ta e l
t h a t 's a l l (d isa v o w a l)'
- teh l/
23) /4 ia e y -r4 I-n o w t/
y e t or n ot?'
2l) /m e a l-to w t m etow i/
perhaps'
25) /m een-nehl ~ m enehi/
r e a lly !'
ij.,82 Pause p a r t ic le s
Pause p a r t ic le s s ig n a l th a t an u tte r a n c e has been s u s
pended, e ith e r tem p orarily or perm anently.
I f th e u t t e r
ance i s n o t resumed, the pause p a r t ic le i s th e c o -c o n s titu e n t

o f a l l th a t p reced es in th e se n ten ce .
I f th e sen ten ce Is r e
sumed, th e pause p a r t ic le , u s u a lly preceded and fo llo w ed by

p au se, i s in c o n str u c tio n w ith th e d isco n tin u o u s se n te n c e .
Pause p a r t i c l e s , l i k e f i n a l sen ten ce p a r t i c l e s , are extrem ely
v a r ia b le in shape.
In th e fo llo w in g th r ee exam ples, the
commonest allom orphs p reced e,

1
) /nae__
~ n ee_
- neh_ /
) /q e e _
- q44__
- qh_ /
) /qadon_
- qeden_ - den__ /
I t i s d i f f i c u l t to a ssig n g lo s s e s to pause p a r t i c l e s , but

th e se p a r t ic le s have the g en era l m eaining ' l e t me see now',
or ' th a t i s to s a y , . , ' ,
5 .0 Syntax
Syntax d e a ls w ith th e arrangement o f lexem es and in to n a tio n a l morphemes in u tte r a n c e s .
I t i s assumed th a t
every u tte r a n c e co n ta in s a t l e a s t one se n te n c e ,
A sen ten ce
i s any sequence o f lexem es which occurs in sim u ltan eou s

co n stru ctio n ;:w ith an in to n a tio n .
An in to n a tio n i s any
sequence o f in to n a tio n a l morphemes whose f i n a l morpheme

in c lu d e s th e in to n a tio n a l phoneme / . / .
Thus th e immediate
c o n s t it u e n t s o f any sen ten ce are a segm ental c o n s titu e n t and

an in to n a tio n .
Examples*
/ t o w I . / [He s ] g o in g .
Segm ental c o n s titu e n t: /t o w / 't o go'

In to n a tio n :
/I,/
'end o f statem ent*
/b a a tJ kee n iy eo y th a a l t o w I ./
r e sp o n siv e
he say th a t go
'Y es, he sa id th a t [ h e ' s ] g o in g .'

Segm ental c o n s titu e n t:
/b a a t kee n iy e e y thaa to w /
In to n a tio n :
/\\\,/
'th r e e -p h r a se statem en t'
The minimum segm ental s y n t a c t ic c o n s titu e n t i s a

lexem e.
Any sequence o f more than one lexem e, in any
co n te x t in which i t i s not a se n te n c e , i s a s y n ta c tic

p h ra se.
A s y n ta c tic c la u s e i s any verb or verb p h rase,
w ith or w ith ou t a s u b j e c t, whose c o - c o n s t it u e n t a ls o con

ta in s a verb or verb phrase.
198
199
Although th e p ro ce ss o f immediate c o n s t it u e n t a n a ly s is
a n a ly t i c . p roceed in g from th e se n ten ce through th e syn
t a c t i c phrase to th e minimum s y n t a c t ic c o n s t it u e n t , or
lexem e, th e order o f p r e s e n ta tio n adopted h ere i s s y n t h e t ic ,
p roceed in g from lexem e c l a s s e s (I4..O) to c o n s tr u c tio n s ( 5 . 0 )
to se n te n c e s ( 6 . 0 ) .
F o llo w in g i s a l i s t o f th e major c o n str u c tio n ty p es
d is c u s s e d in t h i s ch a p ter, and th e symbols u sed to id e n t i f y
them.
5 .1 U ncentered c o n s tr u c tio n s
5 .1 1 S u b je c t-p r e d ic a te c o n str u c tio n s
( J
5 .1 2 P a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s
5*13 O b j e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
.U 4. R e la tio n a l c o n str u c tio n s
( ^
5 .1 5 C om pletive c o n str u c tio n s
( j
5 .2 C entered c o n s tr u c tio n s
5 .2 1 P o st-p o sed a t t r ib u t e s
( <
5 .2 2 Preposed a t t r ib u t e s
( >
5 .3 C oordinate c o n str u c tio n s

5 .3 1 C u m u l a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
5 .3 2 A lte r n a tiv e c o n str u c tio n s
( /
5 .3 3 A p p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
5 .3 ^ I n c l u s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
(.,.
5.14- Num erical c o n str u c tio n s

5.1+1 A d d itiv e c o n s tr u c tio n s
5.^42
M u lt ip lic a tiv e c o n s tr u c tio n s
( +
( x
200
*><1 U n c e n t e r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n s
An u n c e n t e r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n i s a n y c o n s t r u c t i o n w hose
fo rm c l a s s i s d i f f e r e n t fro m t h a t o f a n y o f i t s
5*11 S u b j e c t - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
c o n stitu e n ts .
( | )
A s u b j e c t - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a> n o u n o r
noun p h r a s e , o r a v e rb o r v e rb p h ra s e ^ as a s u b j e c t , f o llo w
ed by a v e rb o r v e rb p h r a s e as a p r e d i c a t e
( d e f i n e d i n I*.,3 )*
5 . 1 1 1 A c t i v e s u b j e c t - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a v e an a c t i v e
v erb
(V t/V i) o r a c t i v e v e rb p h ra s e as p r e d i c a t e .
E x a m p le s : / p r o h
| n a m l . / (man | e a t )
'T h e man i s e a t i n g . 1
/r a o n u h - p r o h b e y n e e q nuh. jk o m p u g -ta e tw e e q w e y f . /
man t h r e e p e r s o n t h a t
| i n - p r o c e s s - o f do w h at
'W h at a r e t h o s e t h r e e men d o i n g ? '

/knom | m i n - t o e n b a a n to w d a e l e e g k h a e t n u h ! . /
I
| n o t - y e t a b l e go w a lk p l a y p r o v i n c e t h a t
I 'v e n ev er had th e chance to v i s i t t h a t p r o v in c e .'
/p h e k s r a a
| tw e e q a o y knom s r o w e i j ! . /
d rin k a lc o h o l
J make t h a t I d i z z y
D r i n k i n g a l c o h o l makes me d i z z y . '
" 5 .1 1 2 A d j e c t i v a l s u b j e c t - p r e d i c a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s h a v e an
a d je c tiv a l v erb or a d je c tiv a l v erb ph rase as p re d ic a te .
E x a m p le s : / s r e y n u h j i q o o l , /
woman t h a t
| p re tty
'T h a t woman [ i s ]
p re tty .'
201
i
/ p l e e g d a e l k e e kompug l e e g q e y l e w - n i h | p i r u e h s d a p l , /
so n g w h ie h t h e y p r o g r e s s i v e p l a y now | p l e a s i n g h e a r
The s o n g t h e y ' r e p l a y i n g now i s p r e t t y . ( t o h e a r ) . '
/tw e s sra e J pibaaq n a h i ./

do r i c e f i e l d
| d i f f i c u l t v ery
R ic e -fa rm in g [ i s ] v e ry d i f f i c u l t .
5 .1 2
P a ra ta c tic c o n stru c tio n s
( 0 )
P a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w hose c o
c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e . j u x t a p o s e d c o m p le m e n ts w h ic h s t a n d i n an
a s s o c i a t i v e o r c o m p le m e n ta r y r e l a t i o n s h i p .
e q u a tio n a l c o n s tru c tio n s
-
In th e c a s e o f
( 5 . 1 2 1 2 ) , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s m a rk e d
by a c o p u la ti v e r e l a t o r r a t h e r th a n by sim p le p a r a t a x i s .
5 .1 2 1
E q u a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a no un o r noun
p h r a s e a s t o p i c f o l l o w e d b y a noun o r n o u n p h r a s e a s a
synonym ous c o m p le m e n t.
E q u a tio n a l.c o n stru c tio n s are e ith e r
u n m ark e d o r m ark e d b y ono o f t h e c o p u l a t i v e r e l a t o r s
(i|..6 5 ) .
I n t h e e x a m p le s b e lo w , s u c h m a r k e r s a r e w r i t t e n t o t h e r i g h t
o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n sy m b o l, s i n c e t h e y o c c u r i n t h e same,
p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e a s t h e s e c o n d c o m p le m e n t.
5 .1 2 1 1 Unmarked e q u a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s
E x a m p le s: / n i h J
'*
'
q w s y f./
>
( t h i s 0 w h a t ) What [ i s ]
th is ? '
. *
'
/monuh nuh Q qewpuk knom I . /

* '
r;
I. '
person t h a t B f a t h e r my
T h a t person [ i s ] my f a t h e r . '
202
5* 12 12 M arked e q u a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s
E x a m p le ss /s l w -p h o w n i h 0 k 44 k b u e n p r o w o o t t e s a a h J - . /
book t h i s
Q is te x t h isto ry
T h is book i s a h i s t o r y t e x t . 1
/ b o o g - p r o h knom D ce k r u u { . /
e l d e r - b r o t h e r my 0 i s t e a c h e r
'My e l d e r b r o t h e r i s a t e a c h e r . '
5 . 1 2 2 T o p ic -c o m m e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a n o u n , n o u n
p h ra s e , v e rb , v e rb p h ra s e , or p r e d ic a tio n as to p ic , and a
p r e d i c a t i o n , p r e d i c a t e , o r n o n - p r e d i c a t e a s comment.
The
t o p i c may be e i t h e r t h e s u b j e c t o r t h e o b j e c t o f t h e s e n t e n c e ,
but i t
is ty p ic a lly th e o b je c t.
T o p i c s may e i t h e r p r e c e d e
o r f o l l o w t h e comment.
P o st-p o se d to p ic s in d ic a te red u ced
e m p h a s is o f t h e t o p i c ,
a n d a r e a lw a y s , f o l l o w e d b y t h e i n t o
n a t i o n a l m o rp h em e\/_ * / e m o tio n a lly u n i n v o l v e d ', i n c o n t r a s t

w i t h t h e r e g u l a r f i n a l i n t o n a t i o n a l morpheme
u tte ra n c e s ,
A preposed to p ic ,
of sta tiv e
on t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s t y p i
c a l l y fo llo w e d by th e p h ra s e c o n to u r ; / 'f / ,
5 .1 2 2 1 P r e p o s e d t o p i c s
E x am p le s? /k o o n n u h f 0 q a a y u q pram c n a m j . /
c h i l d t h a t 0 age f i v e y e a r s
T hat c h il d is f i v e y e a rs o l d , '
/qowpuk knomf 0 k oet k i t qaoy knom tw9 k r u u - p e e t l,/

f a t h e r my 0 h e p l a n t h a t I do d o c t o r
'My f a t h e r ,
( h e ) p l a n s f o r me t o b e a d o c t o r . '
203
/lo o k . tw ee-kaa t i i - n u h f 0 baan praq-khao ponm aan?,/
y o u w ork t h e r e fl g e t s a l a r y how-m uch
How much s a l a r y do you g e t , w o r k in g t h e r e ?
/ p i i pnum -pn tow s i s r a - r e e p t 0 pohm aan k i l o o m a e t ' t . /
fro m Phnora-Penh go S i e m - r e a p D how-many, k i l o m e t e r
How many k i l o m e t e r s i s i t v f r o m Phnom Pen h t o S i e m r e a p ?
5 .1 2 2 2
P o st-p o sed to p ic s
E x a m p le s : / l q o o n a h J ' B s r e y n u h _ . /
p r e t t y v e r y 0 woman t h a t
[ S h e s ] v e r y p r e t t y , t h a t w om an.
/kno m rain t u k - c e t t e e i Q monuh n u h _ . /
I n e g a tiv e t r u s t e m p h a tic -p a r tic le D person th a t
I don t t r u s t [h im ], th a t m an.
/k n o m q e t n i y e e y qwey s o h 4 D knom__./
I n e g a tiv e sa y a n y th in g a t - a l l
0 m y se lf
I . d i d n t s a y a n y th in g a t a l l , m y s e l f .
5 .1 2 3
E x c l a m a t o r y c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w hose f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t i s an i n t e r j e c t i o n
(Ip .ll).
S u ch p r i o r c o n s t i t u e n t s
a r e s e p a r a t e d fr o m t h e i r c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s by a p h r a s e c o n t o u r .
E x a m p le s ; / m a e t Q kdaw n a h l , /
in te rje c tio n -o f-a n n o y a n c e
G ee,
Q b e -h o t v ery
[ i t s] r e a l l y h o t l 1
/ t a e -I 0 l o o k q o n ceefi tow n a a f . /
in te rro g a tiv e -in te rje c tio n
0 y o u p o l i t e - A u x , go w here
'P a r d o n me, w h e re a r e y o u g o i n g ?
20k
R e s p o n s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w hose f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t i s a r e s p o n s i v e ( k*1 2 ) .
R e sp o n siv e s a re
t y p i c a l l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e i r c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s by t h e
p h ra s e c o n to u r /J -/.
E xam ples* / b a a t i D l q o o l ; /
p o l i t e r e s p o n s i v e u s e d b y men 8 b e - p r e t t y
Y es, [ i t ' s ]
p r e t t y .''
/ c a a h I D knom t r o l o p roaok p i i p s a a h a e y J ' . /

p o l i t e r e s p o n s i v e u s e d b y women 0 I r e t u r n come fro m
m arket a lre a d y
'Y e s ,
I 'm b a c k fro m t h e m a r k e t . '
5>.12> V o c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s o n e o f whose
c o n s t i t u e n t s i s a p e r s o n a l nam e, k i n s h i p t e r r a , o r t i t l e
w hose f u n c t i o n i s t o i d e n t i f y t h e a d d r e s s e e .
Such c o n s t i t u e n t s
may e i t h e r p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w t h e i r c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s ,
and a r e
s e p a r a t e d from th em b y a p h r a s e c o n t o u r .
E xam ples* / s i r a t 0 n e e q k i t to w p s a a q 'o g k a l i . . /
Sim B you p l a n go m a r k e t when
'S im , when d o you p l a n t o go t o t h e m a r k e t ? '
/ l o o k - p u u t fi knom som l e e h a e y l . /
u n c le 1 I beg ta k e - le a v e a lre a d y
'U n c l e , I m u s t s a y g o o d b y now; 1
/k ra o k la e g 0 n a e l l . /
r i s e up Q N e l
'G e t u p , N e l l
205
When a v o c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s p r e c e d e d b y an i n t e r
je c tio n ,
first
t h e r e s u l t i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i s e x c l a m a t o r y , and t h e
IC c u t i s made a f t e r t h e i n t e r j e c t i o n ,
e x a m p le :
/h e e l
as in t h e
fl k r a o k l a e q n a e l ! . /
in te rj.-fo r-a ttra c tin g
a t t e n t i o n B r i s e up Nel
'H e y , g e t u p , N e l l 1
When t h e c o - c o n s t i t u e n t o f a p o s t - p o s e d v o c a t i v e i s an
in te r je c ti o n or a re sp o n siv e , th e f i r s t c o -c o n s titu e n t w ill
d e te rm in e th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e c o n s t r u c t io n .
E x a m p le s : / h e e l
I s i m ! . / 'H e y , S i m ! '
/ b a a t l fl l o o k ! . / Y e s , s i r . '
(E x clam ato ry )
(R e sp o n siv e )
5 . 1 2 6 T e r m i n a t l v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose
second c o - c o n s titu e n t i s a f i n a l p a r t i c l e .
P in a l p a r t i c le s
a r e c o - c o n s t i t u e n t w i t h a l l t h a t p r e c e d e s them i n t h e same
p h o n o lo g ic a l p h ra s e .
E x a m p le s : / n e e q n u h 0 t e e f * /
person th a t Q e m p h a tic -p a r tic le

' [ I s ] th a t th e person?'
/knom sok-sopbaay Q t e e ! . /
I w e ll-a n d -h a p p y
8 e m p h a tic -p a rtic le
1 I 'm q u i t e w e l l . '
/th o o n yoek baay b o n tec t i e t
8 to w !,/
T han t a k e r i c e some m ore B p o l i t e - i m p e r a t i v e

'T h a n , go a h e a d a n d t a k e some m ore r i c e ! '
206
5 . 1 2 7 Embedded p a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s
P o u r d i f f e r e n t p a r a t a c t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n -t y p e s a r e
em bedded i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e ,
in th e fo llo w in g
h ie ra rc h y *
ram cnam I t e e 'l' 0 s&a
/ q a e ^ 0 k o o n knom t Q q a a y u q ppram
fe rra in a tiv o
T o p ic -c o m m e n t
V o c ativ e
r e s p o n s i v e Q c h i l d my 6 a g e f i v e y e a r 0 e m p h . - p a r t ,
0 Sim
Y e s, my c h i l d i s r e a l l y f i v e y e a r s o l d , Sim .*
.1 3 O b je c tiv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
O b je c tiv e c o n s tr u c tio n s c o n s is t o f a t r a n s i t i v e v erb

f o l l o w e d b y a n o u n , no u n p h r a s e , o r p r e d i c a t i o n a s o b j e c t .
E x a m p le s : / b a e k
t w e e f . / (o p e n
/so m la p
k ill
d oor)
'O p en t h e d o o r . '
t e e h e e n t e e g - q o h knoQ k o n l a e g n u h /
s o l d i e r a l l in p la c e th a t
k ille d a l l th e s o ld ie r s in th a t p la c e 1
/k h e e n
see
rnonuh n u h r u o t c e n p i i p t e e h /
p e r s o n t h a t ru n le a v e from h o u se
sa w t h a t man r u n o u t o f t h e h o u se *
When t h e o b j e c t o f a v e r b i n c l u d e s b o t h an i n d i r e c t
and a d i r e c t o b j e c t , t h e i n d i r e c t o b j e c t p r e c e d e s t h e
d ire c t,
as f o l l o w s *
207
/q ao y
g iv e
knom b a a y - c h a a rauey e a a n 'I '. /

me f r i e d - r i c e one p l a t e
'G i v e me a p l a t e o f f r i e d r i c e . '
i>,llj. R e l a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s
( 4 )
R e l a t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s w hose f i r s t
c o n s titu e n t i s a p re p o s itio n o r su b o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n
w h i c h i n d i c a t e s , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i n w h ic h
i t occu rs to a c o -c o n s titu e n t.
5>.H|JL P r e p o s i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a p r e p o s i t i o n a l
r e l a t o r as f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t , fo llo w e d by a s u b s t a n t i v e o r
s u b s ta n t iv e p h ra s e as second c o n s t i t u e n t .
c o n stru c tio n is
a p re p o s itio n a l p h rase.
The r e s u l t i n g
P re p o sitio n a l
p h ra s e s o ccu r as a t t r i b u t e s o f nouns, c la u s e s ,
c a tio n s ,
and p r e d i
a n d a s t o p i c s o r comm ents i n t o p ic - c o m m e n t c o n
stru c tio n s.
I n c t h e - - .f o l lo w in g e x a m p l e s , t h e p o r t i o n s o f
u t t e r a n c e s w h ic h do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e
in th e c o n s tru c tio n -
b e in g i l l u s t r a t e d a re e n c lo se d in p a re n th e s e s .
/ ( d a q ) kno$ 4 h e p /
( p u t) in 4 box
'p u t [ i t ]
i n t h e box*
/ ( k o e t tw e e -k a a ) k rao y 4 p te o h .4 ./
(h e w o r k ) b e h i n d 4 h o u s e
'H e 's w o rk in g b e h in d t h e h o u s e . '
208
/ ( r o d o w kdaw m ean) t a g - p i i 4 k h a e - m e e q k e r a a
t o w - d o l 4 k h a e - m i n e e 'J '. /
( s e a s o n h o t e x i s t ) s t a r t i n g - f r o m 4 J a n u a r y u p - t o 4 M arch
'T h e h o t s e a s o n l a s t s
fro m J a n u a r y t o M a r c h . '
/ p i i 4 s i e m - r e e p to w 4 q o g k o e -w o e t^ p r o h a e l 4 prammuey
k ilo o -ra a e t4 ./
f r o m 4 S i e m - r e a p t o 4 A ngkor-W at
about 4 s i x k ilo m e te r
'P r o m S ie m r e a p t o A ngkor Wat [ i s ]
about s ix k ilo m e te rs .'

\
5.11^2 S u b o r d i n a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a s u b o r d i n a t i n g
c o n ju n c tio n as f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t fo llo w e d by a v e rb , v e rb
p h ra s e , o r p r e d i c a t io n as second c o n s t i t u e n t , as fo llo w s:
/ ( k n o m m i n : d e q > h th a a ! 4 lo o k sm ab k - t Q a y - h i h ^ . /
( I : n e g . k no w ) that? 4 y o u come t o d a y
'X d i d n ' t know ( t h a t ) y o u w e re c o m ing t o d a y . '
/ ( k e e :b ao k k h a o - q a a w ) q a o y 4 s q a a t ' l ' . /
( t h e y w ash c l o t h e s ) i n - o r d e r - t h a t 4 c l e a n
'T h e y w ash c l o t h e s
(such t h a t [ th e y a re ]) c l e a n . '
/ d o l 4 k r u u c o o l knog b o n t u p f ( k o o n - s e h ch u p s a s c d o m r o o g l . ) /
when 4 t e a c h e r e n t e r i n room ( s t u d e n t s t o p l a u g h r i g h t - a w a y )
'When t h e t e a c h e r e n t e r s t h e ro om , t h e s t u d e n t s s t o p
la u g h in g im m e d ia te ly .'
209
.15> C o m p le t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
( j
C o m p le t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f an i n i t i a t i n g v e r b
a s a f i r s t c o n s t i t u e n t and a c o m p l e t i v e v e r b (h * 3 5 ) a s a
second c o n s titu e n t.
In n e g a tiv e e x p re s s io n s th e n e g a tiv e
a u x i l i a r y p re c e d e s th e c o m p letiv e v e rb .
Where d i s c o n t i n u o u s
c o n s t r u c t i o n s o c c u r i n t h e f o llo x y in g e x a m p le s , t h e c o n
s t r u c t i o n sym bo l i s p l a c e d b e tw e e n t h e i n i t i a t i n g v e r b
and t h e c o m p l e t i v e v e r b
(p h rase)
(p h rase).
/ ( m d a a y ) . kompug d e e k j l u e q l , /
( m o th e r ) i n - p r o c e s s - o f l i e - d o w n j s l e e p
M o th e r i s s l e e p i n g . 1
/ ( y u p m i n t knom) d e e k j m in l u o q s o h j . /
(n ig h t l a s t I ) lie -d o w n j n e g a tiv e s le e p a t - a l l
L a s t n ig h t I c o u ld n t s le e p a t a l l !
/ ( k n o m ) h o t p k a a n i h j m in thura qwoy s o h l . /
( I ) s n i f f flo w er t h i s
j n e g a t iv e sm e ll a n y th in g a t - a l l
T h i s f l o w e r h a s no o d o r a t a l l . 1
/(yoaJD ) to w n a m -b a a y now p t e o h c o n j k o o b a a n d a e ' t . /
(we) go e a t - r i c e a t s h o p C h i n e s e j t h a n a b l e a s - w e l l
We c a n go e a t a t
C h i n e s e sh o p i f y o u w is h .*
210
5 ,2
C e n te re d c o n s t r u c t io n s
C e n t e r e d c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n w h ic h
o n e im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t i s a h e a d , a n d t h e . o t h e r im m e d ia te
c o n s t i t u e n t i s an a t t r i b u t e ,
5 .2 1 P o s t-p o s e d a t t r i b u t e s
( < )
5 . 2 1 1 Noun p h r a s e s
A l l c e n t e r e d no u n p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a n o u n h e a d
f o l l o w e d b y one o r m ore p o s t - p o s e d a t t r i b u t e s .
Noun
p h rases o c c u r as a t t r i b u t e s o f l a r g e r noun p h r a s e s , and

as s u b je c ts , t o p i c s , and o b je c ts .
5 . 2 1 1 1 Q u a l i f i e d no u n p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a n o u n h e a d and
one o r m ore o f t h e f o l l o w i n g a t t r i b u t e s *
1 ) a noun o r noun p h ra s e
/ p t e a h < c h e e / ( h o u s e < wood) 'w o o d e n h o u s e '
/k ro su e g < p r i y s e n i i /
d ep artm e n t < p o s t o f f i c e
p o s t o f f i c e d e p artm e n t
/ s r a y < rauk l q o o /
woman < p r e t t y f a c e
'woman [ w i t h a ] p r e t t y f a c e '
2 ) an a d j e c t i v a l v e r b o r a d j e c t i v a l v e r b p h r a s e
/p te e h < lq o o /
house < p r e t t y
'p r e t t y house'
/ s r a y < lq o o c e a g - k e e /
woman < p r e t t y m o st
' t h e p r e t t i e s t woman'
/ r a u a n t r e y < thum som baam /
m i n i s t e r < b ig im p re ssiv e
'v e r y im p o rta n t o f f i c i a l '
3 ) an a d j e c t i v e
/ p t e e h < d o d a e l / ( h o u s e < sa m e ) ' t h e same h o u s e '
/ p t e a h < t i i - b a y / (h o u se < t h i r d )
' t h e t h i r d house*
Ij.) a n a c t i v e v e r b o r v e r b p h r a s e
/ p t e a h < l u a q / (house < s e l l )
' t h e h o u s e [w h ic h i s ]
/ p t e a h < tw e e d a o y r i h s e y /
h o u s e < make w i t h bamboo
t h e h o u s e made o f bam boo'
S>) a p r e p o s i t i o n o r p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e
/ p t e a h < l a e / (house < ab o v e) ' t h e u p p e r h o u s e '
/ p t e a h p i i < l a e pnura/
h o u s e tw o < on m o u n ta in
t h e tw o h o u s e s on t h e m o u n ta in *
/m o n u h t e e g - q o h < k n o q p i i - p h o p - l o o l c /
human a l l < i n w o r l d
'e v e r y b o d y i n t h e w o r l d '
so ld '
212
6 ) a c l a u s e i n tr o d u c e d by a r e l a t i v e pronoun
/ p t e e h < d a e l m in meen n e e q - n a a n o w /
h o u s e < w h ic h n e g . h a v e a n y b o d y r e s i d e
t h e h o u s e w h ic h h a s no one l i v i n g
[in i t ]
. 2 1 1 2 Q u a n t i f i e d noun p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a n o u n o r noun
p h r a s e as h e a d , fo llo w e d by a q u a l i f i e r
( e i t h e r n u m erica l
o f n o n -n u m e ric a l), a q u a l i f i e r p lu s s p e c i f i e r
(sp e c ifie r
p h r a s e ) , o r a q u a n t i t a t i v e p r e p o s itio n in c o n s tr u c tio n w ith

w ith a s p e c i f i e r p h ra se , as a t t r i b u t e .
E x a m p le s t
/ p t e e h < b e y / (h o u s e < t h r e e )
th re e h o u ses
/k ru u < bey n e e q /
te a c h e r < th r e e perso n
th re e te a c h e rs
/ k o o n - s e h < t e e g pram n e e q /
s tu d e n t < in c lu d in g f iv e p e rso n
a l l fiv e stu d e n ts'
.2 1 1 3 G e n i t i v a l n ou n p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a noun o r noun
p h r a s e a s h e a d ( p o s s e s s e d ) , f o llo w e d by a p ro n o u n , noun,
o r noun p h r a s e a s a t t r i b u t e
may
(p o ssesso r).
The p o s s e s s o r
o r may n o t b e p r e c e d e d b y t h e g e n i t i v a l p r e p o s i t i o n
/ r o b o h / ' o f , b e l o n g i n g t o , b u t / r o b o h / a lw a y s o c c u r s i f
t h e p o s s e s s o r i s s e p a r a t e d fro m t h e p o s s e s s e d b y a n o t h e r
a ttrib u te .
213
E x am p le s :
/ p t e e h < k n om / ( h o u s e < my) 'm y h o u s e '
/ p t e e h l q o o < r o b o h q e w p u k -m d a a y /
house p r e t t y < o f fa th e r-m o th e r
'p a r e n t s ' p r e t t y house'
/ b o o q - p r o h p i l n e e q < r o b o h raonuh n u h /
e l d e r - b r o t h e r tw o p e r s o n < o f p e r s o n t h a t
' t h a t m a n 's tw o e l d e r b r o t h e r s '
The a t t r i b u t e o f a g e n i t i v a l noun p h r a s e may i t s e l f b e
a g e n i t i v a l noun p h r a s e , e . g . :
/ p t e e h < qe
uk < knom /
h o u s e < f a t h e r < my
'my f a t h e r ' s h o u s e
5 .211 l|. D e m o n s t r a t i v e n o u n p h r a s e s
D e m o n stra tiv e s s ta n d in a t t r i b u t i v e c o n s t r u c t io n w ith
p r e c e d i n g n o u n s , and w i t h e n t i r e noun p h r a s e s .
D e m o n strat
i v e s o c c u r i n f i n a l p o s i t i o n i n a n y n o u n p h r a s e i n w h ic h
th e y o c c u r, e . g . :
/ p t e e h < n i h / (house < t h i s )
't h i s house'
/ p t e e h lq o o < n u h /
house p r e t t y < th a t
't h a t p r e tty house'
211|
/ p t e e h lq o o bey < n u h /
house p r e t t y th r e e < th a t
't h o s e t h r e e p r e t t y h o u s e s '
. 2 1 1 5 O r d e r o f a t t r i b u t e s i n no u n p h r a s e s
.
The o r d e r o f a t t r i b u t e s
i n c e n t e r e d noun p h r a s e s i s
as fo llo w s : 1) noun
E x a m p le :
(N)
2 ) sin g le -le x e m e a t t r i b u t e
(A l)
3 ) q u a n tifie r a ttrib u te
(X)
I4.) p h r a s a l a t t r i b u t e
(AS)
5>) d e m o n s t r a t i v e
(D)
Al
A2
/ b o o n - s r o y < l o o p < b e y n e e q < r o b o h knom < nuh,
o l d e r - s i s t e r < p r e t t y < t h r e e p e r s o n < o f me < t h a t

't h o s e t h r e e p r e t t y
( o l d e r ) s i s t e r s o f m in e 1
I f t h e A1 p o s i t i o n i s n o t f i l l e d b y a q u a l i t a t i v e
a ttrib u te ,
i t may b e f i l l e d b y a n o n - p h r a s a l g e n i t i v e :
N
Al
/ m i t < knom < b o y n e e q < nuh,
f r i e n d < my < t h r e e p e r s o n < t h a t

' t h o s e t h r e e f r i e n d s o f m in e '
21S>
I f th e q u a n t i f i e r a t t r i b u t e does n o t in c lu d e a
sp e c ifie r,
i t may o c c u r b e f o r e t h e A1 p o s i t i o n ,
A1
A2
e .g .:
/ p t ' e e h < b e y <i;thum < r o b o h l o o k < n u h /

V ~
~r -y-
= ^ 2=L
y -'
house < t h r e e < l a r g e < o f you < t h a t

th o se th r e e la r g e houses o f y o u rs 1
A d e m o n s t r a t i v e i s s o m e tim e s a t t r i b u t i v e t o a n im m edi
a t e l y p r e c e d in g noun, r a t h e r th a n t o t h e e n t i r e noun p h rase*
N
A1
A2
/ m 4 t < thum < p i i n e e q < r o b o h ^ monuh < n u h /

~7"
TIZ T
L
j.
/.
lE z lo r
/
f r i e n d < l l a r g e < tw o p e r s o n < o f ^ ro&n < t h a t

' t h a t m a n 's two l a r g e f r i e n d s '
F r e q u e n t l y t h e h e a d t o w h ic h t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e i s
a t t r i b u t i v e i s s t r u c t u r a l l y a m b ig u o u s , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g
e x a m p le :
/ c k a e th u m p i i k n o g p t e o h n u h /
d o g b i g tw o i n h o u s e t h a t
T h i s s e n t e n c e i s s u b j e c t t o e i t h e r o f two i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s :
1 ) ' t h o s e two b i g dogs i n t h e h o u s e '
2 ) ' t h e tw o b i g d o g s i n t h a t h o u s e '
I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r e i s a t h i r d a n d m ore a c c u r a t e
in te rp re ta tio n
i n some c a s e s - t h a t t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e r e f e r s
s im u lta n e o u s ly to b o th h e ad s.
In o th e r w ords, th e
216
s t r u c t u r a l a m b i g u i t y may. w e l l r e f l e c t a s e m a n t i c a m b i g u i t y .
5 .2 1 2 R e l a t i v e pronoun p h r a s e s c o n s i s t o f a r e l a t i v e p r o
n o u n (!4. , 235>) a s h e a d , w i t h a v e r b , v e r b p h r a s e , o r p r e d i
c a t io n as a t t r i b u t e .
The r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n may be e i t h e r
th e s u b je c t o f th e o b je c t o f th e v erb .
R e l a t i v e p ro n o u n
p h r a s e s o c c u r a s a t t r i b u t e s o f nou n p h r a s e s , an d a s i n d e
pendent s u b je c ts , to p ic s , or o b je c ts .
In th e fo llo w in g
e x a m p le s / d a e l / i s a r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n m e a n in g ' t h a t w h i c h 1 .
/ l o o k / 1 meen
you j have
d aeJL
a e l < il q ot o 1- r i i f . /
th a t-w h ich < p r e t t y 0- q u e s tio n - p a r tic le
'Do you. have any p r e tty o n es? 1

/knom I trow-kaa
j need
d ael I meon
th at-w h ich . | have
bonkan < w e e n } ./
h a n d le < lo n g
' I n e e d one w i t h a l o n g h a n d l e . 1
B o th a r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n and t h e p e r s o n a l p ro n o u n s u b
j e c t o f i t s m o d i f y i n g p r e d i c a t i o n may r e f e r t o t h e same
no u n h e a d .
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le , b o t h / d a e l / 'w h o '
an d / k o s t / ' h e ' r e f e r t o t h e noun o b j e c t / b o o g - p r o h /

' o l d e r b r o t h e r i n t h e m ain c l a u s e .
217
/knom | tow rook
/ L
| go h u n t - f o r
'I 'm g o in g to v i s i t
bo*
roh < d a el < k oet D c e e k r u u l./

/
7
o ld e r-b ro th e r <
who < h e D i s t e a c h e r
[my] o l d e r b r o t h e r
who i s a t e a c h e r . '
5 . 2 1 3 V e rb p h r a s e s
In c e n te re d v erb p h ra se s c o n s is tin g o f a v e rb head
fo llo w e d by a p o s t- p o s e d a t t r i b u t e ,
im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t s
may be?
1 ) a c tiv e v erb < a c tiv e v erb
/ d a e < l e e g / ( w a lk < p l a y )
'w a l k a r o u n d , amuse o n e s e l f '
/ l o e < m e e l/ ( t r y < lo o k ) 't o
try te n ta tiv e ly '
/m a o k < t a a m / (come < f o l l o w )
' t o come a l o n g b e h i n d '
When p h r a s e s o f t h i s t y p e a r e n e g a t e d , t h e n e g a t i v e
a u x il i a r y p reced e s th e f i r s t v erb o f th e sequence, in con
t r a s t w ith c o m p le tiv e c o n s tr u c tio n s
( 5 . 1 5 ) i n w h ic h t h e
n e g a tiv e p re c e d e s th e second (c o m p le tiv e ) v e rb .

2) a c tiv e v e rb < a d je c t i v a l v erb o r a d je c t i v a l v erb p h rase
/ d a e < l i e n / (w a lk < f a s t )
' t o w a lk f a s t '
/ c r i e g < p iru e h n a h /
s in g < p le a s in g - to - h e a r v ery
't o
sin g v e ry b e a u t i f u l l y 1
218
/L e e g < pukae c e e g - k e e /
p la y < b e - s k i ll f u l m o s t-o f-a ll
' t o p l a y t h e m ost s k i l l f u l l y '
In n e g a t i v e p h r a s e s o f t h e above ty p e , t h e n e g a t i v e
a u x ilia r y o ccu rs b efo re th e a t t r i b u t e ,
and t h e n e g a t e d
a t t r i b u t e i s in a t t r i b u t i v e c o n s tru c tio n : w ith th e head

v erb :
/w a y < m in k l a g / ( h i t < n e g . h a r d ) ' t o h i t l i g h t l y '
When t h e h e a d v e r b i s
an lr if e rv e n in g o b j e c t ,
s e p a r a t e d fro m i t s
a t t r i b u t e by
th e c o n s tr u c tio n i s d isc o n tin u o u s*
/w a y ( s k o e ) < k l a g n a h /
h it
(d ru m ) < h a r d v e r y
' t o h i t t h e drum v e r y h a r d '

3 ) a c t i v e v e rb < a d j e c t i v e o r a d j e c t i v e sequence
/n ly e o y < r i o y - r i e y /
speak < c o n tin u a lly
't o
ta lk c o n tin u a lly '
/tw e e - k a a < n ik -n o o p n a h /
w o rk < q u i c k l y v e r y
' t o w o rk v e r y q u i c k l y '
In v e rb p h ra se s in v o lv in g a s e r ie s o f n o n -c o o rd in a te
a d je c tiv e s ,
each su c ce ed in g a d je c t i v e is a t t r i b u t i v e to a l l
t h a t p r e c e d e s , .e .g .*
219
/ n i y e o y < b o n t s c ^ to w < t i e t /
t a l k < a - l i t t l e < on < f u r t h e r

t a l k on a l i t t l e
lo n g e r
When a s e r i e s o f a d j e c t i v e s i s c o o r d i n a t e , t h e e n t i r e
s e r ie s i s a t t r i b u t i v e to th e v erb head, e .g .:
/d a < r u u t - r e h + n 4k-no p + p r o n a p - p r o n a l , /
w a lk < e n e r g e t i c a l l y + q u i c k l y + h u r r i e d l y
. 1t o r u s h '
Ij.) a c t i v e v e r b < p r e p o s i t i o n o r p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e
/ t o w < 1 / (go < a b o v e ) ' t o go a b o v e '
/ d a q < kn o g h p / ( p u t < i n b o x ) ' p u t i n t h e b o x '
/n o w < q a e p t e e h / ( r e m a in < a t h o u s e )
' t o b e a t home'
When an o b j e c t i n t e r v e n e s b e tw e e n t h e h e a d v e r b a n d
its
a t t r i b u t e , th e c o n s tru c tio n i s d isc o n tin u o u s,

/d a q
e .g .:
(siew phow n i h ) < 1 t o k /
p u t (b o o k t h i s ) < on t a b l e
' p u t t h i s b o o k on t h e t a b l e *
5 ) a d j e c t i v a l v e r b < a c tlv r e v e r b
/ l q o o < m e l/ ( p r e t t y < s e e )
' p r e t t y t o lo o k a t '
/ s r u o l < tw/ ( e a s y < d o ) ' e a s y t o d o '

/p iru e h < sd a p / (p le a sin g
(to th e e a r) < h e a r)
'p l e a s i n g to h e a r '
220
6 ) a d j e c t i v a l v e r b < nou n
/ c h 44 < k b a a l / ( i l l < h e a d ) ' t o h a v e a h e a d a c h e '
/ s o p b a a y < c o t / (h a p p y < h e a r t )
' t o be h a p p y '
/p r o k < s l s k - t n a o t / (th a tc h e d < su g a r-p alm l e a v e s )

' t o be t h a t c h e d w i t h s u g a r - p a l m l e a v e s '
. 7 ) a c t i v e v e r b < n o u n o r p ro n o u n
/ t w e e - k a a < y u p / (w ork < n i g h t )
' t o w ork aJb n i g h t '
/d a l e e q < p t e e h m i t / (w a lk p l a y < h o u s e f r i e n d )
' t o go v i s i t i n g
[ a t a] f r i e n d 's h o use'
I f an o b je c t in te r v e n e s , th e c o n s tr u c tio n i s d is c o n
tin u o u s,
e .g .:
/tw s
(mhoop) < k l u e n - q a e g /
m ake^(food) < o n e s e l f
't o
do o n e ' s own c o o k i n g '
8 ) a c tiv e v erb < s p e c i f i e r p h rase

/h aw < bey m a t /
c a l l < th re e u tte ra n c e s
to c a l l th r e e tim e s'
/ ( k n o m ) m a e l (siow phow n u h ) < b e y cop h a e y , / . /
(I) read
(bo ok t h a t ) < t h r e e c o m p l e t i o n a l r e a d y
' I ' v e r e a d t h a t bo o k t h r e e t i m e s , '
221
*2114- P o s t - p o s e d s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s a r e a t t r i b u t i v e t o a l l
t h a t p r e c e d e s them, i n t h e same u t t e r a n c e .
/raa o k < qao y l i o n ! . /
come < i n - o r d e r - t h a t f a s t
Come q u i c k l y ! '
%
/knom tow rain b a a n < p i p r u a h mean k a a t w o s 4 . /

I go n e g .
'I
a b l e < b e c a u s e h a v e w ork do
c a n t go b e c a u s e [ I ] h a v e w ork t o d o . *
/ y a a g to w n a a k o o - d a o y < k o r a - q a o y - ta e l a a n k h o o c i . /
we go a n y w h e re a t - a l l < o n l y - i f - n o t c a r b e - b r o k e n
We c a n go a n y w h e re a t a l l so l o n g a s t h e c a r d o e s n t
b r e a k d o w n .'
5 .2 2
5 .2 2 1
P reposed a t t r i b u t e s
( > )
A u x i l i a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f an a u x i l i a r y
as p rep o sed a t t r i b u t e ,
p r e d ic a tio n as h e ad .
(I4. . 6 )
fo llo w e d by a v e rb , v e rb p h ra s e , o r
E x a m p le s :
/ t a a p - t a e > raaok d o l p r o t e e h k m a e /
j u s t now > come a r r i v e c o u n t r y Cam bodia
h a s j u s t now a r r i v e d i n C a m b o d ia
/ ( k n o m ) m in > k i t to w t e e ! . /
( I ) n e g . > t h i n k go ( e m p h a ti c p a r t i c l e )
I m n o t p la n n in g t o g o . '
222
/ k u e - t a e > l o o k t r p l o p to w p le w n i h i l ' . /
p r o p e r l y > y o u r e t u r n go way t h i s
You s h o u l d go b a c k t h i s w a y . 1
In sequences o f p re v e rb a l a u x i l i a r i e s ,
a u x ilia r y fo llo w s a l l o th e r a u x i l i a r i e s ,
th e n e g a tiv e
th e in c ip ie n t
a u x ilia r y p rec ed e s th e n e g a tiv e a u x ilia r y ,
and a l l o t h e r
a u x il i a r i e s p reced e th e in c ip ie n t a u x ilia r y .
E a c h member
o f th e sequence i s s u c c e s s iv e ly a t t r i b u t i v e to a l l th a t
fo llo w s,
t
e .g .*
/(tg a y -n ih
knom) c i t > n i g > m in raaok tw a e -lc a a t e e ' k /
( t o d a y I ) n e a r l y > f u t u r e > n e g . > come w o rk ( e m p h . p a r t . )

' I n e a r l y d i d n t come t o w o rk t o d a y . 1
5 . 2 2 2 Modal v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f a m o dal v e r b a s
p re p o s e d a t t r i b u t e , fo llo w e d by a v e rb o r v e rb p h ra s e as
h e a d . E xam ples*
/ k i t > to w / ( th in k > go) p lan to g o
/c a p > tw a a -k a a t i i - m i h /
b e g i n > w o rk t h e r e
b e g i n w o r k in g t h e r e
/ ( k n o m ) t l o e p > to w mdoog h a Q y 'k /
( I ) h a v e e v e r > go o n c e a l r e a d y
' I ' v e g o n e o n c e a l r e a d y .
I n s e q u e n c e s o f m od al v e r b s , e a c h member o f t h e s e
quence i s s u c c e s s i v e l y a t t r i b u t i v e t o a l l t h a t f o l lo w s .
223
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le , / d a e l / , / b a a n / ,
and / r i e n / a r e
m o d al v e r b s .
/(kn o m ra in -to e n ) d a e l > baan > r i a n > n iy e e y y p h e e s a a can I . . /
( I n o t - y e t ) e v e r > g e t - t o > l e a r n > s p e a k l a n g u a g e C h in e s e

I ve n e v e r y e t had th e chance t o l e a r n to sp eak C h in e s e .
I f a m o d a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n a c o n t a i n s an i n d i r e c t
s u b s ta n tiv e o b je c t, but n o t a d ir e c t o b je c t,
th e in d ir e c t
o b je c t fo llo w s th e m a in cv e rb ^ -a s fo llo w s :
/c u e y > le a p
lo o k /
h e lp > p a in t
you
h e lp you p a i n t '
I f ., h o w e v e r , t h e m o d a l v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t a i n s b o t h a
d i r e c t and a n i n d i r e c t o b j e c t , t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t f o l l o w s
t h e m ain v e r b ,
and t h e i n d i r e c t o b j e c t i s p r e c e d e d b y t h e
d i r e c t i o n a l v e r b / q a o y / t o givej* t o ,
f o r ',
/cu ey > le e p
roboog < qaoy
h e lp > p a in t
fen ce < fo r
as fo llo w s:
lo o k /
you
'h e l p you p a i n t th e f e n c e '

5 . 2 2 3 A t t r l b u t e > c l a u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s c o n s i s t o f an a d v e r b
ia l
(I4..I4- ) , p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e , o r a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e
a s a t t r i b u t e , w i t h a l l t h a t f o l l o w s i n t h e same c o n s t r u c t i o n
as h ead .
S u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e a t t r i b u t e s may be m a rk e d by a
s u b o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n
(!+. 7 2 ) o r t h e y may b e u n m a rk e d .
22k
P rep o sed a t t r i b u t e s a re t y p i c a l l y s e p a r a te d from th e head
w h ic h f o l l o w s b y t h e r i s i n g p h r a s e c o n t o u r / t / .
A d v e rb ia l?
/ q o n c e g l 1 > tow I . /
i n - t h a t - c a s e > go
\
In th a t q ase, [ l e t 's ]
g o .1
/ t Q a y - n i h f > .knom m in -s e w s o p b a a y t e e / . /
t o d a y > I h a r d l y w e l l e m p h a tic p a r t i c l e
' I ' m n o t so w e l l t o d a y . '
P r e p o s e d a d v e r b i a l a t t r i b u t e s m o d if y a f o l l o w i n g c l a u s e
a s t o mode;1 p l a c e , a n d t i m e .
When m ore t h a n o n e s u c h a t t r i
b u t e o c c u r s , m o dal a t t r i b u t e s t y p i c a l l y p r e c e d e l o c a t i o n a l
'a t t r i b u t e s ,
and l o c a t i o n a l a t t r i b u t e s p re c e d e te m p o ra l
a t t r i b u t e s , i and e a c h i s i n t u r n a t t r i b u t i v e t o a l l t h a t
f o l l o w s , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g exam ple?
/ th o o m m e d a a f > t i i - n u h t > k h a e - m i n a a f > q a a k a a h kdaw n a h / . /
u s u a l l y > t h e r e > m o n th -M arc h > w e a t h e r b e - h o t v e r y

*Th6: w e a t h e r i s u s u a l l y v e r y h o t t h e r e i n M a r c h .'
P re p o s itio n a l p hrase a ttr ib u te ?
/k n o Q p r o t e e h n u h f > r o o k - s i i p i b a a q n a h / . /
i n c o u n try t h a t > e a r n - a - l i v ln g b e - d i f f i c u l t v e ry
'I n t h a t c o u n try , i t ' s
v ery d i f f i c u l t to earn a l i v i n g . '
225
/ k r a o y - p i i t g a y n u h m ao k f > knom m in k h a a n monuh n u h t i e t ^ . /
a f t e r d a y t h a t o nw ard > I n e g . s e e p e r s o n t h a t a g a i n
1Prom t h a t d a y o n , I n e v e r saw t h a t man a g a i n . 1
S u b o rd in a te c la u s e a t t r i b u t e i
/ b a a l o o k c o g to w ^ > knom tow c e a -m u e y l o o k koo b a a n | . /
i f y o u w a n t go > I go w i t h y o u t h e n a b l e
1 I f yo u w a n t t o g o , t h e n I c a n g o w i t h y o u . 1
/ l o o k c a n p i i s r o k n i h h a s y 'f > k i t tow q a e - n a a t i e t 4 . /
y o u l e a v e fro m d i s t r i c t t h i s a l r e a d y > t h i n k go w h e re m ore
When y o u l e a v e h e r e , w h e re e l s e do y o u p l a n t o g o ? 1
;' i
'I n t h e f o llo w in g a t t r i b u t i v e c l a u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e
c o - c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e m a rk e d b y c o r r e l a t i v e c o n j u n c t i o n s
Oi.721).
/ d b e t qawpuk mean p r a q f > t a e knom m in s o m - t e e l . /
~
T~
a l t h o u g h f a t h e r h a v e money > b u t I n e g .
ask -fo r firra l-p a rt,
A l t h o u g h [my] f a t h e r h a s m oney, n e v e r t h e l e s s I d o n t a s k
[ h im ] f o r [ i t ] . .
5 .2Z \ S p e c if ie r p h rases c o n s is t o f a q u a n tif ie r
sequence o f q u a n ti f ie r s
(L}..2l|.) o r
(n u m e ra ls ) as p re p o s e d a t t r i b u t e ,
fo llo w e d by a s p e c i f i e r as h ead .
S p e c ifie r p h rases, except
th o s e in v o lv in g in d ep e n d en t s p e c i f i e r s
(ty.2 2 3 ) , a r e i n t u r n
a t t r i b u t i v e t o a noun o r v e rb h e a d .
226
E x a m p le s : / ( m o n u h < ) b o y > n e a q /
(human < ) t h r e e > p e r s o n
't h r e e p e rso n s'
/ ( r u a t- y u a n k ro la p <) bay > t r o l o p ^ . /
( c a r o v e rtu rn <) th r e e > r e v o lu tio n s
'T h e c a r o v e r t u r n e d t h r e e t i m e s . '
/ ( k o a t t i f i sia w p h o w < ) c r a a n > k b a a l ' K /
( h e b u y b o o k < ) many > volum e
*He b o u g h t many b o o k s . 1
S p e c i f i e r p h ra se s in v o lv in g in d ep en d en t s p e c i f i e r s
may o c c u r w i t h o u t a h e a d a s t o p i c s ,
s u b je c t, o b je c ts ,
and
a ttrib u te s:
As t o p i c :
/ p i i > k h a e t n u h t 0 knom r a in - s e w s k o a l t e e l . /
tw o > p r o v i n c e t h a t 0 I h a r d l y know f i n a l - p a r t .
'T h o s e tw o p r o v i n c e s , I 'm n o t v e r y f a m i l i a r w i t h . '
As s u b j e c t :
/ b a y : > l p la e n i h
| m in - s e w l q o o t e e I . /
th ree > f r u i t th is
'T h e s e t h r e e f r u i t s
| h a r d l y good f i n a l - p a r t .
a r e n o t so g o o d .*
As o b j e c t :
/k n o m c o $ t i n >> pram > k i l o o l . /
I want buy
'I 'd
fiv e > k ilo
l i k e t o bu y f i v e k i l o . '
227
As a t t r i b u t e :
/ p i i > cnara h a o y > knom b a a n tw o e -d o m n a e to w b a r a g k /
tw o > y e a r a l r e a d y > I a b l e t r a v e l go P r a n c e
'Two y e a r s a g o ,
5 .3
I g o t t h e c h a n c e t o go t o P r a n c e . 1
C o o rd in a te c o n s tr u c tio n s
C o o rd in a te c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s any o f
w h ose im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t s c a n s u b s t i t u t e s y n t a c t i c a l l y
f o r th e e n ti r e c o n s t it u t e .
5 , 3 1 C u m u la t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
( ,
C u m u la t iv e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose
m e a n in g i s t h e sum. o f t h e m e a n in g s o f i t s
c o o rd in a te con
stitu e n ts.
5 . 3 1 1 C u m u la t iv e n o u n c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose
c u m u l a t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e n o u n s o r no u n p h r a s e s . S e q u e n c e s
o f tw o c u m u l a t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e u s u a l l y s e p a r a t e d b y a
c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n
(Li-.7lj-) m e a n in g ' a n d ' o r 'w i t h * .
I f a s e q u e n c e o f m o re t h a n tw o c o n s t i t u e n t s i n c l u d e s a
c o o rd in a tin g r e l a t o r ,
i t o ccu rs b e fo re th e l a s t c o n s titu e n t.
S u c h r e l a t o r s o c c u r i n .th e same p h o n o l o g i c a l p h r a s e w i t h
t h e c o n s t i t u e n t th e y p r e c e d e , and so a r e w r i t t e n to th e
r i g h t o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; sym bol i n t h e e x a m p le s b e lo w :
/kno m , h a e y - n i g l o o k (to w c e e -r a u o y - k n e o s e n '!'.)/
I , and y o u (g o t o g e t h e r p o l i t e - i m p e r a t i v e )
' L e t ' s y o u a n d I go t o g e t h e r . '
228
/ '( k o o t m ean) l a a n kmaw muy4 , l a a n krohoom m u o y l . /

( h e h a v e ) c a r b e - b l a c k one , c a r b e - r e d one
He h a s a b l a c k c a r [arid ] a r e d c a r . '
/(k n o m tro w -k a a t i n ) s k o o f, qog k o o f, h a o y -n ig t a e l . /
( I n eed buy) s u g a r , h u s k e d - r ic e , and t e a
' I h a v e t o buy s u g a r , r i c e ,
and t e a . 1
.3 1 2 C u m u la t iv e v e r b c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s vrhose
c u m u lativ e c o n s t it u e n t s a re v e rb s o r v e rb p h r a s e s .
/ ( k e e ) raaok p n u m -p in , r o o k k a a t w o I . /
( t h e y ) come Phnom -Penh , h u n t - f o r w o rk do
1They come t o Phnom Penh a n d f i n d w o r k . 1
/(tik )
t l e o q maok l o o t r a o o l , h o o w i n f , qogkan l q o o n a l r k . /
( w a t e r ) f a l l come on r o c k , f l o w b a c k , r i p p l e p r e t t y v e r y .
The w a t e r f a l l s down on t h e r o c k s a n d f l o w s aw ay, r i p p l i n g
v ery p r e t t i l y . 1
/(k n o m tro w ) t i n ro b o h p s e e g - p s e e g t, haoy k a t s o q l . /
( I m u s t ) b uy t h i n g s v a r i o u s , a n d c u t h a i r
I h a v e t o b uy s e v e r a l t h i n g s a n d g e t a h a i r - c u t .
5 . 3 1 3 C u m u la t iv e a d j e c t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
whose c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e a d j e c t i v e s i n c u m u l a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n
a ttr ib u ti v e c o n stru c tio n ;
Such c o n s t r u c t i o r s u s u a l l y i n v o l v e
t h e c o n c a t e n a t i o n o f r o u g h l y synonym ous a d j e c t i v e s w i t h an
i n t e n s i f i e d m e a n in g , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s :
229
/ ( p r o h nuh c e h - t a e dae l e e g ) h i i - h a a , caefl-maeij ( n e h l . ) /

(man t h a t always w alk p la y ) s e l f - i m p o r t a n t , pro ud P
{That man always goes around i n a s e l f - i m p o r t a n t and
ffla m b o y a n t m a n n e r.'
/ ( k e e d ae) r u u t - r e e h , p a t - n a t , p r o n a p - p r o n a l (to w K ) /
(he w alk) e n e r g e t i c a l l y , q u ic k ly , h u r r i e d l y ( p r o g r e s s i v e )
He was w alk in g alo n g h u r r i e d l y and e n e r g e t i c a l l y . 1
3 1 ^ C um ulative c l a u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s /
whose c u m u la tiv e c o n s t i t u e n t s a r e c l a u s e s .
The c o n s t r u c t i o n
may o r may n o t be marked by a c o o r d i n a t i n g r e l a t o r .

/ l o o k tow munt , knom. maok t a a m K /
you go b e f o r e
, I come f o llo w
You go f i r s t , and I ' l l f o l l o w . '

/knom cee k r u u f , haoy-n&Q boog ceo k r u u - p e e t l . /
I be te a c h e r , and e l d e r be d o c t o r
' I ' m a t e a c h e r , and [my] e l d e r [ b r o t h e r ] i s a d o c t o r . '
-$31^1 In t h e f o llo w in g c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e c o o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s
a r e marked by p a i r e d c o o r d i n a t i n g c o n j u n c ti o n s (Ij., 7k2)t
/p ro o m -te e q knom tw e e -k a a baek-boo t a q s i i i , h a o y - n in propuen
tw 99-kaa lu e q p s a a l . /
a t - th e - s a m e - ti m e I work d r i v e t a x i , and w ife work s e l l
m arket
' I .work d r i v i n g a t a x i , and a t th e same tim e [my] w ife s e l l s
t i n ] t h e m a r k e t.'
230
5>,32 A l t e r n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
A l t e r n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose
c o n s t i t u e n t s a re se m a n tic a l t e r n a t i v e s ,
Such c o n s t r u c t i o n s
may o r may n o t b e m a rk e d b y t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g r e l a t o r / r i i /
'o r '.
I f a sequence o f a lt e r n a t iv e s in c lu d e s th e a lt e r n a t iv e
m arker / r 4 i / ,
quence.
i t o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e l a s t member o f t h e s e
/r4 4 / is
a p u re m a rk e r, and d o es n o t e n t e r i n t o th e
c o n s t r u c t i o n w h ic h i t m a r k s .
I t t y p i c a l l y o ccu rs sim u l
t a n e o u s l y w i t h r-the p h r a s e c o n t o u r / f / ,
and i s th u s th e s o le
c o n s titu e n t o f a p h o n o lo g ic a l p h ra s e .
Where i t o c c u r s i n
t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s , i t i s p r e c e d e d a n d f o l l o w e d b y t h e
c o n stru c tio n ^ sy m b o l.
/ b e y / buen (tq a y t i e t ) /
th re e / fo u r
( d a y m o re )
' i n t h r e e L o r] f o u r d a y s '
/ ( t l a y ) h a a -se p /r 4 4 / h ok-sep
(b e -w o rth ) f i f t y / o r / s i x t y
'[ I t 's ]
'[ I s
( r i e l o n ly )
w o rth o n ly f i f t y o r s i x t y r i e l s . '
/p ro h \ /
m a le /
( r i e l p o n n o h l,)/
s r e y 't ./
fem a le
it]
a boy [ o r i s i t ]
a g irl? '
/(raeen p o e ) k r o h o o m f // k h ie w t / r 4 4 / (p o e) s o o f . /
(h a v e c o l o r ) r e d / b l u e / o r /
'[W e ] h a v e r e d ,
( c o lo r ) w h ite
b lu e , o r w h ite c o l o r s . '
231
/ { l o o k k 4 t to w ) ta a m k o p a l - h o h / r i i / ta a m k o p a l t . /
(y o u t h i n k g o ) b y a i r p l a n e / o r / b y s h i p
Do you p l a n t o go by p l a n e c o r b y s h i p ? 1,
5 .3 2 1 In th e f o llo w in g a l t e r n a t i v e c la u s e c o n s t r u c t i o n , th e
c o o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s a r e m a rk e d b y p a r a l l e l c o o r d i n a t i n g
con .j u n c t i o n s
(lj..7i ) .
/ r i i f knom to w s r o k b a r a g s a e h
o r I go c o u n t r y F r e n c h /
/ r i i f knom tow s r o k q o g k l e e h 'J '. /
o r I go c o u n t r y E n g l i s h
I 'm g o in g e i t h e r t o F ran ce o r t o E n g la n d .'

5 .3 2 2 In th e f o llo w in g c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e
c l a u s e s a r e m ark e d b y p o s t - p o s e d p a r a l l e l c o o r d i n a t i n g c o n .j u n c t i o n s
(1| . 71+2 ) .
/ q 9w proom. k d e y t / m in proom kd o y f (knom to w h a y | . ) /

f a t h e r a g r e e w h e t h e r / n e g . a g r e e w h e t h e r ( I go p e r f . - p a r t . )
'W h e t h e r F a t h e r a g r e e s o r d o e s n ' t a g r e e , I ' m g o i n g
. n e v e rth e le s s .'
5 .3 3 A p p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( : )
A p p o s i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s whose f i r s t
c o n s t i t u e n t i s a no u n o r noun p h r a s e a n d w hose s e c o n d c o n
s t i t u e n t i s a su p p le m e n ta ry i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t
c o n s titu e n t.
E x a m p le s : / l o o k : s i m /
p o lite -title
: Sim
'M r . Sim'
1
232
/m onuh y e e g * t e e g k r o o , t e e g r i h /
human we * i n c l u d i n g p o o r , i n c l u d i n g r i c h
we h um ans, b o t h t h e p o o r and t h e r i c h 1
In se q u en c es o f a p p o s i t i o n s , e ac h s u c c e e d in g a p p o s i t i o n
i s a p p o s itiv e to a l l p re c e d in g a p p o s itio n a l c o n s tr u c tio n s :
/(n ih
0 ) l o o k : s im m i t knom ^ .7
zz_z-yz
( t h i s 0) Mr. : Sim : f r i e n d my
T h i s ( i s ] Mr. Sim , my f r i e n d . '
5 > . In c lu s iv e c o n s tru c tio n s
(...)
An i n c l u s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; - i s a n y c o n s t r u c t i o n w h ic h
i n c l u d e s one o f t h e p a u s e p a r t i c l e s
( 1+*8 2 ) o r a n y o t h e r
i n s e r te d m a te r ia l as a c o - c o n s titu e n t o f a d isc o n tin u o u s

se n ten c e.
In t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le s , t h e i n c l u s i v e c o n
s t r u c t i o n sym bol i s p l a c e d on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e i n c l u d e d
c o -c o n s titu e n t.
/d o o cc n o h
y o e $ . . , n a e . . . c u e y p r o t e e j i y e e g b a a n i 1. /
th u s w e .. . e r . . .h e lp c o u n try o ur a b le
/*
'T h u s w e . . . e r . . . c a n h e l p o u r c o u n t r y . '
/ k n o m . . , k 4 4 - t h a a . . .ra in -s e w s k o e l b o o r i w e e n n i h t e e K /
I . . . t h a t - i s - t o - s a y . . . h a r d l y know a r e a t h i s f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
'I ...t h a t
i s t o s a y . . . d o n ' t know t h i s a r e a v e r y w e l l . '
233
5,lj. N u m e r ic a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s
S e q u e n c e s o f n u m e r i c a l le x e m e s
(lj.;2l4l)
sta n d in e it h e r
a d d itiv e or m u l t i p li c a t iv e c o n s tr u c tio n , in th e fo llo w in g

p a tte rn :
1 ) a l a r g e r n u m e r a l f o l l o w e d by a s m a l l e r n u m e r a l a r e
in a d d itiv e c o n s tru c tio n :
2 ) a s m a l l e r n u m e r a l f o l l o w e d by a l a r g e r n u m e r a l a r e
. in m u ltip lic a tiv e c o n stru c tio n .
5.U 1 A d d i t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
( + )
/m o p h iy + m uey/ (tw e n ty + o n e ) 't w e n ty - o n e 1

/ro o y + h a a -s e p / ,
o n e-h u n d red + f i f t y
'o n e h u n d red and f i f t y '
5 . i |2 M u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s
( x )
/ p r a m 7: r o s y / ( f i v e x 1 0 0 )
' 500'
/p ram x p o e n / ( f i v e x 1 0 0 0 )
' 5000'
The n o n - n u m e r i c a l q u a n t i f i e r s / p o n m a a n / 'h o w m any' a n d

/ c r a e n / 'm an y ' s h a r e w i t h t h e n u m e r a l s f o r t h e n u m b ers 1 - 9 '
th e p r iv ile g e o f o c c u rrin g as m u ltip lie r s :
/ ( m o n u h ,n u h meen p r a q ) c r a o n x p o e n ( r i o l ) i . /
(man t h a t h a v e m oney) many x t h o u s a n d ( r i e l )
T h a t man h a s many t h o u s a n d s o f r i e l s . '
23k
$ , k 3 Any n u m e r a l c o n s t r u c t c o n t a i n i n g more t h a n tw o n u m e r a l
lex em es in v o lv e s b o th a d d i t i v e and m u l t i p l i c a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ,
e .g .*
/ b e y x meen + p ram x p o e n + p ra m b e y x r o e y + h a a - s e p - p r a m /
/
/
/
/
l
/
/ Z .
/
z----------z
t h r e e x te n - th o u s a n d + f i v e x th o u sa n d + e i g h t x h u n d red +
fifty -fiv e
38, 855'
Im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t a n a l y s i s
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g two im m e d ia te c o n s t i t u e n t d i a g r a m s ,
a l l th e m a jo r c o n s tr u c tio n ty p e s d is c u s s e d in t h i s c h a p te r
a re i l l u s t r a t e d , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e in c lu s iv e
c o n s tr u c tio n ty p e
( f o r w h ic h s e e 5 . 3^-)*
1)
/ b a a t I m onuh < y e e g : t e e n 4 p r o h > t e e n 4 s r e y
zJLLy
- . - T -........
y e s Q human < we * I n c l u d i n g 4 m a le , i n c l u d i n g : 4 f e m a l e
c i i w i t 'k /
l ___ ___
7----------
/
'
I. t r e w > c e n c e m
j m ust > s u p p o rt
life
'Y e s , we h u m a n s , b o t h men a n d women, m u s t e a r n a l i v i n g . 1
2)
/ b a e 4 l q o o > knom | q a o y
| g iv e
I f [ i t s] p r e tty ,
L____ /
z
i f 4 p re tty > I
p i i x ro ey + h aa-sep > r i e l
j b a a n l./
/
1
tw o x h u n d r e d + f i f t y > r i e l
I c a n g i v e tw o h u n d r e d f i f t y r i e l s
j a b le
[fo r i t ] .
ru
vn
w
236
6 . 0 S e n t e n c e T y p es ^
6 . 1 M a jo r s e n t e n c e s
A m a j o r s e n t e n c e i s a n y s e n t e n c e w h ic h c o n t a i n s a . ; l y
p re d ic a tio n
( l|.,3 ) .
6 . 1 1 S im p le s e n t e n c e s
'
A s i m p l e s e n t e n c e i s a n y s e n t e n c e w h ic h c o n t a i n s o n l y
one p r e d i c a t i o n .
E x a m p le s :
. / t o w ! . / (g o ) ' [ L e t s ) g o ! '
( / l a a n l o o k poo q w o y 'h / )
/k ro h o o m l./
( c a r y o u c o l o r w h a t) r e d
('"What c o l o r i s y o u r c a r ? ' )
' [ . I t ! 6] r e d . '
/kom p h i y n o h ! . /
d o n 't b e - a f r a i d e x h o r t a t i v e - f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
' D o n ' t be a f r a i d , n o w .'
/ k o o t tow h a o y I . /
h e go a l r e a d y
'H e s a l r e a d y g o n e . '
/ r i o Q kon n u h f knom m4n d a e l b a a n khoo n t e e I . /
s to ry film th a t
I neg. ev er g e t- t o see n e g . - f i n . - p a r t .
'T h a t m o v ie , I ' v e n e v e r h a d a c h a n c e t o s e e . '
1 . S e n ten c e i s d e f in e d in 5 .0 .
237
6 . 1 2 Com plex s e n t e n c e s
A c o m p le x s e n t e n c e i s a n y s e n t e n c e w h ic h c o n t a i n s a t
l e a s t o ne s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e .
In th e f o llo w in g e x a m p le s,
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n t h e c l a u p e s ^ i . s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e
a p p r o p r i a t e c o n s t r u c t i o n sy m b o l.
/ c a m < d o l knom m a o lc ^ ./
w a i t < u n t i l I come
W a it u n t i l I c o m e .1
/knom k ho on
I see
monuh nu h r u o t co n p i i p t e o h l . /
man t h a t r u n e x i t fro m h o u s e
* I saw t h a t man r u n o u t o f t h e . h o u s e .
/ b a o l o o k c o g t i n qwoyl* > q o n c o o n t o w l . /
i f y o u w i s h b u y s o m e th i n g > ' i n v i t e e x h o r t a t i v e - p a r t i c l e
1 I f y o u w a n t t o b u y s o m e t h i n g , go a h e a d .
/tu m ro o m knom k r o o f ' > ba qowpuk meon p r a q l >
t a e knom m in h e o n som t e e l . /
e v e n - i f I b e - p o o r > i f f a t h e r my h a v e money >
b u t I neg. d are a s k - f o r n e g . - p a r t i c l e
E ven t h o u g h I m p o o r , i f my f a t h e r h a d m oney,
I w o u ld n t d a r e a s k [ f o r s o m e ].*
/ r a i t to w k d o y i / m in to w k d o y t > knom to w d a e l , /
f r i e n d go w h e t h e r / n o t go w h e t h e r > I go anyhox-j
W h e th e r y o u ( f r i e n d ) go o r n o t ,
I m g o i n g a n y h o w .
238
6 . 1 3 Compound s e n t e n c e s
A compound s e n t e n c e is- any s e n t e n c e w h i c h c o n t a i n s a t
l e a s t two c o o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s , n e i t h e r o f w h ic h i s
c o n s titu e n t o f a l a r g e r su b o rd in a te c la u se
e x a m p le u n d e r. 6 , 1 2 ) .
( 5 . 311J-) o r a l t e r n a t i v e
its e lf a
(see th e l a s t
Such c l a u s e s a r e e i t h e r c u m u l a t i v e
(5 . 3 2 ) in c o n s t r u c t io n i
E x a m p le s}
/ l o o k tow / r i i f / m in t o w f . /
y o u g o / o r / n e g . go
'A r e y o u g o i n g o r n o t
(g o in g )? 1
/ p i i y u p m i n f y o e g tow m e a l k o n t , r u e c tow nam b i y e o ' K /

f r o m n i g h t l a s t we go s e e f i l m , t h e n go e a t / d r i n k b e e r
' L a s t n i g h t , we w e n t t o s e e a f i l m , t h e n w e n t and
drank b e e r . *
/ b a e l o o k c o g to w s q a e k f knom to w b a a n ^ ,
p o n t a e knom to w t g a y - n i h m in b a a n t e e f . /
i f y o u w a n t go to m o rro w I go a b l e , b u t I go t o d a y
n eg , a b le n e g a t i v e - f i n a l - p a r t i c l e
' I f y o u w a n t t o g o to m o rro w , I c a n g o , b u t I c a n ' t go
to d a y .*
< 6 .2 M in o r s e n t e n c e s
A m in o r s e n t e n c e i s a n y s e n t e n c e w h ic h d o e s n o t c o n t a i n
a p re d ic a tio n .
s y n ta c tic p h rase
I t may c o n s i s t o f a n y s i n g l e le x e m e o r
( o t h e r th a n a p r e d i c a t i o n ) w h ich f u l f i l l s
t h e s e n t e n c e r e q u i r e m e n t o f s i m u l t a n e o u s o c c u r r e n c e w i t h an
Intonation (5 .0 ).
E x am p les*
/m a e t./
i n t e r j e c t i o n o f s u r p r i s e o r annbyance
1W e i l l 1
( / l o o k to w q o g k a l f . / )
(you go when)
/ s q a e k 'k /
to m o rro w
('V/hen a r e y o u g o i n g ? ' )
'T o m o r r o w .1
( / l o o k mean koon ponmaah n e s q 'f '. / ) / b a y n e a q p o n n o h 'l './

(you h a v e c h i l d how-many p e r s o n ) t h r e e p e r s o n o n l y
.(How may c h i l d r e n do y o u h a v e ? ' ) 'O n l y t h r e e . '
/ l a a n kmaw n i h 0 l a a n r o b o h knom I . /
car b la c k t h is
0 c a r o f me
' T h i s b l a c k c a r [ i s ] ray c a r . 1
/ k o o n - p r o h k n o m f 0 q a a y u q p ram c n a m i . /
c h i l d - m a l e my 0 a g e f i v e y e a r
'My s o n [ i s ]
fiv e years o ld .'
6 ,3 S e n te n c e fra g m e n ts
A s e n t e n c e f r a g m e n t i s a n y u t t e r a n c e w h ic h o c c u r s w i t h
an i n c o m p l e t e i n t o n a t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f an u n a n t i c i p a t e d
in te rru p tio n .
Such f r a g m e n t s do n o t q u a l i f y y a s s e n t e n c e s .
Any u t t e r a n c e , h o w e v e r , w h ic h i s i n t e n t i o n a l l y i n t e r r u p t e d
o r su sp en d e d o c c u rs w i t h t y p i c a l p a u se i n t o n a t i o n , and i s
t h u s a m in o r s e n t e n c e t y p e .
APPENDIX A
1 .0
C o m p artso n o f t h e T ak e o D i a l e c t w i t h S t a n d a r d Cam bodian
1 .1
S t a n d a r d Cambodian
S t a n d a r d Cam bodian i s h e r e d e f i n e d a s t h e fo r m o f t h e
n a t i o n a l w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e w h ic h i s t a u g h t i n t h e s c h o o l s ,
s p o k e n by e d u c a t e d s p e a k e r s , a n d u s e d f o r m ass c o m m u n ic a tio n .
W h ile t h i s i d e a l i z e d fo rm o f t h e l a n g u a g e p e r h a p s doe's n o t
o c c u r as a c o l l o q u i a l d i a l e c t i n any r e g i o n o f th e c o u n try ,
i t seem s t o be b e s t r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e d i a l e c t s s p o k e n i n
th e p r o v in c e s im m e d ia te ly s u rro u n d in g K andal ( th e p ro v in c e
i n w h ic h Phnom Penh i s l o c a t e d ) ,
s u c h a s P r e y V eng, Kampong
S p e u , Kampong C hhnang, a n d Kampong Cham,'*'

The d i a l e c t s o f Cam bodian a r e r e m a r k a b l y h o m o g en e o u s,
and t h e d e g r e e o f d i a l e c t v a r i a t i o n seem s t o be r o u g h l y
c o m p a r a b le t o t h a t b e tw e e n t h e v a r i o u s d i a l e c t s o f A m erican
E n g lish ,
E ven t h e C am bodian
d i a l e c t s spoken i n .n o r t h e a s t e r n
T h a i l a n d and w e s t e r n S o u t h V ie tn a m a p p e a r t o be m u t u a l l y
c o m p r e h e n s i b l e w i t h t h e d i a l e c t s s p o k e n i n C am bodia, t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s b e i n g p e r h a p s on t h e o r d e r o f t h o s e b e tw e e n
B r i t i s h an d A m erican E n g l i s h ,
The l o c u s o f g r e a t e s t d i a l e c t v a r i a t i o n
s y s t e m , and i t
i s th e vowel
i s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e v o w e l s y s te m t h a t t h e
r
d i a l e c t d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f o r e g o i n g w o rk d i f f e r s m o st fro m
S t a n d a r d C am bodian,
1 , N o t, h o w e v e r , t h e p r o v i n c e o f K a n d a l i t s e l f ;
s e e b e lo w ,
2k.O
ia
I n t h e Cam bodian w r i t i n g s y s t e m , t h e r e a r e tw o d u p l i c a t e
s e t s o f c o n s o n a n t s w h ic h a r e p h o n e t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l i n p r o
n u n c ia tio n .
A l th o u g h some c o n s o n a n t s y m b o ls l a c k a c o u n t e r
p a r t in th e o p p o s ite s e t , th e y can be c o n v e rte d by th e u s e

of sp e c ia l d ia c r itic s .
The v o w e l s y m b o ls t h e n r e p r e s e n t one
s e t o f v o w e ls when w r i t t e n w i t h o n e s e t o f c o n s o n a n t s , a n d
a d i f f e r e n t s e t o f v o w e ls when w r i t t e n w i t h t h e o t h e r s e t o f
c o n so n a n ts.
H e n d e rs o n ^ h a s t e r m e d t h e s e tw o s e t s o f v o w e ls
f i r s t r e g i s t e r an d s e c o n d r e g i s t e r v o w e l s .
F irst
r e g i s t e r v o w e ls a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a t e n s e n e s s o r
p h a r y n g e a l i z a t i o n p r o d u c e d by c o n s t r i c t i o n o f t h e p h a r y n x ,
w h i l e s e c o n d r e g i s t e r v o w e ls a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y l a x n e s s
are,
o r b r e a t h i n e s s p r o d u c e d by l o w e r i n g t h e l a r y n x , a n s l i g h t l y
h ig h e r in q u a li t y th an t h e i r f i r s t r e g i s t e r c o u n te r p a r ts .
S i n c e t h e s e t o f c o n s o n a n t s y m b o ls w h ic h s i g n a l s s e c o n d
r e g i s t e r v o w e ls c o r r e s p o n d s t o s o n a n t s i n t h e I n d i e a l p h a b e t
fro m w h ic h t h e y a r e d e r i v e d , C am bodian may o r i g i n a l l y h a v e
h a d a s e r i e s o f v o i c e d s t o p s w h ic h l a t e r c o a l e s c e d w i t h t h e
v o i c e l e s s s e r i e s , t h u s m ak in g t h e v o w e l a l l o p h o n e s p h o n e m ic .
A second p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h a t th e f o r m u l a t o r ( s ) o f th e f i r s t
C am bodian a l p h a b e t d e c i d e d t o r e p r e s e n t a c o m p le x v o w el
s y s te m b y a d o p t i n g an o t h e r w i s e u n n e c e s s a r y s e r i e s o f s t o p s ,
r a t h e r t h a n by p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f v o w e l s y m b o l s , o f w h ic h t h e
I n d i e w r i t i n g s y s te m w o uld h a v e p r o v i d e d a m e a g e r s o u r c e .
W h ic h e v e r may h a v e b e e n t h e c a s e , t h e r o l e o f r e g i s t e r
1.
The Main F e a t u r e s o f Cam bodian P r o n u n c i a t i o n , p . l f ? l .
2142
v a r i e s fro m d i a l e c t t o d i a l e c t .
I n some d i a l e c t s i t c a n be
a n a l y z e d a s p h o n e m ic j' i n o t h e r d i a l e c t s i t
p resen t but s tru c tu ra lly irre le v a n t,
d o es n o t o c c u r even p h o n e t i c a l l y
Takeo d i a l e c t ) .
is p h o n e tic a lly
and i n s t i l l o t h e r s i t
(as i s th e c a se w ith th e
I n n o d i a l e c t i s t h e d ic h o to m y b e tw e e n f i r s t
a n d s e c o n d r e g i s t e r v o w e ls c o m p l e t e .
F u rth e rm o re , r e g i s t e r
d i s t i n c t i o n s seem t o be r e l a t e d t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t t o t h e
l e v e l o f t h e s p e a k e r s e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e f o r m a l i t y o f t h e : ;.v
s o c ia l c o n te x t.
I n t h e s c h o o l s , t h e tw o s e r i e s o f c o n s o n a n t s
a r e p ro n o u n ced w ith d i f f e r i n g
11 i n h e r e n t 11 v o w e l s , and
s y l l a b l e s w r itte n w ith co n so n an ts o f th e f i r s t s e r i e s a re
c a l l e d * l i g h t ' 1 s y l l a b l e s
'v o i c e l e s s ') ,
( /s r a a l/ 'l i g h t'
o r /q a k h o o sa q /
and s y l l a b l e s w r i t t e n w ith c o n so n an ts o f th e
s e c o n d s e r i e s a r e c a l l e d ' ' h e a v y 1' s y l l a b l e s

o r /k h o o s a q / 'v o i c e d ').
H enderson^ l i s t s
( / t ^ u o n / 'h e a v y '
t h e two s e t s o f
l o n g v o w e ls s c h e m a t i c a l l y , i n d i c a t i n g s e c o n d r e g i s t e r v o w e ls
w ith a g rav e a c c e n t, as fo llo w s:
tu
e
ae
o
e
y
ar
o.
ao
o
To t h i s i n v e n t o r y m u s t b e a d d e d t h e v o w e l / / , w h ic h o c c u r s
i n a l i m i t e d num ber o f w o rd s o n l y , s u c h a s / m o o n / ' 1 0 , 0 0 0 '
a n d / c r o o n / 'm u c h , m any'
(Phnom P en h d i a l e c t ) .
I f one a d d s
t o t h e l i s t t h e t h r e e c o m p le x n u c l e i / i / , / i / ( H e n d e r s o n 's
d t . . p. l 9 .
21)3
/ & / ) , a n d / u / , w h ic h a r e i n d i f f e r e n t t o r e g i s t e r , * 1 a n d t h e
s e c o n d r e g i s t e r d i p h t h o n g / o / , w h ic h o c c u r s i n a l i m i t e d
num ber o f w o r d s , s u c h a s / t h o e / 'd h a r m a , law* a n d / p o /
c o l o r 1, t h e r e a r e a t o t a l o f 20 l o n g n u c l e i c o n t r a s t s ,
as fo llo w s:
i '
i ( H .u t ) 2
e, e
, ( H . J )
o, o
o, o
ae
a(H.aar)
ao
" G i v e n ' t h i s i n v e n t o r y , a t l e a s t two d i f f e r e n t s o l u t i o n s

su g g e st th e m se lv e s.
The f i r s t s o l u t i o n i s t o a r r a n g e t h e
sim p le n u c l e i i n n in e c a r d i n a l p o s i t i o n s , and a b s t r a c t th e
o c c u r r e n c e o f s e c o n d r e g i s t e r a s a phoneme o n l y i n t h o s e
p o s i t i o n s w h e re i t
i s th e p rim a ry d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e b e
tw e e n two v o w e l s , a s f o l l o w s :
Com plex n u c l e i a r e shown by a r r o w s .

c o n tr a s ts are p reserv e d .
N o t i c e t h a t t h e 20
The .a d v a n t a g e s o f t h i s t r e a t m e n t
1,- I n no d i a l e c t w e re t h e s e t h r e e d i p h t h o n g s f o u n d t o o c c u r
w ith a r e g i s t e r c o n tr a s t.
2 . R ead ( H e n d e r s o n 1 s tu ).
zkk
a r e t h e sy m m etry o f t h e 3 x 3
v o w e l s y s t e m , a n d t h e econom y
r e s u l t i n g fro m r e d u c i n g t h e o r i g i n a l t w e n t y l o n g v o w el c o n
t r a s t s t o t e n p h o n e m e s, c o n s i s t i n g o f n i n e c a r d i n a l v o w e ls
and a phoneme o f r e g i s t e r .
The o n l y a sy m m e try l i e s i n t h e
sk e w e d n e s s o f t h e r e g i s t e r c o n t r a s t i n t h e lo w b a c k p o s i t i o n ,
A second p o s s ib le s o lu tio n i s to t r e a t th e c o n tr a s ts
in v o lv in g r e g i s t e r p u r e l y in te rm s o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
vow el q u a l i t y , how ever s l i g h t ,
fe a tu re s of r e g is te r .
ig n o r in g th e c o n c o m ita n t
T h i s i s t h e s o l u t i o n a d o p t e d by
M a r t i n i , ' 1 a s f o l l o w s *
1
ie (H .io )
&9
u o ( H .u o )
t ( H .e )
e
XT ( H .o )
/ Tt A \
w A*i. V)
0 ( H .o )
e
ae
A (H .a r )
1 ( H .a o )
( H .o )
H e re a g a i n m u s t b e a d d e d t h e m id c e n t r a l c o n t r a s t / / : / ? /
( M a r tin i s / /, H enderson s / y / ) ,
and t h e d ip h th o n g / o o / .
T h i s s y s te m c o u l d thein b e a r r a n g e d s y m m e t r i c a l l y a s f o l l o w s *
i
i
e
e
a
1.
A peru p h o n o l o g i q u e du c a m b o d g ie n ' ,
p. 116.
T h is s o l u t i o n seems t h e m ore p l a u s i b l e when o n e c o n s i d e r s t h e

f a c t t h a t w i t h t h e s h o r t n u c l e i , w h ic h a r e much m o re l i m i t e d
in d i s t r i b u t i o n th a n a r e th e lo n g n u c l e i , r e g i s t e r d i s t r i b u tio n i s
even l e s s c o n s i s t e n t th a n w i t h t h e lo n g n u c l e i .
In th e fo llo w in g l i s t o f th e s h o r t n u c le i o f S ta n d ard
C am b odian , t h o s e v o w e ls w h ic h o c c u r o n l y a f t e r t h e s e t o f
c o n s o n a n t sy m b o ls w h ic h p r o d u c e s e c o n d r e g i s t e r ' c h a r a c t e r
istic s
i n t h e l o n g n u c l e i a r e m a rk e d w i t h a g r a v e a c c e n t :
u
1
V
ue
+0
%
w
OLt
Among t h e s h o r t n u c l e i , h o w e v e r , r e g i s t e r d i f f e r e n c e s show
up w eak ly , i f a t a l l ,
and i n f a c t t h e s h o r t d i p h t h o n g s / e /
a n d / 3 e / a r e n o t i c e a b l y t e n s e , w h ic h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
f i r s t r a t h e r th a n second r e g i s t e r v o w e ls.
T he l o n g s e c o n d
r e g i s t e r v o w e ls / i v e 0/ h a v e no s h o r t c o u n t e r p a r t s , u n l e s s
o n e t r e a t s t h e s h o r t d i p h t h o n g s /e u e 5 / a s c o u n t e r p a r t s
o f t h e l o n g n u c l e i / e v 0/ r e s p e c t i v e l y , l e a v i n g a g a p o n l y
in th e / Y / p o s itio n .^
One c o u l d t h e n r e p r e s e n t t h e s h o r t v o w e l s y s te m a s
fo llo w s:
1 . I n n o d i a l e c t e n c o u n t e r e d was t h e r e a c o n t r a s t / Y / t / Y / o r
/i/s /e /.
Such a c o n t r a s t m ig h t v e r y w e l l t u r n u p , h o w e v e r ,
i n a m ore d e t a i l e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
21*6
r
**
Qj
T h i s s o l u t i o n p r o v i d e s f o r a n e a t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n
t h e lo n g and s h o r t v o w e l-sy ste m s.
W h ile i t i s p e r h a p s d o u b t f u l t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
vow el h e i g h t in v o lv e d i n th e lo n g vow el c o n t r a s t s / i / - x / e / ,
/$/i/s /t
a n d / v / x / o / w o u ld b e s u f f i c i e n t t o t h e e a r o f a
C am bodian s p e a k e r w i t h o u t t h e c o n c o m i t a n t f e a t u r e s o f
re g is te r,
t h e r e i s no r e a s o n why t h e c o n t r a s t s c a n n o t b e
th u s r e p r e s e n te d p h o n e ra ic a lly .
In th e c o n t r a s t / o / i / & /
(w h ic h i s a r e g i s t e r c o n t r a s t / o / s / 0/
tre a tm e n t), / a / ,
in H enderson s
in a d d itio n to th e r e g i s t e r d if f e r e n c e ,
i s c o n s id e r a b ly f r o n t e r th an / o / .
1 .2 D ia le c ts
D ia le c ts d i f f e r p rim a rily w ith re g a rd to th e o ccurrence
o f t h e f o u r c o n t r a s t s d is c u s s e d above ( r e g i s t e r c o n t r a s t s
in th e f i r s t
so lu tio n ).
I n d i a l e c t s i n w h ic h s u c h c o n t r a s t s
o c c u r , t h e y a r e much m ore p r o n o u n c e d i n r e c i t a t i o n o r f o r m a l
s p e e c h t h a n i n n o rm a l o r c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h .
H ow ever, some
o f t h e c o n t r a s t s w ere f o u n d t o o c c u r e v e n i n t h e s p e e c h o f
illite ra te
c y c l o - d r i v e r s i n Phnom P e n h , some o f whom came
fro m Phnom P e n h , and some o f whom came fro m o u t e r p r o v i n c e s .

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , i f an i n f o r m a n t s s p e e c h h a s o n l y o n e o f
th e fo u r c o n tr a s ts ,
it
is / /x /a /j
i f i t h a s tw o , t h e y a r e
u s u a l l y / o / x / o j and A / j / / , b u t so m e tim e s / o / : / o / a n d
/v/t/o/t
i f i t has th r e e , th e y a re / /:/& /,
/v /x /o /j
A/*//
A/*//
and
th e l e a s t fre q u e n t in o ccu rren ce.
On t h e b a s i s o f vow el s y s te m s a n d o t h e r p h o n o l o g i c a l
c rite ria ,
fo u r g e n e ra l d i a l e c t a re a s a re p o s tu la te d w ith in
Cam bodia p r o p e r ?
1 . C o l l o q u i a l S t a n d a r d C am b odian, i n w h ic h a l l f o u r o f t h e ab o v e c o n t r a s t s o c c u r , w h ic h i s sp o k e n i n t h e p r o v i n c e s
b e tw e e n K a n d a l a n d t h e s o u t h e r n e n d o f t h e T o n le S a p , s u c h
a s P r e y V eng, Kampong S p e u , Kampong C hhnang, a n d Kampong Cham
2 . The d i a l e c t sp o k e n i n Phnom Penh a n d t h e i m m e d i a t e l y
su rro u n d in g a re a .
The Phnom Penh d i a l e c t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by d l o s s ,
i n c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h , o f t h e / i / : / e / and / v / i / o /
c o n tra sts ,
and by a h i g h l y d i s t i n c t i v e p r o n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e
/ r / phonem e, w h ic h i s p r o n o u n c e d a s a v o i c e d u v u l a r f r i c a t i v e
( a s o p p o s e d t o sm o o th ) s p i r a n t [ H i ] .
T h is / r / c o n d it i o n s
v a r i o u s c h a n g e s i n f o l l o w i n g v o w e l s , and p r o d u c e s a s o - f a r
n o n -p h o n e m ic l o w - r i s i n g t o n e on t h e s y l l a b l e i n w h ic h i t
o c c u rs.^ -
S in c e th e / r / c a r r i e s a h ig h f u n c t i o n a l lo a d in
C am b odian, b o t h a s a n i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t and a s t h e s e c o n d
member o f c o n s o n a n t c l u s t e r s ,
th is
1 . N o s s, h o w e v e r , i n 11 The T r e a t m e n t o f & / R / i n Two Modern

Khmer D i a l e c t s * ' , i n Norman H. Z id o , e d . , S t u d i e s i n Com
p a r a t i v e A u s t r o a s l a t l c L i n g u i s t i c s , (The H ague, Mouton a n d Co.
1 9 6 6 ) p . 8 9 , f i n d s t h a t / r / i s l o s t e n t i r e l y i n t h e Phnom Penh
d i a l e c t , and t h u s a n a l y z e s t o n e a s p h o n e m ic . H ow ever, i n no
i d i o l e c t e n c o u n t e r e d i n my a d m i t t e d l y s u p e r f i c i a l s u r v e y o f
t h e Phnom Penh d i a l e c t d i d t o n e o c c u r a s t h e s o l e r e f l e x
of / r / .
2i|
v a r ia n t p ro n u n c ia tio n produces a v e ry n o tic e a b le e f f e c t .
T h i s f e a t u r e o f t h e Phnom P en h d i a l e c t h a s s p r e a d t o t h e
a d ja c e n t a re a s o f th e p ro v in c e s s u rro u n d in g K a n d al, and even
t o t h e p r o v i n c i a l c a p i t a l s o f some p r o v i n c e s i n t h e s t a n d a r d
c o l l o q u i a l a r e a , s u c h a s Kampong Cham.
The i n d i c a t i o n s a r e
t h a t i t w i l l c o n tin u e t o s p re a d ,
3 i T h e v d i a l e c t s s p o k e n i n B a tta m b a n g a n d S i e m r e a p p r o
v in c e s,
These d i a l e c t s l a c k th e / i / j / e / and / v / : / o / c o n t r a s t s ,
a n d s o m e tim e s t h e / y / * / s / c o n t r a s t .
I n t h e i d i b l e c t o f one
i n f o r m a n t f ro m B a tta m b a n g , t h e r e w e r e n o c o n t r a s t s a t a l l
w h i c h w e re a t t r i b u t a b l e t o r e g i s t e r .
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
f e a t u r e o f th & se d i a l e c t s i s t h e o c c u r r e n c e , i n b o th t h e
l o n g an d s h o r t v o w e l s y s t e m s , o f a v e r y c l o s e c e n t r a l d i p h
t h o n g ( u s u a l l y / y e / a n d / r e / ) w h e re s t a n d a r d . c o l l o q u i a l h a s
/ o e / a n d / 5 / ( ( o 3 ).
I*., The d i a l e c t s s p o k e n i n s o u t h e r n T akeo a n d Kampot
p r o v i n c e s , t e r m e d : .t h e T akeo d i a l e c t i n t h e p r e c e d i n g d e s c r i p
tio n ,
The T ak eo d i a l e c t d i f f e r s fro m S t a n d a r d C am bodian I n
t h e f o l l o w i n g ways*
S ta n d ard
T akeo
S ta n d a rd
k.
i. / i / ^
A /
5. / e /
6. /i / ^
/o /_ ^ > /o /
T ak eo
> A/
>
/ e / or /a e /
/ie /
'e e /
3. A /
/* /
1 , T h e s e g r a p h s a r e n o t m e a n t t o s u g g e s t an y c h r o n o l o g i c a l
o rd e r o f change.
214.9
I n # 6 a b o v e , S t a n d a r d / i s / > T ak eo / i s / i n Words s p e l l e d
[*
a n d / e s / i n w o rd s s p e l l e d w i t h a c o n s o n a n t o f t h e s e c o n d
s e r i e s p l u s t h e v o w e l sy m b o l - 1 .
R e w r itin g S ta n d a rd /a ,/ a s / o / ,
t h e T akeo v o w e l s y s t e m
c a n t h e n b e shown a s f o llo w s * ^ Long n u c l e i

i
4
0V
S h o rt n u c le i
u
I
e
u
------
5
W ith r e g a r d t o c o n s o n a n t s a n d s u p r a s e g m e n t a l p h o n e m e s,
a s w e l l a s g r a m m a t i c a l l y , t h e r e seem t o b e no s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e T ak e o d i a l e c t a n d o t h e r c o l l o q u i a l
d ia le c ts.
1* The l o n g v s . s h o r t v o w e l a n a l y s i s i s u s e d h e r e , r a t h e r t h a n
th e d o u b le v s . s i n g l e vow el a n a l y s i s d e s c r ib e d in th e c h a p te r
on P h o n o lo g y , f o r c o n v e n i e n c e i n c o m p a r in g t h e T a k e o v o w e l
s y s t e m w i t h t h a t o f S t a n d a r d C am b o d ian .
20
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E n t r i e s a r e l i s t e d a l p h a b e t i c a l l y b y a u t h o r s l a s t nam e.
E n t r i e s b y t h e same a u t h o r a r e l i s t e d c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y .
A y ra o n ie r, E t i e n n e F r a n c o i s , C o u rs e l e m e n t a l r e de c a m b o d g ie n
^ S a i^ o n , C o lle g e des A d m in is tr a te u r s s t a g i a r e s ,
B e n e d i c t , P . K . , 11 L a n g u a g e s a n d L i t e r a t u r e s o f I n d o c h i n a 1 1 ,
F a r E a s t e r n Q u a r t e r l y 6 (191+7) p . 3 7 9 - 8 9 .
B r i g g s , L a w re n c e P a l m e r , The A n c i e n t Khmer E m p ire ( P h i l a
d e l p h i a , The A m e ric a n ' P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , 1 9 5 1 ) .
C ady, Jo h n F . , S o u t h e a s t A sia* I t s H i s t o r i c a l D e v e lo p m e n t
(New Y o rk , M c G ra w -H ill, 1961+).
C a m b e f o r t, G a s t o n , I n t r o d u c t i o n a u c a m b o d g ie n ( P a r i s ,
M a is o n n e u v e , 195>0) .
C o e d e s , G . , L es l a n g u e s de 1 * I n d o c h i n e ' 1, C o n f e r e n c e s
de l I n s t i t u t de L i n g u i s t i q u e d e l"'U n i v e r s i t e de
P a r i s V I I I ~ T l 91+0-1+8) P P . 6 j - 8 l .
_________
L e s e t a t s . h i n d o u i s e s de 1* I n d o c h i n e e t d 1 I n d o n e s i a
T P a r i s , E d i t i o n s E . de B o c a r d , 1961+).
M aking o f S o u t h e a s t A s i a (L ondon, R o u t l e d g e
a n d Kegan P a u l , 1 9 6 6 ) . '
F a ll,
B e r n a r d , Le p ro b ie rn e de l 1a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d e s m i n o r l t e s
e t h n l q u e s a u Cambodge, au L a o s , _et d a n s li e s d e u x
z o n e s du VTet-Nam ( P a r i s , I 96T ) .
G reenberg,
Jo sep h H ., H i s t o r i c a l L i n g u i s t i c s and U n w ritte n

L a n g u a g e s , i n A. L. K r o e b e r , A n t h r o p o l o g y T od ay
( C h i c a g o , U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o ' P r e s s , 1 9 5 3 ) .
H a l l , D. G. E . , A H i s t o r y o f S o u t h - E a s t A s i a (L o n d o n ,
M a cM illan a n d Co, L t d . , 1961+7.
H a r r i s o n , B r i a n . S o u t h - E a s t A sia * A S h o r t H i s t o r y (L o n d o n ,
M acM illan a n d Co. TTtd7# 19^TTI
251
H e n d e r s o n , E u g e n i e J . H , , 11 The Main F e a t u r e s o f Cam bodian

. P ro n u n c ia tio n , B u lle tin o f th e School o f O rie n t
a l a n d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s 111. T l 9 5 ^ 7 p p . .II4.9 - I 7I4H e v e s y , W ilh e lm v o n , On W.
C o m p a r is o n s . Does
e x i s t ? 1 1, B u l l e t i n
A fric a n S tu d ie s~ 6
S c h m i d t s Munda-Mon-Khmer
an A u s t r i c f a m i l y o f l a n g u a g e s
o f t h e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l an d
(1930T V p . 1 8 7 - 2 0 0 .
H o c k e t t , C h a r l e s F . , Two M odels o f G r a m m a tic a l D e s c r i p

t i o n ' ' , Word 10 ( 1 9 5 b ) PP. 210-231*-.
J o n e s , R o b e r t B . , K a re n L i n g u i s t i c S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f
C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t io n s i n L i n g u i s t i c s 25
( B e r k e l e y a n d Los A n g e l e s , U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a
P r e s s , 1961).
L e B a r , F r a n k M ., G e r a l d D. H ic k e y , J o h n K. M u s g ra v e , E t h n i c
G ro u p s o f M a in la n d S o u t h e a s t A s ia (New H av en ,
Human R e l a t i o n s A r e a F i l e s , lWJ+T.
M anipo ud, L . , C o u rs de l a n g u e c p i b o d g l e n n e (Phnom P enh,
Irap riraerie R o y a le , 1 9 ^ 1 ).
M a r t i n i , F r a n c o i s , A p e r c u p h o n o l o g i q u e du c a m b o d g i e n '' ,
B u l l e t i n d e l a s o c i e t e L i n g u i s t i q u e de P a r i s b2
Tl9l|2-19'H-FT PP. 1 1 2 - 1 3 1 .
' ' L a l a n g u e c a m b o d g i e n n e ' , F r a n c e - A s i e I4. (19U-9)

pp. 9 01-909.
___________
'
_________
L es e x p r e s s i o n s de ' e t r e ' e n s i a r a o i s e t en
c a m b o d g i e n '' , B u l l e t i n d e l a S o c i e t e L i n g u i s t i q u e
de P a r i s 52 (1 9 5 6 ) p p . 2 ^ 9 ^ 3 0 ^
La d i s t i n c t i o n du p r e d i c a t de q u a l i t e e t de
l e p i t h e t e e n cam b o d g ie n e t en s i a m o i s ' 1, B u l l e t i n
de l a S o c i e t e L i n g u i s t i q u e de P a r i s 53 ( 1 9 5 7 - 8 )
.P P . 2 9 5 ^ 3 0 5 7
' ' D e l a c r e a t i o n a c t u e l l e d e s m o ts en c a m b o d g i e n ''
B u l l e t i n d e l a S o c i e t e L i n g u i s t i q u e de P a r i s 57
T O 5 2 T PP l 5 T - r 7 i n
----- --------------------------------
M a s p e ro , G e o r g e s , Gram m alre de l a l a n g u e khm ere ( P a r i s ,

I m p r i m e r i e R a t i o n a l e , 1915")7
M a s p e ro , H e n r i , 'L e p a y s e t s e s h a b i t a n t s : l a n g u e s ' 1 i n
Un e m p ire c o l o n i a l f r a n c a l s : 1 ' I n d o c h i n e . O uvrage
p u b l l e s o u s l a d i r e c t i o n de M, G e o rg e s M asp ero
( P a r i s e t B r u x e l l e s , . G. v a n O e s t , 1 9 2 9 ) I* 6 3 - 8 0 .
252
M a s p e ro , H e n r i , 11 L e s l a n g u e s r a o n - k h m e r '1, i n L es l a n g u e s
du m onde, A. M e i l l e t e t M. C oh en, ed? ( P a r i s ,
1952) p p . 609-22.
M eyer, R o la n d , C o u rs de c a m b o d g ie n e t l e c t u r e s c a m b o d g le n n e s
N o u v e i l e e d i t i o n ( Phnom P e n h , A. P o r t a i l , 1 9 2 9 ) .
N o s s , R i c h a r d B , , An O u t l i n e o f S ia m e s e Grammar (P h .D . T h e s i s ,
Y a le U n i v e r s i t y , 1951?, u n p u b l i s h e d j .
_________
T h a i R e f e r e n c e Grammar ( W a s h in g to n , D . C . , F o r e i g n
S e r v i c e I n s t i t u t e , 196t|.) .
'
a n d V a n p h u t H. P h a n , C a m b o d ia n : B a s i c C o u r s e . U n i t s
1 - 1 2 (W a s h in g to n , D . C . , F o r e i g n S e r v i c e I n s t i t u t e ,
1959).
'_____
a n d Im Proum w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f D a le I . P u r t l e
a n d So m eth S u o s , Cam bodian B a s i c C o u r s e , Volume One,
U n i t s 1-1*5 ( W a s h in g to n , D.C"., " F o r e i g n 'S e r v i c e
I n s t i t u t e , 1966).
_________
11 The T r e a t m e n t o f * / R / i n Two Modern Khmer D i a l e c t s * 1

I n Norman H. Z i d e , e d . , S t u d i e s i n C o m p a r a tiv e
A u s t r o a s i a t i c L i n g u i s t i c s i T h e H a g u e. Mouton a n d
C o ., 1 9 6 6 ) p p . 8 9 - 9 5 .
P in now , H e i n z - J u r g e n , S p r a c h g e s c h i c h t l i c h e E rw ag ung en zura

P ho nem system d e s Khm er*' , Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P h o n e t i k
u n d a l'l g e m e i n e S p r a c h w i s s e n s c h a f t 10 ( 1 9 5 ? ) U-V
3I5-91.
_________ ,
* *B em erkungen z u r S i l b e n - u n d W o r t s t r u k t u r d e s
K hm er*' , Z e i t s c h r i f t f u r P h o n e t i k u n d a l l g e m e l n e
S p r a c h w i s s e n s c h a f t 11 ( 1 9 5 6 ) p p . 1 7 6 - 9 .
_________
V ersu ch e ln e r h l s t o r i s c h e n L a u tle h r e d e r K h a ria S p r a c h e (W ie s b a d e n , O t t o H a r r a s s o w i t z , 1 9 5 9 ) .
S c h m id t , W ., * 'L e s p e u p l e s m o n -k h m erj t r a i t d * u n io n e n t r e
l e s p e u p l e s de l ' A s i e c e n t r a l e e t deJL* A u s t r o n e s i e * '
B u l l e t i n de l ' E c o l e F r a n p a i s e d * E x t r e m e - O r i e n t 7
Tl90"7) P p 7 2 1 3 - 6 3 . '
S e b e o k , Thomas A . , * An E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e A u s t r o a s i a t i c
L an g u a g e F a m i l y * ', L a n g u a g e 18 (1 9 l|2 ) 3 : 2 0 6 - 1 7 .
_________
' ' T h e L a n g u a g e s o f S o u t h e a s t A s i a 1' ,

Q u a r t e r l y 2 (191+3) p p . 31+9-56.
Far E a ste rn
253
S h o r t o , H. L . , J u d i t h M. J a c o b , a n d E . H. S . Sim m onds,
B i b l i o g r a p h i e s o f Mon-Khmer a n d T a l L i n g u i s t i c s
"(ton don ,' O x f o r d U n 1v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 )
S m a l l e y , W i l l i a m A . , O u t l i n e o f Khmu? S t r u c t u r e , A m e ric a n
O r i e n t a l S e r i e s E s s a y s # 2 ( B a l t i m o r e , A m e ric an
O rie n ta l S o c ie ty , 19 o 0 ).
___________ E t h n o l i n g u l s t l c S u r v e y o f N o r t h e r n K h m e r- S p e a k in g
P e o p le i n N o r th e a s t T h a ila n d ( P r e ^ p u b lic a t io n
d r a f t 1, F e b r u a r y , 196ljTT
S t e i n b e r g , D a v id J , , C am b o d iat I t s P e o p l e , I t s S o c i e t y .
I t s C u l t u r e (New H a v en , Human R e l a t i o n s A r e a F i l e s ,
T959T:
T a illa rd ,
P . . * 'L e s S a o c h ' 1, I n s t l t u t I n d o c h l n o i s p o u r
1 ' E t u d e de 1 ' Homme, B u l l e t i n s e t tf r a v a u x 5 0-9U2)
ppTT3=Ii57~ ------------------------------T au p in ,
J . , C o u rs de l a n g u e c a m b o d g ie n n e ( P r o f e s s e a u
C o l l e g e d e s I r i t e r p r e t e s p a r J1. T a u p i n , M a rs, 1 8 8 7 ) .
Thom as, D a v id D . , ' ''M o n -K h ra er S u b g r o u p i n g s i n V i e t n a m ' 1,

i n Norman H, Z i d e , e d . ; S t u d i e s i n C o m p a r a ti v e
A u s t r o a s i a t i c L i n g u i s t i c s (The H ague,' Mout'on a n d
C o ., 1 9 6 6 ) p p . 194-~2 0 2 ,
Thom pson, L a u r e n c e C . , A V i e tn a m e s e Grammar ( S e a t t l e ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f~ V a sh in g to n P r e s s , 1 9 6 5 ).
T r a g e r , G e o rg e L . , P h o n e t i c s ; G l o s s a r y a n d T a b l e s ( S t u d i e s
in L in g u i s t i c s O c c a sio n a l P ap ers # 6 , B u ffa lo ,
U n iv e rs ity o f B u ffa lo , 1958).

An Outline of Cambodian Grammar

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

An Outline of Cambodian Grammar

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Negative microfilm

received from university

HUFFMAN, Franklin Eugene, 1934AN OUTLINE OF CAMBODIAN GRAMMAR.

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

AN OUTLINE OF CAMBODIAN GRAMMAR

Ju n e t o Decem ber 1961+. h e s t u d i e d t h e Cam bodian l a n g u a g e

S t u d i e s , and fro m J a n u a r y 19 6 5 t o J u l y 1966 h e g a t h e r e d

and L a u r i s t o n S harp f o r t h e i r en co u rag em en t

A. H e n d e r s o n , whose w ork on C am bodian p h o n o lo g y

0 . 0 I n t r o d u c t i o n .................... .................................................... ..................... 1

1 . 2 P h o n o l o g i c a l w o rd s ............ .............................................................. .. 1+1+

com pounds .....................................

com pounds .......................................................

P a r tia l re d u p lic a tio n

1+.21 Nouns ..................................

i+. 21+ Q u a n t i f i e r s ...........................................................

1+.31 A d j e c t i v a l v e r b s ..................................................................... 161+

1+.1+3 I n d e f i n i t e a d v e r b i a l s ......................................................... 178

1+.52 I m i t a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s ........................................................... 181

A lte rn a tiv e c o n stru c tio n s

i n c l u d e d w i t h C am bodian i n t h e Cam bodian s u b - g r o u p o f

Mon-Khmer, a n d r e d e s i g n a t e s S e b e o k 's S a lw e e n B a s i n Group

Thomas A. S e b e o k , ' ' A n E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e A u s t r o a s i a t l c

1 . P . W. S c h m id t , * L es p e u p l e s m on-khm erj t r a i t d 'u n i o n

1 . For fu r th e r d isc u ssio n s o f l i n g u i s t i c a f f i l i a t i o n in

o f t h e f o r m e r k in gdo m o f Champa, a n d d a t i n g fro m t h e f o u r t h

1. B rig g s , op. c i t . . p. 15.

1 . G e o r g e s M a sp e ro , G ram m aire de l a l a n g u e khm ere ( P a r i s ,

s u r p r i s i n g t h a t no m odern s t r u c t u r a l gram m ar o f C am bodian,

The few s t u d i e s done b y t r a i n e d l i n g u i s t s h a v e

is e x c e lle n t d e s c rip tiv e ly ,

t i o n i s m ore a t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n t h a n a p h o n e t i c r e p r e s e n t s ! - tic n o f t h e sounds o f th e la n g u a g e , as a co n seq u en ce o f

1 . E t i e n n e F r a n g o i s A y m o n ier, C o u rs e l e m e n t a i r e de cam bod

s u r v e y was c a r r i e d o u t , b a s e d on d a t a c o l l e c t e d fro m i n f o r - m an ts fro m a l l o f t h e C a m b o d i a n - s p e a k i n g p r o v i n c e s o f t h e

m o n i t o M p g r a d i o b r o a d c a s t s fro m Phnom P e n h , a n d fro m

S t a n d a r d sp o k e n Cam bodian i n t h i s w ork r e f e r s

1 . The d i a l e c t s p o k e n i n Phnom P e n h and t h e i m m e d i a t e l y

consonant seq u en ces).

sonant sequ ences).

/d e y / ' e a rth '

/f3 e e t/ 'r e l a t i v e '

/w e e / '3 r d p e rso n pronoun'

' flo c k , h erd '

le a se i n i t i a l l y but not f in a lly .

(la b ia liz e d ) b efo re /u e o e /,

/ d / has a lv e o la r a r tic u la tio n .

The common a l l o p h o n e s o f t h e c l a s s may be shown a s

fo llo w s , u sin g /m / as r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e c la s s :

[;ly&*jL3 ' s l o w , s l u g g i s h ' ,

1 . My i n f o r m a n t a c t u a l l y ' ' t h o u g h t 1 ' h e was u s i n g a p a l a t a l

1 , As Noss i n f a c t d o e s i n h i s C a m b o d ian : B a s i c C o u r s e , 19f?9.

to be g e n e ra lly d e fe c tiv e in d is tr ib u tio n .

> /koraheiQ/ ' a n g e r '

t h e i n i t i a l s e q u e n c e s o f t h e form s / i b o o g / ' t e s t '

/ le b o o g / 'f e n c e ' a re p h o n e tic a lly s i m il a r , b u t th e y c o n tr a s t

T hus, w h ile th e a llo m o rp h /le b o o io / fence*

1+2 k l l4l- 14-5 1^6 k l

I}., / p q a e m / ' t o b e s w e e t '

6 , /pnum / 'm ountain'

8 . /piQUut/ 't o bathe ( t r . )'

lO ./p le w / 'ro a d , way'

1 2 ./p see J 3 / 't o be d iffe r e n t*

13. /p h o k / to d rin k '

l 6 . / t q o o n / 't o w hine, com plain'